Деловая этика (также известная как корпоративная этика ) - это форма прикладной этики или профессиональной этики , которая исследует этические принципы и моральные или этические проблемы, которые могут возникнуть в деловой среде. Он применяется ко всем аспектам делового поведения и имеет отношение к поведению отдельных лиц и организаций в целом. [1] Эти этические нормы исходят от отдельных лиц, организационных заявлений или правовой системы. Эти нормы, ценности, этические и неэтичные практики являются принципами, которыми руководствуется бизнес. [2]
Деловая этика относится к современным организационным стандартам, принципам, наборам ценностей и норм, которые регулируют действия и поведение человека в деловой организации. Деловая этика имеет два измерения: нормативная деловая этика и описательная деловая этика. Как корпоративная практика и карьерная специализация, эта область в первую очередь нормативная. Ученые, пытающиеся понять деловое поведение, используют описательные методы. Диапазон и количество вопросов деловой этики отражает взаимодействие стремления к максимизации прибыли с неэкономическими проблемами.
Интерес к деловой этике резко возрос в 1980-х и 1990-х годах как в крупных корпорациях, так и в академических кругах. Например, большинство крупных корпораций сегодня продвигают свою приверженность неэкономическим ценностям под такими заголовками, как кодексы этики и хартии социальной ответственности.
Адам Смит сказал в 1776 году: «Люди одной профессии редко встречаются вместе, даже для веселья и развлечения, но разговор заканчивается заговором против публики или каким-то изобретением с целью поднять цены». [3] Правительства используют законы и постановления, чтобы указать на поведение бизнеса, которое они считают полезным. Этика неявно регулирует области и детали поведения, которые находятся вне контроля государства. Появление крупных корпораций с ограниченными отношениями и чувствительностью к сообществам, в которых они работают, ускорило развитие формальных этических режимов. [4]
Ответственность за поддержание этического статуса лежит на менеджере бизнеса. Согласно статье 1990 года в Journal of Business Ethics , «Управление этическим поведением - одна из наиболее распространенных и сложных проблем, с которыми сегодня сталкиваются бизнес-организации». [5]
История
Деловая этика отражает нормы каждого исторического периода. Со временем нормы развиваются, в результате чего принятые нормы поведения становятся нежелательными. Деловая этика и связанное с этим поведение также претерпели изменения. Бизнес был вовлечен в рабстве , [6] [7] [8] колониализм , [9] [10] и холодная война . [11]
Термин «деловая этика» стал широко использоваться в Соединенных Штатах в начале 1970-х годов. К середине 1980-х годов по крайней мере 500 курсов по деловой этике охватили 40 000 студентов, которые использовали около двадцати учебников и не менее десяти сборников примеров, поддерживаемых профессиональными обществами, центрами и журналами деловой этики. Общество деловой этики было основано в 1980 году. Европейские бизнес-школы приняли бизнес-этику после 1987 года, начав с Европейской сети деловой этики. [12] [13] [14] В 1982 году появились первые моноавторские книги в этой области. [15] [16]
Фирмы начали подчеркивать свой этический статус в конце 1980-х - начале 1990-х годов, возможно, в попытке дистанцироваться от современных деловых скандалов, таких как кризис ссуд и сбережений . К концу холодной войны концепция деловой этики привлекла внимание ученых, средств массовой информации и коммерческих компаний . [13] [17] [18] Однако критика деловой практики подверглась нападкам за нарушение свободы предпринимателей, а критиков обвинили в поддержке коммунистов . [19] [20] Это разрушило дискурс деловой этики как в СМИ, так и в академических кругах. [21] Инициатива оборонной промышленности по деловой этике и поведению (DII) была создана для поддержки корпоративной этики. Эта эпоха положила начало убеждению и поддержке саморегулирования и свободной торговли, которые сняли тарифы и барьеры и позволили предприятиям слиться и разделиться в условиях растущей глобальной атмосферы.
Религиозное и философское происхождение
Одно из самых ранних письменных трактовок деловой этики можно найти в Tirukkuṛaḷ , тамильской книге, датируемой с 300 г. до н.э. до VII века н.э. и приписываемой Тируваллувару . Многие стихи обсуждают деловую этику, в частности, стих 113, адаптация к изменяющейся среде в стихах 474, 426 и 140, изучение тонкостей различных задач в стихах 462 и 677. [22] [23] [24]
Обзор
Деловая этика отражает философию бизнеса , одна из целей которой - определить фундаментальные цели компании. Если целью компании является максимизация прибыли для акционеров, то принесение прибыли в жертву другим интересам является нарушением ее фидуциарной ответственности . Юридические лица являются юридическими лицами, но это не означает, что они по закону обладают всеми правами и обязанностями как физические лица.
Этика - это правила или стандарты, которые ежедневно регулируют наши решения. Многие считают «этику» сознательной или упрощенным смыслом «правильного» и «неправильного». Другие сказали бы, что этика - это внутренний кодекс, который регулирует поведение человека, укоренившийся в каждом человеке семьей, верой, традициями, сообществом, законами и личными нравами. Корпорации и профессиональные организации, особенно советы по лицензированию, обычно имеют письменный кодекс этики, который регулирует стандарты профессионального поведения, ожидаемые от всех в этой области. Важно отметить, что «закон» и «этика» не являются синонимами, а «юридический» и «этический» образ действий в данной ситуации не обязательно одинаковы. Законы и постановления, принятые законодательными органами и административными советами, устанавливают «закон». Когда-то рабство было законным в США, но никто, конечно, не сказал бы, что порабощение другого было «этическим» актом.
Экономист Милтон Фридман писал, что «ответственность руководителей корпораций ... обычно будет заключаться в том, чтобы зарабатывать как можно больше денег, соблюдая свои основные правила общества, как те, которые воплощены в законе, так и воплощенные в этических обычаях». [25] Фридман также сказал: «Единственные субъекты, которые могут иметь обязанности, - это физические лица ... У бизнеса не может быть обязанностей. Итак, вопрос в том, имеют ли руководители корпораций, при условии, что они остаются в рамках закона, другие обязанности в своей деловой деятельности, кроме чтобы заработать как можно больше денег для своих акционеров? И мой ответ - нет, они этого не делают ». [25] [26] [27] Эта точка зрения известна как доктрина Фридмана . Опрос, проведенный в нескольких странах в 2011 году, обнаружил поддержку этой точки зрения среди «информированной общественности» от 30 до 80%. [28] Рональд Дуска и Жак Кори охарактеризовали аргумент Фридмана как консеквенциалистский или утилитарный, а не прагматический : аргумент Фридмана подразумевает, что неограниченная корпоративная свобода принесет пользу большинству людей в долгосрочной перспективе. [29] Дуска утверждала, что Фридман не смог различить два очень разных аспекта бизнеса: (1) мотив людей, которые обычно мотивированы прибылью для участия в бизнесе, и (2) социально санкционированная цель бизнеса или причина почему люди позволяют существовать бизнесу, который заключается в предоставлении людям товаров и услуг. [30] Итак, Фридман ошибался, считая, что получение прибыли - единственная забота бизнеса, - утверждала Дуска. [30]
Питер Друкер однажды сказал: «Нет ни отдельной деловой этики, ни необходимости в ней», имея в виду, что стандарты личной этики охватывают все деловые ситуации. [31] Однако Друкер в другом случае сказал, что конечная ответственность директоров компании - не причинять вреда - primum non nocere . [32]
Другой взгляд на бизнес заключается в том, что он должен демонстрировать корпоративную социальную ответственность (КСО): общий термин, указывающий на то, что этичный бизнес должен действовать как ответственный гражданин сообщества, в котором он работает, даже за счет прибыли или других целей. [33] [34] В США и большинстве других стран юридические лица в некоторых отношениях считаются физическими лицами. Например, они могут владеть недвижимостью, подавать в суд и подавать иски, а также подлежат налогообложению, хотя их права на свободу слова ограничены. Это может быть истолковано как подразумевающее, что они несут независимую этическую ответственность. [ необходима цитата ] Дуска утверждала, что заинтересованные стороны ожидают, что бизнес будет этичным, и что нарушение этих ожиданий должно быть контрпродуктивным для бизнеса. [30]
Этические вопросы включают права и обязанности между компанией и ее сотрудниками, поставщиками, клиентами и соседями , ее фидуциарную ответственность перед своими акционерами . Вопросы, касающиеся отношений между различными компаниями, включают враждебные поглощения и промышленный шпионаж . Связанные вопросы включают корпоративное управление ; корпоративное социальное предпринимательство ; политические взносы ; правовые вопросы, такие как этические дебаты по поводу признания преступления корпоративным непредумышленным убийством ; и маркетинг корпоративной этической политики. [35] Согласно исследованию, опубликованному Институтом деловой этики и Ipsos MORI в конце 2012 года, тремя основными областями, вызывающими озабоченность общества в отношении деловой этики в Великобритании, являются оплата труда руководителям, уклонение от уплаты налогов, а также взяточничество и коррупция. [36]
Этическим стандартам всей организации может быть нанесен ущерб, если во главе стоит корпоративный психопат . [37] Это повлияет не только на компанию и ее результаты, но и на сотрудников, которые работают под руководством корпоративного психопата. Корпоративный психопат может подняться в компании за счет своих манипуляций, интриг и запугивания. Они делают это таким образом, чтобы скрыть свой истинный характер и намерения в компании.
Функциональные направления бизнеса
Финансы
По сути, финансы - это дисциплина социальных наук. [38] Дисциплина граничит с поведенческой экономикой , социологией , [39] экономикой , бухгалтерским учетом и менеджментом . Это касается технических вопросов, таких как сочетание долга и капитала , дивидендная политика , оценка альтернативных инвестиционных проектов, опционов , фьючерсов , свопов и других производных инструментов , диверсификация портфеля и многие другие. Люди часто ошибочно принимают финансы за дисциплину, свободную от этического бремени. [38] финансовый кризис 2008 вызвали критику оспорить этики руководителей, отвечающих за США и европейских финансовых институтов и финансовых регулирующих органов. [40] Финансовая этика упускается из виду по другой причине - финансовые вопросы часто рассматриваются как вопросы закона, а не этики. [41]
Финансовая парадигма
Аристотель сказал: «Конечная цель и цель полиса - хорошая жизнь». [42] Адам Смит охарактеризовал хорошую жизнь с точки зрения материальных благ, интеллектуальных и моральных качеств характера. [43] Смит в своей книге «Богатство народов» прокомментировал: «Все для нас и ничего для других людей, кажется, во все века мира было гнусным изречением хозяев человечества». [44]
Тем не менее, часть экономистов под влиянием идеологии неолиберализма , интерпретированы цель экономики быть максимизация экономического роста за счет ускоренного потребления и производства в товарах и услугах . Неолиберальная идеология продвигала финансы как компонент экономики до самого ядра. [ необходима цитата ] Сторонники этой идеологии считают, что неограниченные финансовые потоки, если их освободить от оков "финансовых репрессий", лучше всего помогут бедным странам расти. [ необходима цитата ] Теория утверждает, что открытые финансовые системы ускоряют экономический рост, поощряя приток иностранного капитала, тем самым обеспечивая более высокий уровень сбережений, инвестиций, занятости, производительности и «благосостояния», [45] [46] [47] наряду с сдерживанием коррупции . Неолибералы рекомендовали правительствам открыть свои финансовые системы для глобального рынка с минимальным регулированием потоков капитала. [48] [49] [50] [51] Однако рекомендации встретили критику со стороны различных школ этической философии. Некоторые прагматичные специалисты по этике сочли эти утверждения априорными и несостоятельными, хотя ни один из них не делает рекомендации ложными или неэтичными как таковые. [52] [53] [54] Повышение экономического роста до наивысшего значения обязательно означает, что благосостояние подчинено, хотя защитники оспаривают это утверждение, говоря, что экономический рост обеспечивает больше благосостояния, чем известные альтернативы. [55] Поскольку история показывает, что ни регулируемые, ни нерегулируемые фирмы всегда ведут себя этично, ни один режим не предлагает этической панацеи . [56] [57] [58]
Неолиберальные рекомендации развивающимся странам безоговорочно открыть свою экономику для транснациональных финансовых корпораций яростно оспаривались некоторыми специалистами по этике. [59] [60] [61] [62] [63] Утверждение, что дерегулирование и открытие экономики уменьшат коррупцию, также было оспорено. [64] [65]
Добсон отмечает, что «рациональный агент - это просто тот, кто стремится к личному материальному преимуществу до бесконечности. По сути, быть рациональным в финансах означает быть индивидуалистичным, материалистичным и конкурентоспособным. Бизнес - это игра, в которую играют люди, как и во всех играх, являющихся объектом. состоит в том, чтобы побеждать, а выигрыш измеряется исключительно с точки зрения материального благосостояния. В рамках дисциплины эта концепция рациональности никогда не подвергается сомнению и действительно стала непременным условием теории фирмы ". [66] [67] С этой точки зрения финансовая этика является математической функцией богатства акционеров. Такие упрощающие предположения когда-то были необходимы для построения математически устойчивых моделей. Однако, сигнализируя теория и агентство теории продлила парадигму большего реализма. [68]
Другие вопросы
Справедливость в торговых практиках, торговых условиях, финансовых контрактах, продажах, консультационных услугах, налоговых платежах, внутреннем аудите, внешнем аудите и вознаграждениях руководителей также относятся к сфере финансов и бухгалтерского учета. [41] [69] Конкретные корпоративные этические / юридические нарушения включают: творческий учет , управление доходами , вводящий в заблуждение финансовый анализ, инсайдерскую торговлю , мошенничество с ценными бумагами , взяточничество / откаты и вознаграждение за упрощение формальностей . Вне корпораций, ковшовые магазинов и валютных афер являются криминальные манипуляции финансовых рынков. Случаи включают бухгалтерские скандалы , Enron , WorldCom и Satyam . [ необходима цитата ]
Управление человеческими ресурсами
Управление человеческими ресурсами охватывает сферу деятельности по подбору персонала , ориентации, служебной аттестации , обучению и развитию , трудовым отношениям и вопросам здоровья и безопасности . [70] Специалисты по деловой этике различаются по своей ориентации на трудовую этику. Некоторые оценивают кадровую политику в зависимости от того, поддерживают ли они эгалитарное рабочее место и достоинство труда . [71] [72]
Вопросы, включая саму занятость , неприкосновенность частной жизни , компенсацию в соответствии с сопоставимой стоимостью , коллективные переговоры (и / или их противоположность), могут рассматриваться либо как неотъемлемые права [73] [74], либо как подлежащие обсуждению. [75] [76] [77] [78] Дискриминация по возрасту (предпочтение молодым или старым ), полу / сексуальным домогательствам , расе , религии , инвалидности , весу и привлекательности. Обычный подход к устранению дискриминации - это позитивные действия .
После приема на работу сотрудники имеют право на периодическое повышение прожиточного минимума, а также на повышение в зависимости от заслуг. Однако продвижение по службе - это не право, и часто бывает меньше вакансий, чем у квалифицированных кандидатов. Может показаться несправедливым, если сотрудника, который проработал в компании дольше, отказывают в повышении, но это не неэтично. Это неэтично только в том случае, если работодатель не уделил должного внимания сотруднику или использовал неправильные критерии для продвижения по службе. [79] Каждый работодатель должен понимать разницу между неэтичным и незаконным. Если действие незаконно, это нарушает закон, но если действие кажется морально некорректным, это неэтично. На рабочем месте то, что неэтично, не означает, что это незаконно, и должно соответствовать руководящим принципам, установленным OSHA, EEOC и другими юридическими лицами.
У потенциальных сотрудников есть этические обязательства перед работодателями, включая защиту интеллектуальной собственности и информирование о нарушениях .
Работодатели должны учитывать безопасность на рабочем месте , что может включать в себя изменение рабочего места или обеспечение соответствующего обучения или раскрытие информации об опасностях. Это различается по месту и типу выполняемой работы, и может потребоваться соблюдение стандартов для защиты сотрудников и лиц, не являющихся сотрудниками, с точки зрения безопасности на рабочем месте.
Более крупные экономические проблемы, такие как иммиграция , торговая политика , глобализация и профсоюзное движение, влияют на рабочие места и имеют этическое измерение, но часто выходят за рамки компетенции отдельных компаний. [73] [80] [81]
Профсоюзы
Профсоюзы , например, могут подталкивать работодателей к установлению надлежащей правовой процедуры для работников, но также могут вызывать потерю работы, требуя неустойчивой компенсации и правил работы. [82] [83] [84] [85] [86] [87] [88] [89] [90]
Профсоюзы на рабочих местах могут противостоять разгрому профсоюзов и забастовкам, а также сталкиваться с этическими последствиями правил работы, которые дают преимущество одним работникам перед другими. [ необходима цитата ]
Стратегия управления
Среди множества стратегий управления людьми, которые используют компании, есть «мягкий» подход, который рассматривает сотрудников как источник творческой энергии и участников процесса принятия решений на рабочем месте, «жесткая» версия, явно ориентированная на контроль [91], и Теория Z, которая подчеркивает философию, культура и консенсус. [92] Ни один из них не гарантирует этичного поведения. [93] В некоторых исследованиях утверждается, что устойчивый успех требует гуманного отношения и удовлетворенности сотрудников. [94] [95] [96]
Продажи и маркетинг
Маркетинговая этика достигла зрелости только в 1990-х годах. [97] Маркетинговая этика рассматривалась с этических перспектив добродетели или этики добродетели , деонтологии , консеквенциализма , прагматизма и релятивизма. [98] [99]
Этика в маркетинге касается принципов, ценностей и / или идей, в соответствии с которыми маркетологи (и маркетинговые учреждения) должны действовать. [100] Маркетинговая этика также является спорной областью, помимо ранее описанной проблемы потенциальных конфликтов между прибыльностью и другими проблемами. Вопросы этического маркетинга включают маркетинг избыточных или опасных продуктов / услуг, [101] [102] [103] прозрачность в отношении экологических рисков, прозрачность в отношении ингредиентов продукта, таких как генетически модифицированные организмы [104] [105] [106] [107] возможные риски для здоровья , финансовые риски, риски безопасности и т. д. [108] уважение к конфиденциальности и автономии потребителей , [109] честность и честность в рекламе при ценообразовании и распространении. [110]
Согласно Боргерсону и Шредеру (2008), маркетинг может влиять на восприятие людьми других людей и взаимодействие с ними, подразумевая этическую ответственность за недопущение искажения этих представлений и взаимодействий. [111]
Маркетинговая этика включает в себя практику ценообразования, включая незаконные действия, такие как установление цен, и судебные иски, включая ценовую дискриминацию и снятие цен . Некоторые рекламные мероприятия нарисовали пожар, в том числе Greenwashing , наживки и переключатель , шиллинг , вирусный маркетинг , спам (электронные) , схемы пирамиды и многоуровневый маркетинг . Реклама вызвала возражения против атакующих объявлений , подсознательных сообщений , секса в рекламе и маркетинга в школах .
Межорганизационные отношения
Scholars in business and management have paid much attention to the ethical issues in the different forms of relationships between organizations such as buyer-supplier relationships, networks, alliances, or joint ventures.[112][113] Drawing in particular on Transaction Cost Theory and Agency Theory, they note the risk of opportunistic and unethical practices between partners through, for instance, shirking, poaching, and other deceitful behaviors.[114][115] In turn, research on inter-organizational relationships has observed the role of formal and informal mechanisms to both prevent unethical practices and mitigate their consequences. It especially discusses the importance of formal contracts and relational norms between partners to manage ethical issues.
Emerging issues
Being the most important element of a business, stakeholders' main concern is to determine whether or not the business is behaving ethically or unethically. The business' actions and decisions should be primarily ethical before it happens to become an ethical or even legal issue. "In the case of the government, community, and society what was merely an ethical issue can become a legal debate and eventually law."[116] Some unethical issues are:
- Fairness: The three aspects that motivate people to be fair is; equality, optimization, and reciprocity. Fairness is the quality of being just, equitable, and impartial.
- Misuse of company's times and resources: This particular topic may not seem to be a very common one, but it is very important, as it costs a company billions of dollars on a yearly basis. This misuse is from late arrivals, leaving early, long lunch breaks, inappropriate sick days etc. This has been observed as a major form of misconduct in businesses today. One of the greatest ways employees participate in the misuse of company's time and resources is by using the company computer for personal use.
- Consumer fraud: There are many different types of fraud, namely; friendly fraud, return fraud, wardrobing, price arbitrage, returning stolen goods. Fraud is a major unethical practice within businesses which should be paid special attention. Consumer fraud is when consumers attempt to deceive businesses for their very own benefit.[116]
- Abusive behavior: A common ethical issue among employees. Abusive behavior consists of inflicting intimidating acts on other employees. Such acts include harassing, using profanity, threatening someone physically and insulting them, and being annoying.[117]
Production
This area of business ethics usually deals with the duties of a company to ensure that products and production processes do not needlessly cause harm. Since few goods and services can be produced and consumed with zero risks, determining the ethical course can be problematic. In some case, consumers demand products that harm them, such as tobacco products. Production may have environmental impacts, including pollution, habitat destruction and urban sprawl. The downstream effects of technologies nuclear power, genetically modified food and mobile phones may not be well understood. While the precautionary principle may prohibit introducing new technology whose consequences are not fully understood, that principle would have prohibited the newest technology introduced since the industrial revolution. Product testing protocols have been attacked for violating the rights of both humans and animals.[citation needed] There are sources that provide information on companies that are environmentally responsible or do not test on animals.
Property
The etymological root of property is the Latin 'proprius'[118] which refers to 'nature', 'quality', 'one's own', 'special characteristic', 'proper', 'intrinsic', 'inherent', 'regular', 'normal', 'genuine', 'thorough, complete, perfect' etc. The word property is value loaded and associated with the personal qualities of propriety and respectability, also implies questions relating to ownership. A 'proper' person owns and is true to herself or himself, and is thus genuine, perfect and pure.[119]
Modern history of property rights
Modern discourse on property emerged by the turn of the 17th century within theological discussions of that time. For instance, John Locke justified property rights saying that God had made "the earth, and all inferior creatures, [in] common to all men".[120][121]
In 1802 utilitarian Jeremy Bentham stated, "property and law are born together and die together".[122]
One argument for property ownership is that it enhances individual liberty by extending the line of non-interference by the state or others around the person.[123] Seen from this perspective, property right is absolute and property has a special and distinctive character that precedes its legal protection. Blackstone conceptualized property as the "sole and despotic dominion which one man claims and exercises over the external things of the world, in total exclusion of the right of any other individual in the universe".[124]
Slaves as property
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, slavery spread to European colonies including America, where colonial legislatures defined the legal status of slaves as a form of property. During this time settlers began the centuries-long process of dispossessing the natives of America of millions of acres of land.[125] The natives lost about 200,000 square miles (520,000 km2) of land in the Louisiana Territory under the leadership of Thomas Jefferson, who championed property rights.[126][127][128]
Combined with theological justification, the property was taken to be essentially natural ordained by God. Property, which later gained meaning as ownership and appeared natural to Locke, Jefferson and to many of the 18th and 19th century intellectuals as land, labor or idea, and property right over slaves had the same theological and essentialized justification[129][130][131][132][133][134] It was even held that the property in slaves was a sacred right.[135][136] Wiecek noted, "slavery was more clearly and explicitly established under the Constitution as it had been under the Articles".[137] Accordingly, US Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B. Taney in his 1857 judgment stated, "The right of property in a slave is distinctly and expressly affirmed in the Constitution".
Natural right vs social construct
Neoliberals hold that private property rights are a non-negotiable natural right.[138][139] Davies counters with "property is no different from other legal categories in that it is simply a consequence of the significance attached by law to the relationships between legal persons."[140] Singer claims, "Property is a form of power, and the distribution of power is a political problem of the highest order".[141][142] Rose finds, "'Property' is only an effect, a construction, of relationships between people, meaning that its objective character is contestable. Persons and things, are 'constituted' or 'fabricated' by legal and other normative techniques.".[143][144] Singer observes, "A private property regime is not, after all, a Hobbesian state of nature; it requires a working legal system that can define, allocate, and enforce property rights."[145] Davis claims that common law theory generally favors the view that "property is not essentially a 'right to a thing', but rather a separable bundle of rights subsisting between persons which may vary according to the context and the object which is at stake".[140]
In common parlance property rights involve a bundle of rights[146] including occupancy, use and enjoyment, and the right to sell, devise, give, or lease all or part of these rights.[147][148][149][150] Custodians of property have obligations as well as rights.[151] Michelman writes, "A property regime thus depends on a great deal of cooperation, trustworthiness, and self-restraint among the people who enjoy it."[152]
Menon claims that the autonomous individual, responsible for his/her own existence is a cultural construct moulded by Western culture rather than the truth about the human condition. Penner views property as an "illusion"—a "normative phantasm" without substance.[153]
In the neoliberal literature, the property is part of the private side of a public/private dichotomy and acts a counterweight to state power. Davies counters that "any space may be subject to plural meanings or appropriations which do not necessarily come into conflict".
Private property has never been a universal doctrine, although since the end of the Cold War is it has become nearly so. Some societies, e.g., Native American bands, held land, if not all property, in common. When groups came into conflict, the victor often appropriated the loser's property.[154] The rights paradigm tended to stabilize the distribution of property holdings on the presumption that title had been lawfully acquired.
Property does not exist in isolation, and so property rights too.[155] Bryan claimed that property rights describe relations among people and not just relations between people and things[156][157][158][159][160][161] Singer holds that the idea that owners have no legal obligations to others wrongly supposes that property rights hardly ever conflict with other legally protected interests.[162] Singer continues implying that legal realists "did not take the character and structure of social relations as an important independent factor in choosing the rules that govern market life". Ethics of property rights begins with recognizing the vacuous nature of the notion of property.
Intellectual property
Intellectual property (IP) encompasses expressions of ideas, thoughts, codes, and information. "Intellectual property rights" (IPR) treat IP as a kind of real property, subject to analogous protections, rather than as a reproducible good or service. Boldrin and Levine argue that "government does not ordinarily enforce monopolies for producers of other goods. This is because it is widely recognized that monopoly creates many social costs. Intellectual monopoly is no different in this respect. The question we address is whether it also creates social benefits commensurate with these social costs."[163]
International standards relating to Intellectual Property Rights are enforced through Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights. In the US, IP other than copyrights is regulated by the United States Patent and Trademark Office.
The US Constitution included the power to protect intellectual property, empowering the Federal government "to promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries".[164] Boldrin and Levine see no value in such state-enforced monopolies stating, "we ordinarily think of innovative monopoly as an oxymoron.[165] Further, they comment, 'intellectual property' "is not like ordinary property at all, but constitutes a government grant of a costly and dangerous private monopoly over ideas. We show through theory and example that intellectual monopoly is not necessary for innovation and as a practical matter is damaging to growth, prosperity, and liberty".[164] Steelman defends patent monopolies, writing, "Consider prescription drugs, for instance. Such drugs have benefited millions of people, improving or extending their lives. Patent protection enables drug companies to recoup their development costs because for a specific period of time they have the sole right to manufacture and distribute the products they have invented."[166] The court cases by 39 pharmaceutical companies against South Africa's 1997 Medicines and Related Substances Control Amendment Act, which intended to provide affordable HIV medicines has been cited as a harmful effect of patents.[167][168]
One attack on IPR is moral rather than utilitarian, claiming that inventions are mostly a collective, cumulative, path dependent, social creation and therefore, no one person or firm should be able to monopolize them even for a limited period.[169] The opposing argument is that the benefits of innovation arrive sooner when patents encourage innovators and their investors to increase their commitments.
Roderick T. Long, a libertarian philosopher, argued:
Ethically, property rights of any kind have to be justified as extensions of the right of individuals to control their own lives. Thus any alleged property rights that conflict with this moral basis—like the "right" to own slaves—are invalidated. In my judgment, intellectual property rights also fail to pass this test. To enforce copyright laws and the like is to prevent people from making peaceful use of the information they possess. If you have acquired the information legitimately (say, by buying a book), then on what grounds can you be prevented from using it, reproducing it, trading it? Is this not a violation of the freedom of speech and press? It may be objected that the person who originated the information deserves ownership rights over it. But information is not a concrete thing an individual can control; it is universal, existing in other people's minds and other people's property, and over these, the originator has no legitimate sovereignty. You cannot own information without owning other people.[170]
Machlup concluded that patents do not have the intended effect of enhancing innovation.[171] Self-declared anarchist Proudhon, in his 1847 seminal work noted, "Monopoly is the natural opposite of competition," and continued, "Competition is the vital force which animates the collective being: to destroy it, if such a supposition were possible, would be to kill society."[172][173]
Mindeli and Pipiya argued that the knowledge economy is an economy of abundance[174] because it relies on the "infinite potential" of knowledge and ideas rather than on the limited resources of natural resources, labor and capital. Allison envisioned an egalitarian distribution of knowledge.[175] Kinsella claimed that IPR create artificial scarcity and reduce equality.[176][177][178] Bouckaert wrote, "Natural scarcity is that which follows from the relationship between man and nature. Scarcity is natural when it is possible to conceive of it before any human, institutional, contractual arrangement. Artificial scarcity, on the other hand, is the outcome of such arrangements. Artificial scarcity can hardly serve as a justification for the legal framework that causes that scarcity. Such an argument would be completely circular. On the contrary, artificial scarcity itself needs a justification"[179] Corporations fund much IP creation and can acquire IP they do not create,[180] to which Menon and others have objected.[181] Andersen claims that IPR has increasingly become an instrument in eroding public domain.[182]
Ethical and legal issues include patent infringement, copyright infringement, trademark infringement, patent and copyright misuse, submarine patents, biological patents, patent, copyright and trademark trolling, employee raiding and monopolizing talent, bioprospecting, biopiracy and industrial espionage, digital rights management.
Notable IP copyright cases include A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc., Eldred v. Ashcroft, and Disney's lawsuit against the Air Pirates.
Международные вопросы
While business ethics emerged as a field in the 1970s, international business ethics did not emerge until the late 1990s, looking back on the international developments of that decade.[183] Many new practical issues arose out of the international context of business. Theoretical issues such as cultural relativity of ethical values receive more emphasis in this field. Other, older issues can be grouped here as well. Issues and subfields include:
- The search for universal values as a basis for international commercial behavior
- Comparison of business ethical traditions in different countries and on the basis of their respective GDP and corruption rankings
- Comparison of business ethical traditions from various religious perspectives
- Ethical issues arising out of international business transactions—e.g., bioprospecting and biopiracy in the pharmaceutical industry; the fair trade movement; transfer pricing.
- Issues such as globalization and cultural imperialism
- Varying global standards—e.g., the use of child labor
- The way in which multinationals take advantage of international differences, such as outsourcing production (e.g. clothes) and services (e.g. call centers) to low-wage countries
- The permissibility of international commerce with pariah states
Foreign countries often use dumping as a competitive threat, selling products at prices lower than their normal value. This can lead to problems in domestic markets. It becomes difficult for these markets to compete with the pricing set by foreign markets. In 2009, the International Trade Commission has been researching anti-dumping laws. Dumping is often seen as an ethical issue, as larger companies are taking advantage of other less economically advanced companies.
вопросы
Ethical issues often arise in business settings, whether through business transactions or forming new business relationships. An ethical issue in a business atmosphere may refer to any situation that requires business associates as individuals, or as a group (for example, a department or firm) to evaluate the morality of specific actions, and subsequently, make a decision amongst the choices. Some ethical issues of particular concern in today's evolving business market include such topics as: honesty, integrity, professional behaviors, environmental issues, harassment, and fraud to name a few. From a 2009 National Business Ethics survey, it was found that types of employee-observed ethical misconduct included abusive behavior (at a rate of 22 percent), discrimination (at a rate of 14 percent), improper hiring practices (at a rate of 10 percent), and company resource abuse (at a rate of percent).[184]
The ethical issues associated with honesty are widespread and vary greatly in business, from the misuse of company time or resources to lying with malicious intent, engaging in bribery, or creating conflicts of interest within an organization. Honesty encompasses wholly the truthful speech and actions of an individual. Some cultures and belief systems even consider honesty to be an essential pillar of life, such as Confucianism and Buddhism (referred to as sacca, part of the Four Noble Truths). Many employees lie in order to reach goals, avoid assignments or negative issues; however, sacrificing honesty in order to gain status or reap rewards poses potential problems for the overall ethical culture organization, and jeopardizes organizational goals in the long run. Using company time or resources for personal use is also, commonly viewed as unethical because it boils down to stealing from the company. The misuse of resources costs companies billions of dollars each year, averaging about 4.25 hours per week of stolen time alone, and employees' abuse of Internet services is another main concern.[185] Bribery, on the other hand, is not only considered unethical is business practices, but it is also illegal. In accordance with this, the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act was established in 1977 to deter international businesses from giving or receiving unwarranted payments and gifts that were intended to influence the decisions of executives and political officials.[186] Although, small payments known as facilitation payments will not be considered unlawful under the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act if they are used towards regular public governance activities, such as permits or licenses.[185]
Факторы, влияющие на деловую этику
Many aspects of the work environment influence an individual's decision-making regarding ethics in the business world. When an individual is on the path of growing a company, many outside influences can pressure them to perform a certain way. The core of the person's performance in the workplace is rooted by their personal code of behavior. A person's personal code of ethics encompasses many different qualities such as integrity, honesty, communication, respect, compassion, and common goals. In addition, the ethical standards set forth by a person's superior(s) often translate into their own code of ethics. The company's policy is the 'umbrella' of ethics that play a major role in the personal development and decision-making processes that people make in respects to ethical behavior.
The ethics of a company and its individuals are heavily influenced by the state of their country. If a country is heavily plagued with poverty, large corporations continuously grow, but smaller companies begin to wither and are then forced to adapt and scavenge for any method of survival. As a result, the leadership of the company is often tempted to participate in unethical methods to obtain new business opportunities. Additionally, Social Media is arguably the most influential factor in ethics. The immediate access to so much information and the opinions of millions highly influence people's behaviors. The desire to conform with what is portrayed as the norm often manipulates our idea of what is morally and ethically sound. Popular trends on social media and the instant gratification that is received from participating in such quickly distort people's ideas and decisions.
Экономические системы
Political economy and political philosophy have ethical implications, particularly regarding the distribution of economic benefits.[187] John Rawls and Robert Nozick are both notable contributors. For example, Rawls has been interpreted as offering a critique of offshore outsourcing on social contract grounds.[188]
Закон и регулирование
Laws are the written statutes, codes, and opinions of government organizations by which citizens, businesses, and persons present within a jurisdiction are expected to govern themselves or face legal sanction. Sanctions for violating the law can include (a) civil penalties, such as fines, pecuniary damages, and loss of licenses, property, rights, or privileges; (b) criminal penalties, such as fines, probation, imprisonment, or a combination thereof; or (c) both civil and criminal penalties.
Very often it is held that business is not bound by any ethics other than abiding by the law. Milton Friedman is the pioneer of the view. He held that corporations have the obligation to make a profit within the framework of the legal system, nothing more.[189] Friedman made it explicit that the duty of the business leaders is, "to make as much money as possible while conforming to the basic rules of the society, both those embodied in the law and those embodied in ethical custom".[190] Ethics for Friedman is nothing more than abiding by customs and laws. The reduction of ethics to abidance to laws and customs, however, have drawn serious criticisms.
Counter to Friedman's logic it is observed[by whom?] that legal procedures are technocratic, bureaucratic, rigid and obligatory whereas ethical act is conscientious, voluntary choice beyond normativity.[191] Law is retroactive. Crime precedes law. Law against crime, to be passed, the crime must have happened. Laws are blind to the crimes undefined in it.[192] Further, as per law, "conduct is not criminal unless forbidden by law which gives advance warning that such conduct is criminal".[193] Also, the law presumes the accused is innocent until proven guilty and that the state must establish the guilt of the accused beyond reasonable doubt. As per liberal laws followed in most of the democracies, until the government prosecutor proves the firm guilty with the limited resources available to her, the accused is considered to be innocent. Though the liberal premises of law is necessary to protect individuals from being persecuted by Government, it is not a sufficient mechanism to make firms morally accountable.[194][195][196][197]
Выполнение
Corporate policies
As part of more comprehensive compliance and ethics programs, many companies[who?] have formulated internal policies pertaining to the ethical conduct of employees. These policies can be simple exhortations in broad, highly generalized language (typically called a corporate ethics statement), or they can be more detailed policies, containing specific behavioral requirements (typically called corporate ethics codes). They are generally meant[by whom?] to identify the company's expectations of workers and to offer guidance on handling some of the more common ethical problems that might arise in the course of doing business. It is hoped[by whom?] that having such a policy will lead to greater ethical awareness, consistency in application, and the avoidance of ethical disasters.
An increasing number of companies[who?] also require employees to attend seminars regarding business conduct, which often include discussion of the company's policies, specific case studies, and legal requirements. Some companies[who?] even require their employees to sign agreements stating that they will abide by the company's rules of conduct.
Many companies[who?] are assessing the environmental factors that can lead employees to engage in unethical conduct. A competitive business environment may call for unethical behavior. Lying has become expected in fields such as trading. An example of this are the issues surrounding the unethical actions of the Salomon Brothers.
Not everyone[who?] supports corporate policies that govern ethical conduct. Some claim that ethical problems are better dealt with by depending upon employees to use their own judgment.
Others[who?] believe that corporate ethics policies are primarily rooted in utilitarian concerns and that they are mainly to limit the company's legal liability or to curry public favor by giving the appearance of being a good corporate citizen. Ideally, the company will avoid a lawsuit because its employees will follow the rules. Should a lawsuit occur, the company can claim that the problem would not have arisen if the employee had only followed the code properly.
Some corporations[who?] have tried to burnish their ethical image by creating whistle-blower protections, such as anonymity. In the case of Citi, they call this the Ethics Hotline.[198] Though it is unclear whether firms such as Citi take offences reported to these hotlines seriously or not. Sometimes there is a disconnection between the company's code of ethics and the company's actual practices[who?]. Thus, whether or not such conduct is explicitly sanctioned by management, at worst, this makes the policy duplicitous, and, at best, it is merely a marketing tool.
Jones and Parker wrote, "Most of what we read under the name business ethics is either sentimental common sense or a set of excuses for being unpleasant."[199] Many manuals are procedural form filling exercises unconcerned about the real ethical dilemmas. For instance, the US Department of Commerce ethics program treats business ethics as a set of instructions and procedures to be followed by 'ethics officers'.,[34] some others claim being ethical is just for the sake of being ethical.[200] Business ethicists may trivialize the subject, offering standard answers that do not reflect the situation's complexity.[191]
Richard DeGeorge wrote in regard to the importance of maintaining a corporate code:
Corporate codes have certain usefulness and there are several advantages to developing them. First, the very exercise of doing so in itself is worthwhile, especially if it forces a large number of people in the firm to think through, in a fresh way, their mission and the important obligations they as a group and as individuals have to the firm, to each other, to their clients and customers, and to society as a whole. Second, once adopted a code can be used to generate continuing discussion and possible modification to the code. Third, it could help to inculcate in new employees at all levels the perspective of responsibility, the need to think in moral terms about their actions, and the importance of developing the virtues appropriate to their position.[201]
Ethics officers
Following a series of fraud, corruption, and abuse scandals that affected the United States defense industry in the mid-1980s, the Defense Industry Initiative (DII) was created to promote ethical business practices and ethics management in multiple industries. Subsequent to these scandals, many organizations began appointing ethics officers (also referred to as "compliance" officers). In 1991, the Ethics & Compliance Officer Association —originally the Ethics Officer Association (EOA)—was founded at the Center for Business Ethics at Bentley University as a professional association for ethics and compliance officers.[202]
The 1991 passing of the Federal Sentencing Guidelines for Organizations in 1991 was another factor in many companies appointing ethics/compliance officers. These guidelines, intended to assist judges with sentencing, set standards organizations must follow to obtain a reduction in sentence if they should be convicted of a federal offense.[203]
Following the high-profile corporate scandals of companies like Enron, WorldCom and Tyco between 2001 and 2004, and following the passage of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act, many small and mid-sized companies also began to appoint ethics officers.[204]
Often reporting to the Chief Executive Officer, ethics officers focus on uncovering or preventing unethical and illegal actions. This is accomplished by assessing the ethical implications of the company's activities, making recommendations on ethical policies, and disseminating information to employees.[205]
The effectiveness of ethics officers is not clear. The establishment of an ethics officer position is likely to be insufficient in driving ethical business practices without a corporate culture that values ethical behavior. These values and behaviors should be consistently and systemically supported by those at the top of the organization.[206] Employees with strong community involvement, loyalty to employers, superiors or owners, smart work practices, trust among the team members do inculcate a corporate culture[207][208]
Sustainability initiatives
Many corporate and business strategies now include sustainability. In addition to the traditional environmental 'green' sustainability concerns, business ethics practices have expanded to include social sustainability. Social sustainability focuses on issues related to human capital in the business supply chain, such as worker's rights, working conditions, child labor, and human trafficking.[209] Incorporation of these considerations is increasing, as consumers and procurement officials demand documentation of a business' compliance with national and international initiatives, guidelines, and standards.[210] Many industries have organizations dedicated to verifying ethical delivery of products from start to finish,[211] such as the Kimberly Process, which aims to stop the flow of conflict diamonds into international markets, or the Fair Wear Foundation, dedicated to sustainability and fairness in the garment industry.
As mentioned, initiatives in sustainability encompass "green" topics, as well as social sustainability. There are however many different ways in which sustainability initiatives can be implemented in a company.
Improving operations
An organization can implement sustainability initiatives by improving its operations and manufacturing process so as to make it more aligned with environment, social, and governance issues. Johnson & Johnson incorporates policies from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, applying these principles not only for members of its supply chain but also internal operations. Walmart has made commitments to doubling its truck fleet efficiency by 2015 by replacing 2/3rds of its fleet with more fuel-efficient trucks, including hybrids. Dell has integrated alternative, recycled, and recyclable materials in its products and packaging design, improving energy efficiency and design for end-of-life and recyclability. Dell plans to reduce the energy intensity of its product portfolio by 80% by 2020.[212]
Board leadership
The board of a company can decide to lower executive compensation by a given percentage, and give the percentage of compensation to a specific cause. This is an effort which can only be implemented from the top, as it will affect the compensation of all executives in the company. In Alcoa, an aluminum company based in the US, "1/5th of executive cash compensation is tied to safety, diversity, and environmental stewardship, which includes greenhouse gas emission reductions and energy efficiency" (Best Practices). This is not usually the case for most companies, where we see the board take a uniform step towards the environment, social, and governance issues. This is only the case for companies that are directly linked to utilities, energy, or material industries, something which Alcoa as an aluminum company, falls in line with. Instead, formal committees focused on the environment, social, and governance issues are more usually seen in governance committees and audit committees, rather than the board of directors. "According to research analysis done by Pearl Meyer in support of the NACD 2017 Director Compensation Report shows that among 1,400 public companies reviewed, only slightly more than five percent of boards have a designated committee to address ESG issues." (How compensation can).[213][212]
Management accountability
Similar to board leadership, creating steering committees and other types of committees specialized for sustainability, senior executives are identified who are held accountable for meeting and constantly improving sustainability goals.[212]
Executive compensation
Introducing bonus schemes that reward executives for meeting non-financial performance goals including safety targets, greenhouse gas emissions, reduction targets, and goals engaging stakeholders to help shape the companies public policy positions. Companies such as Exelon have implemented policies like this.[212]
Stakeholder engagement
Other companies will keep sustainability within its strategy and goals, presenting findings at shareholder meetings, and actively tracking metrics on sustainability. Companies such as PepsiCo, Heineken, and FIFCO[clarification needed] take steps in this direction to implement sustainability initiatives. (Best Practices). Companies such as Coca-Cola have actively tried improve their efficiency of water usage, hiring 3rd party auditors to evaluate their water management approach. FIFCO has also led successfully led water-management initiatives.[212]
Employee engagement
Implementation of sustainability projects through directly appealing to employees (typically through the human resource department) is another option for companies to implement sustainability. This involves integrating sustainability into the company culture, with hiring practices and employee training. General Electric is a company that is taking the lead in implementing initiatives in this manner. Bank of America directly engaged employees by implement LEED (leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) certified buildings, with a fifth of its building meeting these certifications.[212]
Supply chain management
Establishing requirements for not only internal operations but also first-tier suppliers as well as second-tier suppliers to help drive environmental and social expectations further down the supply chain. Companies such as Starbucks, FIFCO and Ford Motor Company have implemented requirements that suppliers must meet to win their business. Starbucks has led efforts in engaging suppliers and local communities where they operate to accelerate investment in sustainable farming. Starbucks set a goal of ethically sourcing 100% of its coffee beans by 2015.[212]
Transparency
By revealing decision-making data about how sustainability was reached, companies can give away insights that can help others across the industry and beyond make more sustainable decisions. Nike launched its "making app" in 2013 which released data about the sustainability in the materials it was using. This ultimately allows other companies to make more sustainable design decisions and create lower impact products.[212]
Академическая дисциплина
As an academic discipline, business ethics emerged in the 1970s. Since no academic business ethics journals or conferences existed, researchers published in general management journals and attended general conferences. Over time, specialized peer-reviewed journals appeared, and more researchers entered the field. Corporate scandals in the earlier 2000s increased the field's popularity. As of 2009, sixteen academic journals devoted to various business ethics issues existed, with Journal of Business Ethics and Business Ethics Quarterly considered the leaders.[214] Journal of Business Ethics Education publishes articles specifically about education in business ethics.
The International Business Development Institute is a global non-profit organization that represents 217 nations and all 50 United States. It offers a Charter in Business Development that focuses on ethical business practices and standards. The Charter is directed by Harvard, MIT, and Fulbright Scholars, and it includes graduate-level coursework in economics, politics, marketing, management, technology, and legal aspects of business development as it pertains to business ethics. IBDI also oversees the International Business Development Institute of Asia which provides individuals living in 20 Asian nations the opportunity to earn the Charter.
Религиозные взгляды
In Sharia law, followed by many Muslims, banking specifically prohibits charging interest on loans.[215] Traditional Confucian thought discourages profit-seeking.[216] Christianity offers the Golden Rule command, "Therefore all things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them: for this is the law and the prophets."[217] According to the article "Theory of the real economy", there is a more narrow point of view from the Christianity faith towards the relationship between ethics and religious traditions. This article stresses how Christianity is capable of establishing reliable boundaries for financial institutions. One criticism comes from Pope Benedict by describing the "damaging effects of the real economy of badly managed and largely speculative financial dealing." It is mentioned that Christianity has the potential to transform the nature of finance and investment but only if theologians and ethicist provide more evidence of what is real in the economic life.[218] Business ethics receives an extensive treatment in Jewish thought and Rabbinic literature, both from an ethical (Mussar) and a legal (Halakha) perspective; see article Jewish business ethics for further discussion. According to the article "Indian Philosophy and Business Ethics: A Review", by Chandrani Chattopadyay, Hindus follow "Dharma" as Business Ethics and unethical business practices are termed "Adharma". Businessmen are supposed to maintain steady-mindedness, self-purification, non-violence, concentration, clarity and control over senses. Books like Bhagavat Gita[citation needed] and Arthashastra[219] contribute a lot towards conduct of ethical business.[220]
Связанные дисциплины
Business ethics is related to philosophy of economics, the branch of philosophy that deals with the philosophical, political, and ethical underpinnings of business and economics.[221] Business ethics operates on the premise, for example, that the ethical operation of a private business is possible—those who dispute that premise, such as libertarian socialists (who contend that "business ethics" is an oxymoron) do so by definition outside of the domain of business ethics proper.[citation needed]
The philosophy of economics also deals with questions such as what, if any, are the social responsibilities of a business; business management theory; theories of individualism vs. collectivism; free will among participants in the marketplace; the role of self interest; invisible hand theories; the requirements of social justice; and natural rights, especially property rights, in relation to the business enterprise.[citation needed]
Business ethics is also related to political economy, which is economic analysis from political and historical perspectives. Political economy deals with the distributive consequences of economic actions.
Смотрите также
- B Corporation (certification)
- Business culture
- Business law
- Corporate behaviour
- Corporate crime
- Ethical code
- Ethical consumerism
- Ethical implications in contracts
- Ethical job
- Ethicism
- Evil corporation
- Moral psychology
- Optimism bias
- Organizational ethics
- Penny stock scam
- Philosophy and economics
- Political corruption
- Strategic misrepresentation
- Strategic planning
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Bundle of rights is often interpreted as 'full control' over the property by the owner
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Рекомендации
- Andersen, B. (2006). Intellectual property rights: innovation, governance and the institutional environment. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN 1-84542-269-4.
- Boldrin, M.; Levine, D. K. (2008). Against Intellectual Monopoly. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Cory, Jacques (2004). Activist Business Ethics. Boston: Springer. ISBN 0-387-22848-9.
- Cullather, N.; Gleijeses, P. (2006). Secret History: The CIA's Classified Account of Its Operations in Guatemala, 1952–1954. California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-5468-3.
- Davies, M. (2007). Property: Meanings, histories, theories. Oxon: Routledge-Cavendish. ISBN 978-0-415-42933-7.
- Dobson, J. (1997). Finance Ethics: The Rationality of Virtue. New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0-8476-8402-4.
- Drahos, P.; Braithwaite, J. (2002). Information Feudalism: who owns the knowledge economy. London: Earthscan. ISBN 1-85383-917-5.
- Duska, R. (2007). Contemporary Reflections on Business Ethics. Boston: Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-4983-5.
- Elliott, C.; Turnbull, S. (2005). Critical Thinking in Human Resource Development. London: Routledge. pp. 141–154. ISBN 0-415-32917-5.
- Frederic, R. E. (2002). A Companion to Business Ethics. Massachusetts: Blackwell. ISBN 1-4051-0102-4.
- Hasnas, J. (2005). Trapped: When acting ethically is against the law. Washington DC: Cato Institute. ISBN 1-930865-88-0.
- Jones, C.; Parker, M.; et al. (2005). For Business Ethics: A Critical Text. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-31135-7.
- Machan, T. R. (2007). The Morality of Business: A Profession for Human Wealthcare. Boston: Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-48906-3.
- Murphy, P. E. (2002). Marketing Ethics at the Millennium: Review, Reflections and Recommendations. Blackwell Guide to Business Ethics. N. E. Bowie. Oxford: Blackwell.
- O'Neill, J. (1998). The Market: Ethics, Knowledge and Politics. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-09827-0.
- Pinnington, A. H.; Macklin, R.; Campbell, T. (2007). Human Resource Management: Ethics and Employment. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-920379-6.
- Robertson, L. G. (2005). Conquest by Law: How the Discovery of America Dispossessed Indigenous Peoples of Their Lands. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514869-X.
- Rose, C. M. (1994). Property and Persuasion: Essays on the History, Theory, and Rhetoric of Ownership. Colorado: Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-8554-7.
- Singer, J. W. (2000). Entitlement: The Paradoxes of Property. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-08019-0.
- Smith, Adam (1759). The Theory of Moral Sentiments. Indianapolis: Liberty Press. p. 369.
дальнейшее чтение
- Weiss, J. W. (2009). Business Ethics: A Stakeholder and Issues Management Approach With Cases (5 ed.). Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning.