Цезарь Август (23 сентября 63 г. до н.э. - 19 августа 14 г. н.э.) был первым римским императором , правившим с 27 г. до н.э. до своей смерти в 14 г. н.э. [nb 1] Его статус основателя римского принципата (первая фаза римского правления). Empire ) закрепил за собой прочное наследие как один из самых эффективных и противоречивых лидеров в истории человечества. [1] [2] Правление Августа положило начало эпохе относительного мира, известной как Pax Romana . Римский мир был в значительной степени свободен от крупномасштабных конфликтов на протяжении более двух веков, несмотря на непрерывные войны за имперскую экспансию на границах Империи и продолжавшуюся год гражданскую войну, известную как "Год Четырех Императоров »над имперской преемственностью.
Август | ||||
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Princeps Civitatis | ||||
Римский император | ||||
Царствовать | 16 января 27 г. до н.э. - 19 августа 14 г. н.э. | |||
Преемник | Тиберий | |||
Родившийся | Гай Октавий 23 сентября 63 г. до н. Э. Рим , Италия , Римская Республика | |||
Умер | 19 августа 14 г. н.э. (75 лет) Нола , Италия , Римская империя | |||
Захоронение | ||||
Супруг | ||||
Проблема |
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Династия | Юлиев-Клавдиан | |||
Отец |
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Мама | Атия Бальба Цезония |
Первоначально названный Гай Октавий , он родился в старую и богатую конную отрасль из плебейского рода Octavia . Его двоюродный дед по материнской линии Юлий Цезарь был убит в 44 г. до н.э., и Октавий был назван в завещании Цезаря его приемным сыном и наследником, после чего он взял имя Гай Юлий Цезарь , хотя более поздние историки стали называть его Октавианом, чтобы избежать путаницы с его двоюродный дедушка. Он, Марк Антоний и Марк Лепид сформировали Второй Триумвират, чтобы победить убийц Цезаря. После победы в битве при Филиппах (42 г. до н.э.) Триумвират разделил Римскую республику между собой и правил как фактические диктаторы . В конечном итоге Триумвират был разорван конкурирующими амбициями его членов; Лепид был изгнан в 36 г. до н. Э., А Антоний потерпел поражение от Октавиана в битве при Акциуме в 31 г. до н. Э.
После упадка Второго Триумвирата Август восстановил внешний вид свободной республики, с правительственной властью, наделенной римским сенатом , исполнительными магистратами и законодательными собраниями , но сохранил автократическую власть, заставив Сенат предоставить ему пожизненное пребывание в качестве высшей власти. военное командование , трибуна и цензор . Подобная двусмысленность видна в его избранных именах, подразумеваемом отказе от монархических титулов, в результате чего он называл себя Princeps Civitatis («Первый гражданин»), в сочетании с принятием им древнего титула Август .
Август резко увеличил империю, аннексировав Египет , Далмацию , Паннонию , Норикум и Рэтию , расширил владения в Африке и завершил завоевание Испании , но потерпел серьезную неудачу в Германии . Помимо границ, он обеспечил Империю буферным регионом из государств-клиентов и заключил мир с Парфянской Империей посредством дипломатии. Он реформировал римскую систему налогообложения, развил сеть дорог с официальной курьерской системой , создал постоянную армию , основал преторианскую гвардию , создал официальную полицию и службы пожаротушения для Рима и восстановил большую часть города во время своего правления. Август умер в 14 году нашей эры в возрасте 75 лет, вероятно, естественной смертью. По упорным слухам, подтвержденным отчасти многочисленными смертями членов императорской семьи, его отравила жена Ливия . Ему наследовал на посту императора сын Ливии - также усыновленный и бывший муж его единственной биологической дочери Юлии - Тиберий , который объединил Принципат в де-факто автократическую монархию - Римскую империю.
Имя
Как следствие римских обычаев , общества и личных предпочтений, Августом ( / ɔ ɡ ʌ s т ə s / aw- GUST -əs ) был известен под многими именами , на протяжении всей своей жизни:
- Гай Октавий ( / ɒ к т eɪ v я ə s / OK- ТАЙ -vee-əs , Latin: [ɡaːiʊs ɔktaːu̯iʊs] ): Он получил его имя при рождении , после его биологического отца , в 63 г. до н. « Гай » был его преноменом , а « Октавий » - его номеном . Он еще не получил когномена при рождении, поскольку его отец, похоже, не имел или избегал когномена , который обычно передавался бы по наследству.
- Гай Октавий Турин ( лат. [Tʰuːˈriːnʊs] ): ему было дано прозвище «Фуринус» в 60 г. до н.э., когда ему было несколько лет. [3] [4] Позже, после того как он взял имя Цезарь, его соперник Марк Антоний называл его «Турин», чтобы принизить его. В ответ он просто сказал, что удивлен тем, что «использование его старого имени было сочтено оскорблением». [5] [6]
- Гай Юлий Цезарь : после того, как он был усыновлен Юлием Цезарем, он принял имя Цезаря в соответствии с римскими соглашениями об именах . [7] Хотя он отбросил все ссылки на род Octavia , люди в разговорной речи добавили эпитет Octavianus ( лат. [Ɔktaːu̯iˈaːnʊs] ) к его официальному имени, чтобы отличить его от приемного отца или подчеркнуть его более скромное происхождение. Современный английский язык историки относятся к нему с помощью англизировал формы «Октавиан» ( / ɒ к т eɪ v я ə п / OK- ТАЙ -vee-ən ) в период между 44 г. до н.э. и 27 г. до н.э., а не «Гай Юлий Цезарь ", как его официально называли, главным образом для того, чтобы избежать путаницы с Юлием Цезарем . [8]
- Гай Юлий Цезарь divi filius : через два года после своего усыновления он основал Храм Цезаря, добавив к своему имени титул divi filius («сын божественного») в попытке укрепить свои политические связи с бывшими солдатами Цезаря после обожествления. Цезаря. [9]
- Imperator Caesar divi filius : с 38 г. до н.э. Октавиан решил использовать « Император» - титул, которым войска приветствовали своего лидера после военного успеха. Его имя примерно переводится как «Командующий Цезарь, Сын Божий».
- Император Цезарь divi filius Augustus ( лат. [Ɪmpɛˈraːtɔr ˈkae̯sar ˈdiːu̯iː ˈfiːliʊs au̯ˈɡʊstʊs] ): после поражения Марка Антония и Клеопатры в 31 г. до н.э. , частично по его настоянию, 16 января 27 г. до н.э. римский сенат дал ему дополнительное имя « Август » . [4] [11] Историки используют это имя для обозначения его с 27 г. до н.э. до его смерти в 14 г. н.э. [12]
Ранний период жизни
В то время как его семья по отцовской линии была из вольского города Веллетри , примерно в 40 километрах (25 миль) к юго-востоку от Рима , Август родился в городе Риме 23 сентября 63 г. до н. Э. [13] Он родился в Ox Head, небольшом поместье на Палатинском холме , очень близко к Римскому форуму . Он получил имя Гай Октавий Thurinus, его когномен возможно в память победы отца на Фурий над мятежной полосы рабов , которые имели место несколько лет после его рождения. [14] [15] Светоний писал: «Есть много указаний на то, что в древности семья Октавианов была известной в Велитрах; потому что не только улица в самой посещаемой части города когда-то называлась Октавиан, но и алтарь кроме того, был показан там, освященный Октавием. Этот человек был лидером в войне с соседним городом ... » [16]
Из-за многолюдности Рима в то время Октавиуса взяли на воспитание в родную деревню своего отца в Веллетри. Октавиус лишь кратко упоминает конную семью своего отца в своих мемуарах. Его прадед по отцовской линии Гай Октавий был военным трибуном на Сицилии во время Второй Пунической войны . Его дед служил в нескольких местных политических управлениях. Его отец, также названный Гай Октавий , был губернатором в Македонии . Его мать, Атия , была племянницей Юлия Цезаря. [17] [18]
В 59 г. до н.э., когда ему было четыре года, умер его отец. [19] Его мать вышла замуж за бывшего губернатора Сирии Луция Марция Филиппа . [20] Филипп заявил о своем происхождении от Александра Великого и был избран консулом в 56 г. до н. Э. Филипп никогда особо не интересовался молодым Октавием. Из-за этого Октавия воспитывала его бабушка Юлия , сестра Юлия Цезаря. Юлия умерла в 52 или 51 году до нашей эры, и Октавий произнес похоронную речь своей бабушки. [21] [22] С этого момента его мать и отчим стали играть более активную роль в его воспитании. Четыре года спустя он надел тогу вирилис [23] и был избран в Коллегию понтификов в 47 г. до н.э. [24] [25] В следующем году он был назначен ответственным за греческие игры, которые были устроены в честь Храма Венеры Генетрикс , построенного Юлием Цезарем. [25] Согласно Николаю Дамаскинскому , Октавий хотел присоединиться к штабу Цезаря для его кампании в Африке , но уступил, когда его мать протестовала. [26] В 46 г. до н.э. она согласилась на его присоединение к Цезарю в Испании, где он планировал сразиться с силами Помпея , последнего врага Цезаря, но Октавий заболел и не смог путешествовать.
Когда он выздоровел, он отплыл на фронт, но потерпел кораблекрушение ; выйдя на берег с горсткой товарищей, он перешел враждебную территорию к лагерю Цезаря, что произвело на его двоюродного дядю большое впечатление. [23] Веллей Патеркул сообщает, что после этого Цезарь разрешил молодому человеку делить свою карету. [27] Вернувшись в Рим, Цезарь передал весталкам новое завещание , назвав Октавия главным бенефициаром. [28]
Поднимитесь к власти
Наследник Цезаря
Октавий учился и проходил военную подготовку в Аполлонии , Иллирия , когда Юлий Цезарь был убит в мартовские иды (15 марта) 44 г. до н. Э. Он отклонил совет некоторых армейских офицеров укрыться с войсками в Македонии и отплыл в Италию, чтобы выяснить, есть ли у него какие-либо потенциальные политические успехи или безопасность. [29] Цезарь не имел живых законных детей согласно римскому праву [nb 2], поэтому он усыновил Октавия, своего внучатого племянника, сделав его своим главным наследником. [30] Марк Антоний позже обвинил Октавиана в том, что Цезарь усыновил Октавиана сексуальными услугами, хотя Светоний описывает обвинение Антония как политическую клевету . [31] Эта форма клеветы была популярна в то время в Римской республике, чтобы унизить и дискредитировать политических оппонентов, обвиняя их в неуместных сексуальных отношениях. [32] [33] После высадки в Лупиях около Брундизия Октавий узнал содержание завещания Цезаря, и только тогда он решил стать политическим наследником Цезаря, а также наследником двух третей своего состояния. [25] [29] [34]
После его усыновления Октавий принял имя своего двоюродного дядюшки Гай Юлий Цезарь. Римские граждане , принятые в новую семью , как правило , сохранили свои старые номен в когномен форме (например, Октавиан для тех , кто уже был Октавий, Эмилиан для тех , кто уже был Эмилий и т.д.). Однако, хотя некоторые из его современников так и делали [35], нет никаких доказательств того, что Октавий когда-либо официально использовал имя Октавиан , поскольку это сделало бы его скромное происхождение слишком очевидным. [36] [37] [38] Историки обычно называют нового Цезаря Октавианом в период между его усыновлением и принятием имени Август в 27 г. до н.э., чтобы не путать мертвого диктатора с его наследником. [39]
Октавиан не мог полагаться на свои ограниченные средства, чтобы успешно войти в высшие эшелоны римской политической иерархии. [40] После теплого приема солдатами Цезаря в Брундизиуме [41] Октавиан потребовал часть средств, которые были выделены Цезарем для предполагаемой войны против Парфянской империи на Ближнем Востоке. [40] Это составляет 700 миллионов сестерциев, хранящихся в Брундизиуме, плацдарме в Италии для военных операций на востоке. [42]
Позднее сенаторское расследование исчезновения государственных средств не приняло никаких мер против Октавиана, поскольку впоследствии он использовал эти деньги для сбора войск против заклятого врага Сената Марка Антония. [41] Октавиан сделал еще один смелый шаг в 44 г. до н.э., когда без официального разрешения присвоил ежегодную дань, отправляемую из ближневосточной провинции Рима в Италию. [37] [43]
Октавиан начал укреплять свои личные силы легионерами- ветеранами Цезаря и войсками, предназначенными для парфянской войны, собирая поддержку, подчеркивая свой статус наследника Цезаря. [29] [44] Во время его марша в Рим через Италию присутствие Октавиана и недавно приобретенные средства привлекли многих, покорив бывших ветеранов Цезаря, дислоцированных в Кампании . [37] К июню он собрал армию из 3000 верных ветеранов, каждый из которых заплатил зарплату в 500 динариев . [45] [46] [47]
Растущая напряженность
Прибыв в Рим 6 мая 44 г. до н.э., Октавиан застал консула Марка Антония , бывшего коллегу Цезаря, в нелегком перемирии с убийцами диктатора. 17 марта они были объявлены общей амнистией, однако Антонию удалось изгнать большинство из них из Рима с подстрекательской хвалебной речью на похоронах Цезаря, настроив общественное мнение против убийц. [37]
Марк Антоний зарабатывал политическую поддержку, но Октавиан все еще имел возможность соперничать с ним в качестве ведущего члена фракции, поддерживающей Цезаря. Марк Антоний потерял поддержку многих римлян и сторонников Цезаря, когда он первоначально выступил против движения поднять Цезаря до божественного статуса. [48] Октавиан не смог убедить Антония передать ему деньги Цезаря. Летом ему удалось заручиться поддержкой сторонников Цезаря, а также сблизиться с Оптиматами , бывшими врагами Цезаря, которые считали его меньшим злом и надеялись манипулировать им. [49] В сентябре ведущий оратор Optimate Марк Туллий Цицерон начал атаковать Антония в серии речей, изображая его как угрозу республиканскому порядку. [50] [51]
Первый конфликт с Антонием
Когда общественное мнение в Риме повернулось против него, а год его консульской власти подошел к концу, Антоний попытался принять законы, которые закрепили за ним провинцию Цизальпинскую Галлию . [52] [53] Октавиан тем временем создал частную армию в Италии, набрав ветеранов кесарева сечения, и 28 ноября он победил два легиона Антония, предложив заманчивую денежную выгоду. [54] [55] [56]
Перед лицом большого и способного войска Октавиана Антоний увидел опасность пребывания в Риме и, к облегчению Сената , покинул Рим и направился в Цизальпинскую Галлию, которая должна была быть передана ему 1 января. [56] Однако ранее эта провинция была передана Дециму Юнию Бруту Альбинусу , одному из убийц Цезаря, который теперь отказался уступить Антонию. Антоний осадил его в Мутине [57] и отклонил постановления Сената о прекращении боевых действий. У Сената не было армии для выполнения своих решений. Это предоставило возможность Октавиану, который, как уже было известно, имел вооруженные силы. [55] Цицерон также защищал Октавиана от насмешек Антония по поводу отсутствия у Октавиана благородного происхождения и подражания имени Юлия Цезаря, заявив, что «у нас нет более блестящего примера традиционного благочестия среди нашей молодежи». [58]
По настоянию Цицерона Сенат назначил Октавиана сенатором 1 января 43 г. до н.э., но ему также было дано право голосовать вместе с бывшими консулами. [55] [56] Вдобавок Октавиан получил пропретор империум (командная власть), который узаконил его командование войсками, отправив его снимать осаду вместе с Хиртием и Пансой (консулами 43 г. до н. Э.). [55] [59] В апреле 43 г. до н.э. силы Антония потерпели поражение в битвах при Форуме Галлорум и Мутина , вынудив Антония отступить в Трансальпийскую Галлию . Однако оба консула были убиты, оставив Октавиана единоличным командующим их армиями. [60] [61]
Сенат наложил гораздо больше наград на Децима Брута, чем на Октавиана за победу над Антонием, а затем попытался передать командование консульскими легионами Дециму Бруту. [62] В ответ Октавиан остался в долине По и отказался содействовать дальнейшему наступлению на Антония. [63] В июле посольство центурионов, посланное Октавианом, вошло в Рим и потребовало освободить консульство, оставленное Гиртием и Пансой [64], а также отменить декрет, объявивший Антония врагом народа. [63] Когда это было отклонено, он двинулся на город с восемью легионами. [63] Он не встретил военного сопротивления в Риме, и 19 августа 43 г. до н.э. был избран консулом вместе со своим родственником Квинтом Педием в качестве сопонсула. [65] [66] Между тем Антоний заключил союз с Марком Эмилием Лепидом , еще одним ведущим цезарем. [67]
Второй Триумвират
Прописки
На встрече недалеко от Болоньи в октябре 43 г. до н.э. Октавиан, Антоний и Лепид сформировали Второй Триумвират . [69] Это явное присвоение особых полномочий на протяжении пяти лет было затем узаконено законом, принятым плебеями , в отличие от неофициального Первого Триумвирата, созданного Помпеем , Юлием Цезарем и Марком Лицинием Крассом . [69] [70] Затем триумвиры привели в действие запреты , в соответствии с которыми от 130 до 300 сенаторов [nb 3] и 2000 всадников были объявлены вне закона и лишены их собственности, а тем, кому не удалось бежать, - их жизни. [72] Этот указ, изданный триумвиратом, был частично мотивирован необходимостью собрать деньги для выплаты жалованья их войскам в предстоящем конфликте с убийцами Цезаря, Марком Юнием Брутом и Гаем Кассием Лонгином . [73] Награды за их арест побудили римлян схватить тех, кто был запрещен, в то время как активы и имущество арестованных были конфискованы триумвирами. [72]
Современные римские историки предоставляют противоречивые отчеты о том, какой триумвир был наиболее ответственен за запреты и убийства. Однако источники согласны с тем, что введение запретов было средством всех трех фракций для устранения политических врагов. [74] Марк Веллей Патеркул утверждал, что Октавиан пытался избежать запрета на должностных лиц, в то время как Лепид и Антоний были виноваты в их инициировании. Кассий Дион защищал Октавиана, пытаясь пощадить как можно больше, в то время как Антоний и Лепид, будучи старше и дольше участвовали в политике, имели гораздо больше врагов, с которыми приходилось иметь дело. [75]
Это утверждение было отклонено Аппианом, который утверждал, что Октавиан разделял равный интерес с Лепидом и Антонием в искоренении своих врагов. [76] Светоний сказал, что Октавиан не хотел запрещать чиновников, но преследовал своих врагов с большей энергией, чем другие триумвиры. [74] Плутарх описал запреты как безжалостный и беспощадный обмен друзьями и семьей между Антонием, Лепидом и Октавианом. Например, Октавиан позволил запретить своему союзнику Цицерону Антонию запретить своего дядю по материнской линии Луция Юлия Цезаря (консула 64 г. до н.э.), а Лепиду - своему брату Павлу . [75]
Битва при Филиппах и раздел территории
1 января 42 г. до н.э. Сенат посмертно признал Юлия Цезаря божеством римского государства, Богом Юлием . Октавиан смог продвинуть свое дело, подчеркнув тот факт, что он был Divi filius , «Сыном Бога». [77] Антоний и Октавиан затем отправили по морю 28 легионов , чтобы противостоять армиям Брута и Кассия, которые построили свою базу власти в Греции. [78] После двух сражений при Филиппах в Македонии в октябре 42 года кесарево войско одержало победу, а Брут и Кассий покончили жизнь самоубийством . Марк Антоний позже использовал примеры этих сражений как средство принизить Октавиана, поскольку обе битвы были решительно выиграны с использованием сил Антония. В дополнение к заявлению об ответственности за обе победы, Антоний также заклеймил Октавиана как труса за то, что вместо этого он передал свой прямой военный контроль Марку Випсанию Агриппе . [79]
После Филиппы между членами Второго Триумвирата было создано новое территориальное устройство. Галлия и провинция Испания оказались в руках Октавиана. Антоний отправился на восток, в Египет, где он вступил в союз с царицей Клеопатрой VII , бывшей любовницей Юлия Цезаря и матерью маленького сына Цезаря Цезариона . Лепиду осталась провинция Африка , которую поставил в тупик Антоний, который вместо этого уступил Испанию Октавиану. [80]
Октавиану оставалось решать, где в Италии поселить десятки тысяч ветеранов македонской кампании, которых триумвиры обещали уволить. Десятки тысяч, которые сражались на стороне республиканцев с Брутом и Кассием, могли легко вступить в союз с политическим противником Октавиана, если их не умиротворить, и им также требовалась земля. [80] Больше не было контролируемой правительством земли, которую можно было бы выделить в качестве поселений для своих солдат, поэтому Октавиану пришлось выбрать один из двух вариантов: отчуждение многих римских граждан путем конфискации их земель или отчуждение многих римских солдат, которые могли оказать значительную оппозицию противнику. его в сердце Рима. Октавиан выбрал первое. [81] Было целых восемнадцать римских городов, затронутых новыми поселениями, с изгнанием всего населения или, по крайней мере, частичным выселением. [82]
Восстание и брачные союзы
Было широко распространено недовольство Октавианом этими поселениями его солдат, и это побудило многих сплотиться на стороне Луция Антония , который был братом Марка Антония и поддерживался большинством в Сенате. Тем временем Октавиан попросил развода у Клавдии , дочери Фульвии (жены Марка Антония) и ее первого мужа Публия Клодия Пульхера . Он вернул Клаудию ее матери, заявив, что их брак так и не состоялся. Фульвия решила действовать. Вместе с Луцием Антонием она собрала армию в Италии, чтобы бороться за права Антония против Октавиана. Однако Луций и Фульвия пошли на политическую и военную авантюру, выступая против Октавиана, поскольку римская армия по-прежнему зависела от триумвиров в получении заработной платы. Люциус и его союзники оказались в оборонительной осаде Перузии (современная Перуджа ), где Октавиан вынудил их сдаться в начале 40 г. до н.э. [82]
Люциус и его армия были спасены из-за его родства с Антонием, силачем Востока, в то время как Фульвия была сослана в Сикион . [83] Октавиан, однако, не проявил милосердия к массе союзников, верных Люциусу; 15 марта, в годовщину убийства Юлия Цезаря, он приказал казнить 300 римских сенаторов и всадников за союз с Луцием. [84] Перузия также была разграблена и сожжена в качестве предупреждения для других. [83] Это кровавое событие запятнало репутацию Октавиана и подверглось критике со стороны многих, в том числе поэта Августа Секстуса Проперция . [84]
Секст Помпей , сын Помпея и все еще оставшийся полководцем после победы Юлия Цезаря над своим отцом, обосновался на Сицилии и Сардинии в рамках соглашения, достигнутого со Вторым Триумвиратом в 39 г. до н.э. [85] И Антоний, и Октавиан боролись за союз с Помпеем. Октавиану удалось заключить временный союз в 40 г. до н.э., когда он женился на Скрибонии , сестре или дочери тестя Помпея Луция Скрибония Либона . Скрибония родила единственного ребенка Октавиана, Юлию , в тот же день, когда он развелся с ней и женился на Ливии Друзилле , немногим более чем через год после их свадьбы. [84]
Находясь в Египте, Антоний закрутил роман с Клеопатрой и родил от нее детей-близнецов. [nb 4] Зная о том, что его отношения с Октавианом ухудшаются, Антоний покинул Клеопатру; он отплыл в Италию в 40 г. до н.э. с большими силами, чтобы противостоять Октавиану, осадив Брундизий. Однако этот новый конфликт оказался неприемлемым как для Октавиана, так и для Антония. Их центурионы, которые стали политически важными фигурами, отказались воевать из-за кесарева сечения, в то время как легионы под их командованием последовали их примеру. Тем временем в Сикионе жена Антония Фульвия умерла от внезапной болезни, когда Антоний шел ей навстречу. Смерть Фульвии и мятеж их центурионов позволили двум оставшимся триумвирам добиться примирения. [86] [87]
Осенью 40 г. Октавиан и Антоний утвердили Брундизийский договор, по которому Лепид остался в Африке, Антоний - на востоке, Октавиан - на западе. Итальянский полуостров был оставлен открытым для всех для набора солдат, но на самом деле, это положение было бесполезно Антоний на Востоке. Чтобы еще больше укрепить союзнические отношения с Марком Антонием, Октавиан отдал свою сестру Октавию Минор замуж за Антония в конце 40 г. до н. Э. [86]
Война с Помпеем
Секст Помпей угрожал Октавиану в Италии, отказавшись от поставок зерна через Средиземное море на полуостров. Собственный сын Помпея был назначен главнокомандующим флотом в попытке вызвать массовый голод в Италии. [87] Контроль Помпея над морем побудил его взять имя Нептуни filius , «сын Нептуна ». [88] Временное мирное соглашение было достигнуто в 39 г. до н.э. с Мизенским договором ; блокада Италии была снята, как только Октавиан предоставил Помпею Сардинию, Корсику , Сицилию и Пелопоннес и обеспечил ему будущую должность консула в 35 г. до н. э. [87] [88]
Территориальное соглашение между триумвиратом и Секстом Помпеем начало рушиться после того, как Октавиан развелся со Скрибонией и женился на Ливии 17 января 38 г. до н. Э. [89] Один из флотоводцев Помпея предал его и передал Октавиану Корсику и Сардинию. Однако Октавиану не хватало ресурсов, чтобы противостоять Помпею в одиночку, поэтому было достигнуто соглашение о продлении Второго Триумвирата еще на пять лет, начиная с 37 г. до н. Э. [70] [90]
Поддерживая Октавиана, Антоний рассчитывал заручиться поддержкой своей кампании против Парфянской империи , желая отомстить за поражение Рима при Каррах в 53 г. до н.э. [90] В соглашении, достигнутом в Таренте , Антоний предоставил Октавиану 120 кораблей для использования против Помпея, в то время как Октавиан должен был послать 20 000 легионеров к Антонию для использования против Парфии. Однако Октавиан прислал только десятую часть обещанных, что Антоний счел преднамеренной провокацией. [91]
Октавиан и Лепид начали совместную операцию против Секста на Сицилии в 36 г. до н. Э. [92] Несмотря на неудачи для Октавиана, военно-морской флот Секста Помпея был почти полностью уничтожен 3 сентября генералом Агриппой в морской битве при Наулохе . Секст бежал на восток со своими оставшимися силами, где в следующем году был схвачен и казнен в Милете одним из генералов Антония. Когда Лепид и Октавиан приняли капитуляцию войск Помпея, Лепид попытался завладеть Сицилией, приказав Октавиану уйти. Однако войска Лепида покинули его и перешли на сторону Октавиана, так как они устали от сражений и были соблазнены обещаниями Октавиана денег. [93]
Лепид сдался Октавиану, и ему было разрешено остаться в должности Pontifex Maximus (главы коллегии священников), но он был изгнан из Триумвирата, его общественная карьера подошла к концу, и его фактически сослали на виллу на мысе Чирчеи в Италии. [73] [93] Римские владения были теперь разделены между Октавианом на Западе и Антонием на Востоке. Октавиан гарантировал гражданам Рима их права на собственность, чтобы поддерживать мир и стабильность в своей части Империи. На этот раз он поселил своих уволенных солдат за пределами Италии, а также вернул их бывшим римским владельцам 30 000 рабов - рабов, которые бежали, чтобы присоединиться к армии и флоту Помпея. [94] Октавиан попросил Сенат предоставить ему, его жене и сестре иммунитет от трибунала , или sacrosanctitas , чтобы обеспечить его собственную безопасность, а также безопасность Ливии и Октавии, когда он вернется в Рим. [95]
Война с Антонием и Клеопатрой
Тем временем кампания Антония против Парфии обернулась катастрофой, запятнав его имидж вождя, и простых 2000 легионеров, посланных Октавианом к Антонию, было едва ли достаточно, чтобы пополнить его силы. [96] С другой стороны, Клеопатра могла восстановить свою армию в полную силу; у него уже был роман с ней, поэтому он решил отправить Октавию обратно в Рим. [97] Октавиан использовал это для распространения пропаганды, подразумевающей, что Антоний становился меньше, чем римлянин, потому что он отверг законную римскую супругу для «восточного любовника ». [98] В 36 г. до н.э. Октавиан использовал политическую уловку, чтобы выглядеть менее авторитарным, а Антоний - более злодеем, провозгласив, что гражданские войны подходят к концу и что он уйдет в отставку как триумвир - если только Антоний сделает то же самое. одно и тоже. Антоний отказался. [99]
Римские войска захватили Армянское царство в 34 г. до н.э., и Антоний сделал правителем Армении своего сына Александра Гелиоса . Он также присвоил Клеопатре титул « царицы королей » - акты, которые Октавиан использовал, чтобы убедить римский сенат, что Антоний имел амбиции уменьшить превосходство Рима. [98] Октавиан снова стал консулом 1 января 33 г. до н.э., и он открыл следующее заседание Сената с яростной атаки на предоставление Антонием титулов и территорий своим родственникам и своей королеве. [100]
Разрыв между Антонием и Октавианом побудил большую часть сенаторов, а также обоих консулов того года покинуть Рим и перейти к Антонию. Однако Осенью 32 г. до н.э. Октавиан принял от Антония двух ключевых дезертиров: Мунация Планка и Марка Тиция. [101] Эти перебежчики предоставили Октавиану информацию, необходимую ему, чтобы подтвердить Сенату все обвинения, которые он выдвинул против Антония. [102]
Октавиан насильственно проник в храм Весталок и захватил тайную волю Антония, которую он тут же предал огласке. Завещание отдало бы завоеванные римлянами территории в качестве королевств для его сыновей и назначило Александрию местом для гробницы для него и его королевы. [103] [104] В конце 32 г. до н.э. сенат официально отозвал Антония как консула и объявил войну режиму Клеопатры в Египте. [105] [106]
В начале 31 г. до н.э. Антоний и Клеопатра были временно размещены в Греции, когда Октавиан одержал предварительную победу: флот успешно переправил войска через Адриатическое море под командованием Агриппы. Агриппа отрезал основные силы Антония и Клеопатры от их путей снабжения на море, в то время как Октавиан высадился на материке напротив острова Коркира (современный Корфу ) и двинулся на юг. Оказавшись в ловушке на суше и на море, дезертиры армии Антония ежедневно сбегали на сторону Октавиана, в то время как силы Октавиана были достаточно удобны, чтобы делать приготовления. [109]
Antony's fleet sailed through the bay of Actium on the western coast of Greece in a desperate attempt to break free of the naval blockade. It was there that Antony's fleet faced the much larger fleet of smaller, more maneuverable ships under commanders Agrippa and Gaius Sosius in the Battle of Actium on 2 September 31 BC.[110] Antony and his remaining forces were spared only due to a last-ditch effort by Cleopatra's fleet that had been waiting nearby.[111]
Octavian pursued them and defeated their forces in Alexandria on 1 August 30 BC—after which Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Antony fell on his own sword and was taken by his soldiers back to Alexandria where he died in Cleopatra's arms. Cleopatra died soon after, reputedly by the venomous bite of an asp or by poison.[112] Octavian had exploited his position as Caesar's heir to further his own political career, and he was well aware of the dangers in allowing another person to do the same. He therefore followed the advice of Arius Didymus that "two Caesars are one too many", ordering Caesarion, Julius Caesar's son by Cleopatra, killed, while sparing Cleopatra's children by Antony, with the exception of Antony's older son.[113][114] Octavian had previously shown little mercy to surrendered enemies and acted in ways that had proven unpopular with the Roman people, yet he was given credit for pardoning many of his opponents after the Battle of Actium.[115]
Единоличный правитель Рима
After Actium and the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra, Octavian was in a position to rule the entire Republic under an unofficial principate[116]—but he had to achieve this through incremental power gains. He did so by courting the Senate and the people while upholding the republican traditions of Rome, appearing that he was not aspiring to dictatorship or monarchy.[117][118] Marching into Rome, Octavian and Marcus Agrippa were elected as consuls by the Senate.[119]
Years of civil war had left Rome in a state of near lawlessness, but the Republic was not prepared to accept the control of Octavian as a despot. At the same time, Octavian could not simply give up his authority without risking further civil wars among the Roman generals and, even if he desired no position of authority whatsoever, his position demanded that he look to the well-being of the city of Rome and the Roman provinces. Octavian's aims from this point forward were to return Rome to a state of stability, traditional legality, and civility by lifting the overt political pressure imposed on the courts of law and ensuring free elections—in name at least.[120]
First settlement
In 27 BC, Octavian made a show of returning full power to the Roman Senate and relinquishing his control of the Roman provinces and their armies. Under his consulship, however, the Senate had little power in initiating legislation by introducing bills for senatorial debate. Octavian was no longer in direct control of the provinces and their armies, but he retained the loyalty of active duty soldiers and veterans alike. The careers of many clients and adherents depended on his patronage, as his financial power was unrivaled in the Roman Republic.[119] Historian Werner Eck states:
The sum of his power derived first of all from various powers of office delegated to him by the Senate and people, secondly from his immense private fortune, and thirdly from numerous patron-client relationships he established with individuals and groups throughout the Empire. All of them taken together formed the basis of his auctoritas, which he himself emphasized as the foundation of his political actions.[121]
To a large extent, the public were aware of the vast financial resources that Octavian commanded. He failed to encourage enough senators to finance the building and maintenance of networks of roads in Italy in 20 BC, but he undertook direct responsibility for them. This was publicized on the Roman currency issued in 16 BC, after he donated vast amounts of money to the aerarium Saturni, the public treasury.[122]
According to H. H. Scullard, however, Octavian's power was based on the exercise of "a predominant military power and ... the ultimate sanction of his authority was force, however much the fact was disguised."[123] The Senate proposed to Octavian, the victor of Rome's civil wars, that he once again assume command of the provinces. The Senate's proposal was a ratification of Octavian's extra-constitutional power. Through the Senate, Octavian was able to continue the appearance of a still-functional constitution. Feigning reluctance, he accepted a ten-year responsibility of overseeing provinces that were considered chaotic.[124][125]
The provinces ceded to Augustus for that ten-year period comprised much of the conquered Roman world, including all of Hispania and Gaul, Syria, Cilicia, Cyprus, and Egypt.[124][126] Moreover, command of these provinces provided Octavian with control over the majority of Rome's legions.[126][127]
While Octavian acted as consul in Rome, he dispatched senators to the provinces under his command as his representatives to manage provincial affairs and ensure that his orders were carried out. The provinces not under Octavian's control were overseen by governors chosen by the Roman Senate.[127] Octavian became the most powerful political figure in the city of Rome and in most of its provinces, but he did not have a monopoly on political and martial power.[128]
The Senate still controlled North Africa, an important regional producer of grain, as well as Illyria and Macedonia, two strategic regions with several legions.[128] However, the Senate had control of only five or six legions distributed among three senatorial proconsuls, compared to the twenty legions under the control of Octavian, and their control of these regions did not amount to any political or military challenge to Octavian.[117][123] The Senate's control over some of the Roman provinces helped maintain a republican façade for the autocratic Principate. Also, Octavian's control of entire provinces followed Republican-era precedents for the objective of securing peace and creating stability, in which such prominent Romans as Pompey had been granted similar military powers in times of crisis and instability.[117]
Change to Augustus
On 16 January 27 BC the Senate gave Octavian the new titles of Augustus and Princeps.[129] Augustus is from the Latin word Augere (meaning to increase) and can be translated as "the illustrious one". It was a title of religious authority rather than political authority. His new title of Augustus was also more favorable than Romulus, the previous one which he styled for himself in reference to the story of the legendary founder of Rome, which symbolized a second founding of Rome.[115] The title of Romulus was associated too strongly with notions of monarchy and kingship, an image that Octavian tried to avoid.[130] The title princeps senatus originally meant the member of the Senate with the highest precedence,[131] but in the case of Augustus, it became an almost regnal title for a leader who was first in charge.[132] Augustus also styled himself as Imperator Caesar divi filius, "Commander Caesar son of the deified one". With this title, he boasted his familial link to deified Julius Caesar, and the use of Imperator signified a permanent link to the Roman tradition of victory. He transformed Caesar, a cognomen for one branch of the Julian family, into a new family line that began with him.[129]
Augustus was granted the right to hang the corona civica above his door, the "civic crown" made from oak, and to have laurels drape his doorposts.[128] However, he renounced flaunting insignia of power such as holding a scepter, wearing a diadem, or wearing the golden crown and purple toga of his predecessor Julius Caesar.[133] If he refused to symbolize his power by donning and bearing these items on his person, the Senate nonetheless awarded him with a golden shield displayed in the meeting hall of the Curia, bearing the inscription virtus, pietas, clementia, iustitia—"valor, piety, clemency, and justice."[128][134]
Second settlement
By 23 BC, some of the un-Republican implications were becoming apparent concerning the settlement of 27 BC. Augustus's retention of an annual consulate drew attention to his de facto dominance over the Roman political system, and cut in half the opportunities for others to achieve what was still nominally the preeminent position in the Roman state.[135] Further, he was causing political problems by desiring to have his nephew Marcus Claudius Marcellus follow in his footsteps and eventually assume the Principate in his turn,[nb 5] alienating his three greatest supporters – Agrippa, Maecenas, and Livia.[136] He appointed noted Republican Calpurnius Piso (who had fought against Julius Caesar and supported Cassius and Brutus[137]) as co-consul in 23 BC, after his choice Aulus Terentius Varro Murena died unexpectedly.[138]
In the late spring Augustus suffered a severe illness, and on his supposed deathbed made arrangements that would ensure the continuation of the Principate in some form,[139] while allaying senators' suspicions of his anti-republicanism. Augustus prepared to hand down his signet ring to his favored general Agrippa. However, Augustus handed over to his co-consul Piso all of his official documents, an account of public finances, and authority over listed troops in the provinces while Augustus's supposedly favored nephew Marcellus came away empty-handed.[140][141] This was a surprise to many who believed Augustus would have named an heir to his position as an unofficial emperor.[142]
Augustus bestowed only properties and possessions to his designated heirs, as an obvious system of institutionalized imperial inheritance would have provoked resistance and hostility among the republican-minded Romans fearful of monarchy.[118] With regards to the Principate, it was obvious to Augustus that Marcellus was not ready to take on his position;[143] nonetheless, by giving his signet ring to Agrippa, Augustus intended to signal to the legions that Agrippa was to be his successor, and that constitutional procedure notwithstanding, they should continue to obey Agrippa.[144]
Soon after his bout of illness subsided, Augustus gave up his consulship. The only other times Augustus would serve as consul would be in the years 5 and 2 BC,[141][145] both times to introduce his grandsons into public life.[137] This was a clever ploy by Augustus; ceasing to serve as one of two annually elected consuls allowed aspiring senators a better chance to attain the consular position, while allowing Augustus to exercise wider patronage within the senatorial class.[146] Although Augustus had resigned as consul, he desired to retain his consular imperium not just in his provinces but throughout the empire. This desire, as well as the Marcus Primus Affair, led to a second compromise between him and the Senate known as the Second Settlement.[147]
Primary reasons for the Second Settlement
The primary reasons for the Second Settlement were as follows. First, after Augustus relinquished the annual consulship, he was no longer in an official position to rule the state, yet his dominant position remained unchanged over his Roman, 'imperial' provinces where he was still a proconsul.[141][148] When he annually held the office of consul, he had the power to intervene with the affairs of the other provincial proconsuls appointed by the Senate throughout the empire, when he deemed necessary.[149]
A second problem later arose showing the need for the Second Settlement in what became known as the "Marcus Primus Affair".[150] In late 24 or early 23 BC, charges were brought against Marcus Primus, the former proconsul (governor) of Macedonia, for waging a war without prior approval of the Senate on the Odrysian kingdom of Thrace, whose king was a Roman ally.[151] He was defended by Lucius Lucinius Varro Murena, who told the trial that his client had received specific instructions from Augustus, ordering him to attack the client state.[152] Later, Primus testified that the orders came from the recently deceased Marcellus.[153]
Such orders, had they been given, would have been considered a breach of the Senate's prerogative under the Constitutional settlement of 27 BC and its aftermath—i.e., before Augustus was granted imperium proconsulare maius—as Macedonia was a Senatorial province under the Senate's jurisdiction, not an imperial province under the authority of Augustus. Such an action would have ripped away the veneer of Republican restoration as promoted by Augustus, and exposed his fraud of merely being the first citizen, a first among equals.[152] Even worse, the involvement of Marcellus provided some measure of proof that Augustus's policy was to have the youth take his place as Princeps, instituting a form of monarchy – accusations that had already played out.[143]
The situation was so serious that Augustus himself appeared at the trial, even though he had not been called as a witness. Under oath, Augustus declared that he gave no such order.[154] Murena disbelieved Augustus's testimony and resented his attempt to subvert the trial by using his auctoritas. He rudely demanded to know why Augustus had turned up to a trial to which he had not been called; Augustus replied that he came in the public interest.[155] Although Primus was found guilty, some jurors voted to acquit, meaning that not everybody believed Augustus's testimony, an insult to the 'August One'.[156]
The Second Constitutional Settlement was completed in part to allay confusion and formalize Augustus's legal authority to intervene in Senatorial provinces. The Senate granted Augustus a form of general imperium proconsulare, or proconsular imperium (power) that applied throughout the empire, not solely to his provinces. Moreover, the Senate augmented Augustus's proconsular imperium into imperium proconsulare maius, or proconsular imperium applicable throughout the empire that was more (maius) or greater than that held by the other proconsuls. This in effect gave Augustus constitutional power superior to all other proconsuls in the empire.[147] Augustus stayed in Rome during the renewal process and provided veterans with lavish donations to gain their support, thereby ensuring that his status of proconsular imperium maius was renewed in 13 BC.[145]
Additional powers
During the second settlement, Augustus was also granted the power of a tribune (tribunicia potestas) for life, though not the official title of tribune.[147] For some years, Augustus had been awarded tribunicia sacrosanctitas, the immunity given to a Tribune of the Plebs. Now he decided to assume the full powers of the magistracy, renewed annually, in perpetuity. Legally, it was closed to patricians, a status that Augustus had acquired some years earlier when adopted by Julius Caesar.[146]
This power allowed him to convene the Senate and people at will and lay business before them, to veto the actions of either the Assembly or the Senate, to preside over elections, and to speak first at any meeting.[145][157] Also included in Augustus's tribunician authority were powers usually reserved for the Roman censor; these included the right to supervise public morals and scrutinize laws to ensure that they were in the public interest, as well as the ability to hold a census and determine the membership of the Senate.[158]
With the powers of a censor, Augustus appealed to virtues of Roman patriotism by banning all attire but the classic toga while entering the Forum.[159] There was no precedent within the Roman system for combining the powers of the tribune and the censor into a single position, nor was Augustus ever elected to the office of censor.[160] Julius Caesar had been granted similar powers, wherein he was charged with supervising the morals of the state. However, this position did not extend to the censor's ability to hold a census and determine the Senate's roster. The office of the tribunus plebis began to lose its prestige due to Augustus's amassing of tribunal powers, so he revived its importance by making it a mandatory appointment for any plebeian desiring the praetorship.[161]
Augustus was granted sole imperium within the city of Rome itself, in addition to being granted proconsular imperium maius and tribunician authority for life. Traditionally, proconsuls (Roman province governors) lost their proconsular "imperium" when they crossed the Pomerium – the sacred boundary of Rome – and entered the city. In these situations, Augustus would have power as part of his tribunician authority but his constitutional imperium within the Pomerium would be less than that of a serving consul. That would mean that, when he was in the city, he might not be the constitutional magistrate with the most authority. Thanks to his prestige or auctoritas, his wishes would usually be obeyed, but there might be some difficulty. To fill this power vacuum, the Senate voted that Augustus's imperium proconsulare maius (superior proconsular power) should not lapse when he was inside the city walls. All armed forces in the city had formerly been under the control of the urban praetors and consuls, but this situation now placed them under the sole authority of Augustus.[162]
In addition, the credit was given to Augustus for each subsequent Roman military victory after this time, because the majority of Rome's armies were stationed in imperial provinces commanded by Augustus through the legatus who were deputies of the princeps in the provinces. Moreover, if a battle was fought in a Senatorial province, Augustus's proconsular imperium maius allowed him to take command of (or credit for) any major military victory. This meant that Augustus was the only individual able to receive a triumph, a tradition that began with Romulus, Rome's first King and first triumphant general. Lucius Cornelius Balbus was the last man outside Augustus's family to receive this award, in 19 BC.[163] Tiberius, Augustus's eldest stepson by Livia, was the only other general to receive a triumph—for victories in Germania in 7 BC.[164]
Normally during republican times, the powers Augustus held even after the Second Settlement would have been split between several people, who would each exercise them with the assistance of a colleague and for a specific period of time. Augustus held them all at once by himself, and with no time limits; even those that nominally had time limits were automatically renewed whenever they lapsed.[165]
Conspiracy
Many of the political subtleties of the Second Settlement seem to have evaded the comprehension of the Plebeian class, who were Augustus's greatest supporters and clientele. This caused them to insist upon Augustus's participation in imperial affairs from time to time. Augustus failed to stand for election as consul in 22 BC, and fears arose once again that he was being forced from power by the aristocratic Senate. In 22, 21, and 19 BC, the people rioted in response, and only allowed a single consul to be elected for each of those years, ostensibly to leave the other position open for Augustus.[166]
Likewise, there was a food shortage in Rome in 22 BC which sparked panic, while many urban plebs called for Augustus to take on dictatorial powers to personally oversee the crisis. After a theatrical display of refusal before the Senate, Augustus finally accepted authority over Rome's grain supply "by virtue of his proconsular imperium", and ended the crisis almost immediately.[145] It was not until AD 8 that a food crisis of this sort prompted Augustus to establish a praefectus annonae, a permanent prefect who was in charge of procuring food supplies for Rome.[167]
There were some who were concerned by the expansion of powers granted to Augustus by the Second Settlement, and this came to a head with the apparent conspiracy of Fannius Caepio.[150] Some time prior to 1 September 22 BC, a certain Castricius provided Augustus with information about a conspiracy led by Fannius Caepio.[168] Murena, the outspoken Consul who defended Primus in the Marcus Primus Affair, was named among the conspirators. The conspirators were tried in absentia with Tiberius acting as prosecutor; the jury found them guilty, but it was not a unanimous verdict.[169] All the accused were sentenced to death for treason and executed as soon as they were captured—without ever giving testimony in their defence.[170] Augustus ensured that the facade of Republican government continued with an effective cover-up of the events.[171]
In 19 BC, the Senate granted Augustus a form of 'general consular imperium', which was probably 'imperium consulare maius', like the proconsular powers that he received in 23 BC. Like his tribune authority, the consular powers were another instance of gaining power from offices that he did not actually hold.[172] In addition, Augustus was allowed to wear the consul's insignia in public and before the Senate,[162] as well as to sit in the symbolic chair between the two consuls and hold the fasces, an emblem of consular authority.[172] This seems to have assuaged the populace; regardless of whether or not Augustus was a consul, the importance was that he both appeared as one before the people and could exercise consular power if necessary. On 6 March 12 BC, after the death of Lepidus, he additionally took up the position of pontifex maximus, the high priest of the college of the Pontiffs, the most important position in Roman religion.[173][174] On 5 February 2 BC, Augustus was also given the title pater patriae, or "father of the country".[175][176]
Stability and staying power
A final reason for the Second Settlement was to give the Principate constitutional stability and staying power in case something happened to Princeps Augustus. His illness of early 23 BC and the Caepio conspiracy showed that the regime's existence hung by the thin thread of the life of one man, Augustus himself, who suffered from several severe and dangerous illnesses throughout his life.[177] If he were to die from natural causes or fall victim to assassination, Rome could be subjected to another round of civil war. The memories of Pharsalus, the Ides of March, the proscriptions, Philippi, and Actium, barely twenty-five years distant, were still vivid in the minds of many citizens. Proconsular imperium was conferred upon Agrippa for five years, similar to Augustus's power, in order to accomplish this constitutional stability. The exact nature of the grant is uncertain but it probably covered Augustus's imperial provinces, east and west, perhaps lacking authority over the provinces of the Senate. That came later, as did the jealously guarded tribunicia potestas.[178] Augustus's accumulation of powers was now complete. In fact, he dated his 'reign' from the completion of the Second Settlement, 1 July 23 BC.[179]
Война и экспансия
Augustus chose Imperator ("victorious commander") to be his first name, since he wanted to make an emphatically clear connection between himself and the notion of victory, and consequently became known as Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus. By the year 13, Augustus boasted 21 occasions where his troops proclaimed "imperator" as his title after a successful battle. Almost the entire fourth chapter in his publicly released memoirs of achievements known as the Res Gestae was devoted to his military victories and honors.[180]
Augustus also promoted the ideal of a superior Roman civilization with a task of ruling the world (to the extent to which the Romans knew it), a sentiment embodied in words that the contemporary poet Virgil attributes to a legendary ancestor of Augustus: tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento—"Roman, remember by your strength to rule the Earth's peoples!"[159] The impulse for expansionism was apparently prominent among all classes at Rome, and it is accorded divine sanction by Virgil's Jupiter in Book 1 of the Aeneid, where Jupiter promises Rome imperium sine fine, "sovereignty without end".[181]
By the end of his reign, the armies of Augustus had conquered northern Hispania (modern Spain and Portugal) and the Alpine regions of Raetia and Noricum (modern Switzerland, Bavaria, Austria, Slovenia), Illyricum and Pannonia (modern Albania, Croatia, Hungary, Serbia, etc.), and had extended the borders of the Africa Province to the east and south. Judea was added to the province of Syria when Augustus deposed Herod Archelaus, successor to client king Herod the Great (73–4 BC). Syria (like Egypt after Antony) was governed by a high prefect of the equestrian class rather than by a proconsul or legate of Augustus.[182]
Again, no military effort was needed in 25 BC when Galatia (modern Turkey) was converted to a Roman province shortly after Amyntas of Galatia was killed by an avenging widow of a slain prince from Homonada.[182] The rebellious tribes of Asturias and Cantabria in modern-day Spain were finally quelled in 19 BC, and the territory fell under the provinces of Hispania and Lusitania. This region proved to be a major asset in funding Augustus's future military campaigns, as it was rich in mineral deposits that could be fostered in Roman mining projects, especially the very rich gold deposits at Las Medulas.[183]
Conquering the peoples of the Alps in 16 BC was another important victory for Rome, since it provided a large territorial buffer between the Roman citizens of Italy and Rome's enemies in Germania to the north.[184] Horace dedicated an ode to the victory, while the monumental Trophy of Augustus near Monaco was built to honor the occasion.[185] The capture of the Alpine region also served the next offensive in 12 BC, when Tiberius began the offensive against the Pannonian tribes of Illyricum, and his brother Nero Claudius Drusus moved against the Germanic tribes of the eastern Rhineland. Both campaigns were successful, as Drusus's forces reached the Elbe River by 9 BC—though he died shortly after by falling off his horse.[186] It was recorded that the pious Tiberius walked in front of his brother's body all the way back to Rome.[187]
To protect Rome's eastern territories from the Parthian Empire, Augustus relied on the client states of the east to act as territorial buffers and areas that could raise their own troops for defense. To ensure security of the Empire's eastern flank, Augustus stationed a Roman army in Syria, while his skilled stepson Tiberius negotiated with the Parthians as Rome's diplomat to the East.[188] Tiberius was responsible for restoring Tigranes V to the throne of the Kingdom of Armenia.[187]
Yet arguably his greatest diplomatic achievement was negotiating with Phraates IV of Parthia (37–2 BC) in 20 BC for the return of the battle standards lost by Crassus in the Battle of Carrhae, a symbolic victory and great boost of morale for Rome.[187][188][189] Werner Eck claims that this was a great disappointment for Romans seeking to avenge Crassus's defeat by military means.[190] However, Maria Brosius explains that Augustus used the return of the standards as propaganda symbolizing the submission of Parthia to Rome. The event was celebrated in art such as the breastplate design on the statue Augustus of Prima Porta and in monuments such as the Temple of Mars Ultor ('Mars the Avenger') built to house the standards.[191]
Parthia had always posed a threat to Rome in the east, but the real battlefront was along the Rhine and Danube rivers.[188] Before the final fight with Antony, Octavian's campaigns against the tribes in Dalmatia were the first step in expanding Roman dominions to the Danube.[192] Victory in battle was not always a permanent success, as newly conquered territories were constantly retaken by Rome's enemies in Germania.[188]
A prime example of Roman loss in battle was the Battle of Teutoburg Forest in AD 9, where three entire legions led by Publius Quinctilius Varus were destroyed by Arminius, leader of the Cherusci, an apparent Roman ally.[193] Augustus retaliated by dispatching Tiberius and Drusus to the Rhineland to pacify it, which had some success although the battle of AD 9 brought the end to Roman expansion into Germany.[194] Roman general Germanicus took advantage of a Cherusci civil war between Arminius and Segestes; they defeated Arminius, who fled that Battle of Idistaviso in AD 16 but was killed later in 21 due to treachery.[195]
Смерть и преемственность
The illness of Augustus in 23 BC brought the problem of succession to the forefront of political issues and the public. To ensure stability, he needed to designate an heir to his unique position in Roman society and government. This was to be achieved in small, undramatic, and incremental ways that did not stir senatorial fears of monarchy. If someone was to succeed to Augustus's unofficial position of power, he would have to earn it through his own publicly proven merits.[196]
Some Augustan historians argue that indications pointed toward his sister's son Marcellus, who had been quickly married to Augustus's daughter Julia the Elder.[197] Other historians dispute this due to Augustus's will being read aloud to the Senate while he was seriously ill in 23 BC,[198] instead indicating a preference for Marcus Agrippa, who was Augustus's second in charge and arguably the only one of his associates who could have controlled the legions and held the Empire together.[199]
After the death of Marcellus in 23 BC, Augustus married his daughter to Agrippa. This union produced five children, three sons and two daughters: Gaius Caesar, Lucius Caesar, Vipsania Julia, Agrippina the Elder, and Postumus Agrippa, so named because he was born after Marcus Agrippa died. Shortly after the Second Settlement, Agrippa was granted a five-year term of administering the eastern half of the Empire with the imperium of a proconsul and the same tribunicia potestas granted to Augustus (although not trumping Augustus's authority), his seat of governance stationed at Samos in the eastern Aegean.[199][200] This granting of power showed Augustus's favor for Agrippa, but it was also a measure to please members of his Caesarian party by allowing one of their members to share a considerable amount of power with him.[200]
Augustus's intent became apparent to make Gaius and Lucius Caesar his heirs when he adopted them as his own children.[201] He took the consulship in 5 and 2 BC so that he could personally usher them into their political careers,[202] and they were nominated for the consulships of AD 1 and 4.[203] Augustus also showed favor to his stepsons, Livia's children from her first marriage Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus (henceforth referred to as Drusus) and Tiberius Claudius (henceforth Tiberius), granting them military commands and public office, though seeming to favor Drusus. After Agrippa died in 12 BC, Tiberius was ordered to divorce his own wife Vipsania Agrippina and marry Agrippa's widow, Augustus's daughter Julia—as soon as a period of mourning for Agrippa had ended.[204] Drusus's marriage to Augustus's niece Antonia was considered an unbreakable affair, whereas Vipsania was "only" the daughter of the late Agrippa from his first marriage.[204]
Tiberius shared in Augustus's tribune powers as of 6 BC, but shortly thereafter went into retirement, reportedly wanting no further role in politics while he exiled himself to Rhodes.[164][205] No specific reason is known for his departure, though it could have been a combination of reasons, including a failing marriage with Julia,[164][205] as well as a sense of envy and exclusion over Augustus's apparent favouring of his young grandchildren-turned-sons Gaius and Lucius. (Gaius and Lucius joined the college of priests at an early age, were presented to spectators in a more favorable light, and were introduced to the army in Gaul.)[206][207]
After the early deaths of both Lucius and Gaius in AD 2 and 4 respectively, and the earlier death of his brother Drusus (9 BC), Tiberius was recalled to Rome in June AD 4, where he was adopted by Augustus on the condition that he, in turn, adopt his nephew Germanicus.[208] This continued the tradition of presenting at least two generations of heirs.[204] In that year, Tiberius was also granted the powers of a tribune and proconsul, emissaries from foreign kings had to pay their respects to him, and by AD 13 was awarded with his second triumph and equal level of imperium with that of Augustus.[209]
The only other possible claimant as heir was Postumus Agrippa, who had been exiled by Augustus in AD 7, his banishment made permanent by senatorial decree, and Augustus officially disowned him. He certainly fell out of Augustus's favor as an heir; the historian Erich S. Gruen notes various contemporary sources that state Postumus Agrippa was a "vulgar young man, brutal and brutish, and of depraved character".[210]
On 19 August AD 14, Augustus died while visiting Nola where his father had died. Both Tacitus and Cassius Dio wrote that Livia was rumored to have brought about Augustus's death by poisoning fresh figs.[211][212] This element features in many modern works of historical fiction pertaining to Augustus's life, but some historians view it as likely to have been a salacious fabrication made by those who had favoured Postumus as heir, or other of Tiberius's political enemies. Livia had long been the target of similar rumors of poisoning on the behalf of her son, most or all of which are unlikely to have been true.[213]
Alternatively, it is possible that Livia did supply a poisoned fig (she did cultivate a variety of fig named for her that Augustus is said to have enjoyed), but did so as a means of assisted suicide rather than murder. Augustus's health had been in decline in the months immediately before his death, and he had made significant preparations for a smooth transition in power, having at last reluctantly settled on Tiberius as his choice of heir.[214] It is likely that Augustus was not expected to return alive from Nola, but it seems that his health improved once there; it has therefore been speculated that Augustus and Livia conspired to end his life at the anticipated time, having committed all political process to accepting Tiberius, in order to not endanger that transition.[213]
Augustus's famous last words were, "Have I played the part well? Then applaud as I exit" ("Acta est fabula, plaudite")—referring to the play-acting and regal authority that he had put on as emperor. Publicly, though, his last words were, "Behold, I found Rome of clay, and leave her to you of marble" ("Marmoream se relinquere, quam latericiam accepisset"). An enormous funerary procession of mourners traveled with Augustus's body from Nola to Rome, and on the day of his burial all public and private businesses closed for the day.[214] Tiberius and his son Drusus delivered the eulogy while standing atop two rostra. Augustus's body was coffin-bound and cremated on a pyre close to his mausoleum. It was proclaimed that Augustus joined the company of the gods as a member of the Roman pantheon.[215]
Historian D. C. A. Shotter states that Augustus's policy of favoring the Julian family line over the Claudian might have afforded Tiberius sufficient cause to show open disdain for Augustus after the latter's death; instead, Tiberius was always quick to rebuke those who criticized Augustus.[216] Shotter suggests that Augustus's deification obliged Tiberius to suppress any open resentment that he might have harbored, coupled with Tiberius's "extremely conservative" attitude towards religion.[217] Also, historian R. Shaw-Smith points to letters of Augustus to Tiberius which display affection towards Tiberius and high regard for his military merits.[218] Shotter states that Tiberius focused his anger and criticism on Gaius Asinius Gallus (for marrying Vipsania after Augustus forced Tiberius to divorce her), as well as toward the two young Caesars, Gaius and Lucius—instead of Augustus, the real architect of his divorce and imperial demotion.[217]
Наследие
Augustus's reign laid the foundations of a regime that lasted, in one form or another, for nearly fifteen hundred years through the ultimate decline of the Western Roman Empire and until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. Both his adoptive surname, Caesar, and his title Augustus became the permanent titles of the rulers of the Roman Empire for fourteen centuries after his death, in use both at Old Rome and at New Rome. In many languages, Caesar became the word for Emperor, as in the German Kaiser and in the Bulgarian and subsequently Russian Tsar (sometimes Csar or Czar). The cult of Divus Augustus continued until the state religion of the Empire was changed to Christianity in 391 by Theodosius I. Consequently, there are many excellent statues and busts of the first emperor. He had composed an account of his achievements, the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, to be inscribed in bronze in front of his mausoleum.[220] Copies of the text were inscribed throughout the Empire upon his death.[221] The inscriptions in Latin featured translations in Greek beside it, and were inscribed on many public edifices, such as the temple in Ankara dubbed the Monumentum Ancyranum, called the "queen of inscriptions" by historian Theodor Mommsen.[222]
The Res Gestae is the only work to have survived from antiquity, though Augustus is also known to have composed poems entitled Sicily, Epiphanus, and Ajax, an autobiography of 13 books, a philosophical treatise, and a written rebuttal to Brutus's Eulogy of Cato.[223] Historians are able to analyze excerpts of letters penned by Augustus, preserved in other works, to others for additional facts or clues about his personal life.[218][224]
Many consider Augustus to be Rome's greatest emperor; his policies certainly extended the Empire's life span and initiated the celebrated Pax Romana or Pax Augusta. The Roman Senate wished subsequent emperors to "be more fortunate than Augustus and better than Trajan". Augustus was intelligent, decisive, and a shrewd politician, but he was not perhaps as charismatic as Julius Caesar and was influenced on occasion by Livia (sometimes for the worse). Nevertheless, his legacy proved more enduring. The city of Rome was utterly transformed under Augustus, with Rome's first institutionalized police force, fire fighting force, and the establishment of the municipal prefect as a permanent office. The police force was divided into cohorts of 500 men each, while the units of firemen ranged from 500 to 1,000 men each, with 7 units assigned to 14 divided city sectors.[225]
A praefectus vigilum, or "Prefect of the Watch" was put in charge of the vigiles, Rome's fire brigade and police.[226] With Rome's civil wars at an end, Augustus was also able to create a standing army for the Roman Empire, fixed at a size of 28 legions of about 170,000 soldiers.[227] This was supported by numerous auxiliary units of 500 non-citizen soldiers each, often recruited from recently conquered areas.[228]
With his finances securing the maintenance of roads throughout Italy, Augustus also installed an official courier system of relay stations overseen by a military officer known as the praefectus vehiculorum.[229] Besides the advent of swifter communication among Italian polities, his extensive building of roads throughout Italy also allowed Rome's armies to march swiftly and at an unprecedented pace across the country.[230] In the year 6 Augustus established the aerarium militare, donating 170 million sesterces to the new military treasury that provided for both active and retired soldiers.[231]
One of the most enduring institutions of Augustus was the establishment of the Praetorian Guard in 27 BC, originally a personal bodyguard unit on the battlefield that evolved into an imperial guard as well as an important political force in Rome.[232] They had the power to intimidate the Senate, install new emperors, and depose ones they disliked; the last emperor they served was Maxentius, as it was Constantine I who disbanded them in the early 4th century and destroyed their barracks, the Castra Praetoria.[233]
Although the most powerful individual in the Roman Empire, Augustus wished to embody the spirit of Republican virtue and norms. He also wanted to relate to and connect with the concerns of the plebs and lay people. He achieved this through various means of generosity and a cutting back of lavish excess. In the year 29 BC, Augustus gave 400 sesterces (equal to 1/10 of a Roman pound of gold) each to 250,000 citizens, 1,000 sesterces each to 120,000 veterans in the colonies, and spent 700 million sesterces in purchasing land for his soldiers to settle upon.[234] He also restored 82 different temples to display his care for the Roman pantheon of deities.[234] In 28 BC, he melted down 80 silver statues erected in his likeness and in honor of him, an attempt of his to appear frugal and modest.[234]
The longevity of Augustus's reign and its legacy to the Roman world should not be overlooked as a key factor in its success. As Tacitus wrote, the younger generations alive in AD 14 had never known any form of government other than the Principate.[235] Had Augustus died earlier (in 23 BC, for instance), matters might have turned out differently. The attrition of the civil wars on the old Republican oligarchy and the longevity of Augustus, therefore, must be seen as major contributing factors in the transformation of the Roman state into a de facto monarchy in these years. Augustus's own experience, his patience, his tact, and his political acumen also played their parts. He directed the future of the Empire down many lasting paths, from the existence of a standing professional army stationed at or near the frontiers, to the dynastic principle so often employed in the imperial succession, to the embellishment of the capital at the emperor's expense. Augustus's ultimate legacy was the peace and prosperity the Empire enjoyed for the next two centuries under the system he initiated. His memory was enshrined in the political ethos of the Imperial age as a paradigm of the good emperor. Every Emperor of Rome adopted his name, Caesar Augustus, which gradually lost its character as a name and eventually became a title.[215] The Augustan era poets Virgil and Horace praised Augustus as a defender of Rome, an upholder of moral justice, and an individual who bore the brunt of responsibility in maintaining the empire.[236]
However, for his rule of Rome and establishing the principate, Augustus has also been subjected to criticism throughout the ages. The contemporary Roman jurist Marcus Antistius Labeo (d. AD 10/11), fond of the days of pre-Augustan republican liberty in which he had been born, openly criticized the Augustan regime. In the beginning of his Annals, the Roman historian Tacitus (c. 56–c.117) wrote that Augustus had cunningly subverted Republican Rome into a position of slavery. He continued to say that, with Augustus's death and swearing of loyalty to Tiberius, the people of Rome simply traded one slaveholder for another.[237] Tacitus, however, records two contradictory but common views of Augustus:
Intelligent people praised or criticized him in varying ways. One opinion was as follows. Filial duty and a national emergency, in which there was no place for law-abiding conduct, had driven him to civil war—and this can neither be initiated nor maintained by decent methods. He had made many concessions to Anthony and to Lepidus for the sake of vengeance on his father's murderers. When Lepidus grew old and lazy, and Anthony's self-indulgence got the better of him, the only possible cure for the distracted country had been government by one man. However, Augustus had put the state in order not by making himself king or dictator, but by creating the Principate. The Empire's frontiers were on the ocean, or distant rivers. Armies, provinces, fleets, the whole system was interrelated. Roman citizens were protected by the law. Provincials were decently treated. Rome itself had been lavishly beautified. Force had been sparingly used—merely to preserve peace for the majority.[238]
According to the second opposing opinion:
filial duty and national crisis had been merely pretexts. In actual fact, the motive of Octavian, the future Augustus, was lust for power ... There had certainly been peace, but it was a blood-stained peace of disasters and assassinations.[239]
In a 2006 biography on Augustus, Anthony Everitt asserts that through the centuries, judgments on Augustus's reign have oscillated between these two extremes but stresses that:
Opposites do not have to be mutually exclusive, and we are not obliged to choose one or the other. The story of his career shows that Augustus was indeed ruthless, cruel, and ambitious for himself. This was only in part a personal trait, for upper-class Romans were educated to compete with one another and to excel. However, he combined an overriding concern for his personal interests with a deep-seated patriotism, based on a nostalgia of Rome's antique virtues. In his capacity as princeps, selfishness and selflessness coexisted in his mind. While fighting for dominance, he paid little attention to legality or to the normal civilities of political life. He was devious, untrustworthy, and bloodthirsty. But once he had established his authority, he governed efficiently and justly, generally allowed freedom of speech, and promoted the rule of law. He was immensely hardworking and tried as hard as any democratic parliamentarian to treat his senatorial colleagues with respect and sensitivity. He suffered from no delusions of grandeur.[240]
Tacitus was of the belief that Nerva (r. 96–98) successfully "mingled two formerly alien ideas, principate and liberty".[241] The 3rd-century historian Cassius Dio acknowledged Augustus as a benign, moderate ruler, yet like most other historians after the death of Augustus, Dio viewed Augustus as an autocrat.[237] The poet Marcus Annaeus Lucanus (AD 39–65) was of the opinion that Caesar's victory over Pompey and the fall of Cato the Younger (95 BC–46 BC) marked the end of traditional liberty in Rome; historian Chester G. Starr, Jr. writes of his avoidance of criticizing Augustus, "perhaps Augustus was too sacred a figure to accuse directly."[241]
The Anglo-Irish writer Jonathan Swift (1667–1745), in his Discourse on the Contests and Dissentions in Athens and Rome, criticized Augustus for installing tyranny over Rome, and likened what he believed Great Britain's virtuous constitutional monarchy to Rome's moral Republic of the 2nd century BC. In his criticism of Augustus, the admiral and historian Thomas Gordon (1658–1741) compared Augustus to the puritanical tyrant Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658).[242] Thomas Gordon and the French political philosopher Montesquieu (1689–1755) both remarked that Augustus was a coward in battle.[243] In his Memoirs of the Court of Augustus, the Scottish scholar Thomas Blackwell (1701–1757) deemed Augustus a Machiavellian ruler, "a bloodthirsty vindicative usurper", "wicked and worthless", "a mean spirit", and a "tyrant".[243]
Revenue reforms
Augustus's public revenue reforms had a great impact on the subsequent success of the Empire. Augustus brought a far greater portion of the Empire's expanded land base under consistent, direct taxation from Rome, instead of exacting varying, intermittent, and somewhat arbitrary tributes from each local province as Augustus's predecessors had done. This reform greatly increased Rome's net revenue from its territorial acquisitions, stabilized its flow, and regularized the financial relationship between Rome and the provinces, rather than provoking fresh resentments with each new arbitrary exaction of tribute.[244]
The measures of taxation in the reign of Augustus were determined by population census, with fixed quotas for each province. Citizens of Rome and Italy paid indirect taxes, while direct taxes were exacted from the provinces. Indirect taxes included a 4% tax on the price of slaves, a 1% tax on goods sold at auction, and a 5% tax on the inheritance of estates valued at over 100,000 sesterces by persons other than the next of kin.[245]
An equally important reform was the abolition of private tax farming, which was replaced by salaried civil service tax collectors. Private contractors who collected taxes for the State were the norm in the Republican era. Some of them were powerful enough to influence the number of votes for men running for offices in Rome. These tax farmers called publicans were infamous for their depredations, great private wealth, and the right to tax local areas.[244]
The use of Egypt's immense land rents to finance the Empire's operations resulted from Augustus's conquest of Egypt and the shift to a Roman form of government.[246] As it was effectively considered Augustus's private property rather than a province of the Empire, it became part of each succeeding emperor's patrimonium.[247]
Instead of a legate or proconsul, Augustus installed a prefect from the equestrian class to administer Egypt and maintain its lucrative seaports; this position became the highest political achievement for any equestrian besides becoming Prefect of the Praetorian Guard.[248] The highly productive agricultural land of Egypt yielded enormous revenues that were available to Augustus and his successors to pay for public works and military expeditions.[246] During his reign the circus games resulted in the killing of 3,500 elephants.[249]
Month of August
The month of August (Latin: Augustus) is named after Augustus; until his time it was called Sextilis (named so because it had been the sixth month of the original Roman calendar and the Latin word for six is sex). Commonly repeated lore has it that August has 31 days because Augustus wanted his month to match the length of Julius Caesar's July, but this is an invention of the 13th century scholar Johannes de Sacrobosco. Sextilis in fact had 31 days before it was renamed, and it was not chosen for its length (see Julian calendar).
According to a senatus consultum quoted by Macrobius, Sextilis was renamed to honor Augustus because several of the most significant events in his rise to power, culminating in the fall of Alexandria, fell in that month.[250]
Creation of "Italia"
Roman Italy was established by Augustus in 7 BC with the Latin name "Italia". This was the first time that the Italian peninsula was united administratively and politically under the same name. Due to this act, Augustus was called the Father of Italy by Italian historians such as G. Giannelli.[251]
Building projects
On his deathbed, Augustus boasted "I found a Rome of bricks; I leave to you one of marble." Although there is some truth in the literal meaning of this, Cassius Dio asserts that it was a metaphor for the Empire's strength.[252] Marble could be found in buildings of Rome before Augustus, but it was not extensively used as a building material until the reign of Augustus.[253]
Although this did not apply to the Subura slums, which were still as rickety and fire-prone as ever, he did leave a mark on the monumental topography of the centre and of the Campus Martius, with the Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace) and monumental sundial, whose central gnomon was an obelisk taken from Egypt.[254] The relief sculptures decorating the Ara Pacis visually augmented the written record of Augustus's triumphs in the Res Gestae. Its reliefs depicted the imperial pageants of the praetorians, the Vestals, and the citizenry of Rome.[255]
He also built the Temple of Caesar, the Baths of Agrippa, and the Forum of Augustus with its Temple of Mars Ultor.[256] Other projects were either encouraged by him, such as the Theatre of Balbus, and Agrippa's construction of the Pantheon, or funded by him in the name of others, often relations (e.g. Portico of Octavia, Theatre of Marcellus). Even his Mausoleum of Augustus was built before his death to house members of his family.[257] To celebrate his victory at the Battle of Actium, the Arch of Augustus was built in 29 BC near the entrance of the Temple of Castor and Pollux, and widened in 19 BC to include a triple-arch design.[253]
After the death of Agrippa in 12 BC, a solution had to be found in maintaining Rome's water supply system. This came about because it was overseen by Agrippa when he served as aedile, and was even funded by him afterwards when he was a private citizen paying at his own expense. In that year, Augustus arranged a system where the Senate designated three of its members as prime commissioners in charge of the water supply and to ensure that Rome's aqueducts did not fall into disrepair.[225]
In the late Augustan era, the commission of five senators called the curatores locorum publicorum iudicandorum (translated as "Supervisors of Public Property") was put in charge of maintaining public buildings and temples of the state cult.[225] Augustus created the senatorial group of the curatores viarum (translated as "Supervisors for Roads") for the upkeep of roads; this senatorial commission worked with local officials and contractors to organize regular repairs.[229]
The Corinthian order of architectural style originating from ancient Greece was the dominant architectural style in the age of Augustus and the imperial phase of Rome. Suetonius once commented that Rome was unworthy of its status as an imperial capital, yet Augustus and Agrippa set out to dismantle this sentiment by transforming the appearance of Rome upon the classical Greek model.[253]
Residences
The official residence of Augustus was the Domus Augusti on the Palatine which he made into a palace after buying it in 41/40 BC.[258] He had other residences such as the horti maecenati in Rome where Augustus preferred to stay whenever he became ill and which Maecenas left to him in his will in 8 BC. The great villa of Vedius Pollio at Posilipo near Naples was beqeathed (probably forced) to him in 15 BC.[259]
Augustus built the Palazzo a Mare palace on Capri.[260] He also built the immense Villa Giulia on the island of Ventotene as a summer residence early in his reign. The family home of Augustus was probably the villa at Somma Vesuviana, Nola.[261] This was the location where he died and where his father also died.[262]
Внешний вид и официальные изображения
His biographer Suetonius, writing about a century after Augustus's death, described his appearance as: "... unusually handsome and exceedingly graceful at all periods of his life, though he cared nothing for personal adornment. He was so far from being particular about the dressing of his hair, that he would have several barbers working in a hurry at the same time, and as for his beard he now had it clipped and now shaved, while at the very same time he would either be reading or writing something ... He had clear, bright eyes ... His teeth were wide apart, small, and ill-kept; his hair was slightly curly and inclined to golden; his eyebrows met. His ears were of moderate size, and his nose projected a little at the top and then bent ever so slightly inward. His complexion was between dark and fair. He was short of stature, although Julius Marathus, his freedman and keeper of his records, says that he was five feet and nine inches (just under 5 ft. 7 in., or 1.70 meters, in modern height measurements), but this was concealed by the fine proportion and symmetry of his figure, and was noticeable only by comparison with some taller person standing beside him...",[263] adding that "his shoes [were] somewhat high-soled, to make him look taller than he really was".[264] Scientific analysis of traces of paint found in his official statues show that he most likely had light brown hair and eyes (his hair and eyes were depicted as the same color).[265]
His official images were very tightly controlled and idealized, drawing from a tradition of Hellenistic royal portraiture rather than the tradition of realism in Roman portraiture. He first appeared on coins at the age of 19, and from about 29 BC "the explosion in the number of Augustan portraits attests a concerted propaganda campaign aimed at dominating all aspects of civil, religious, economic and military life with Augustus's person."[266] The early images did indeed depict a young man, but although there were gradual changes his images remained youthful until he died in his seventies, by which time they had "a distanced air of ageless majesty".[267] Among the best known of many surviving portraits are the Augustus of Prima Porta, the image on the Ara Pacis, and the Via Labicana Augustus, which shows him as a priest. Several cameo portraits include the Blacas Cameo and Gemma Augustea.
Смотрите также
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Notes
- ^ The dates of his rule are contemporary dates; Augustus lived under two calendars, the Roman Republican until 45 BC, and the Julian after 45 BC. Due to departures from Julius Caesar's intentions, Augustus finished restoring the Julian calendar in March AD 4, and the correspondence between the proleptic Julian calendar and the calendar observed in Rome is uncertain before 8 BC. (Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003: 670–1)
- ^ His daughter Julia had died in 54 BC.; his son Caesarion by Cleopatra was not recognized by Roman law and was not mentioned in his will.[28]
- ^ Appian estimates that 300 senators were proscribed, while his earlier contemporary Livy asserted that only 130 senators had been proscribed.[71]
- ^ These were Alexander Helios, Cleopatra Selene II, and Ptolemy Philadelphus.
- ^ He acted on the orders of Marcellus and Augustus – see Southern, p. 108 and Eck (2003), p. 55
Citations
- ^ "Augustus | Biography, Accomplishments, Full Name, & Facts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 6 March 2018.
- ^ "Augustus - Ancient History - HISTORY.com". HISTORY.com. Retrieved 6 March 2018.
- ^ Luke, Trevor (2015). "Cultivating the memory of Octavius Thurinus". Journal of Ancient History. 3 (2): 242–266. doi:10.1515/jah-2015-0012. S2CID 164329002.
- ^ a b "Augustus - Ancient History - HISTORY.com". HISTORY.com. Retrieved 28 March 2018.
- ^ "Suetonius • Life of Augustus". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 4 March 2018.
- ^ Goldsworthy, Adrian (28 August 2014). Augustus: First Emperor of Rome. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-21007-1.
- ^ "Augustus". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 28 March 2018.
- ^ Jo-Ann Shelton, As the Romans Did (Oxford University Press, 1998), 58.
- ^ Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia, 2.93–94
- ^ Wells, John C. (1990). Longman pronunciation dictionary. Harlow, England: Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-05383-0. entry "Augustus"
- ^ The spelling AGVSTVS, which according to Allen (1965), 61, occurs in inscriptions, indicates the pronunciation [aˈɡʊstʊs].[10]
- ^ "40 maps that explain the Roman Empire". Vox. Retrieved 28 March 2018.
- ^ Day and month according to the Roman calendar, see Suetonius (2013), §5, footnote a
- ^ Suetonius, Augustus 7
- ^ 5–6 on-line text.
- ^ Suetonius, "The Life of Augustus," 1 (J. C. Rolfe, Translator).
- ^ Suetonius, Augustus 1–4
- ^ Rowell (1962), 14.
- ^ Chisholm (1981), 23.
- ^ Suetonius, Augustus 4–8; Nicolaus of Damascus, Augustus 3. Archived 14 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Suetonius, Augustus 8.1; Quintilian, 12.6.1.
- ^ Pelham, Henry Francis (1911). "Augustus," in Encyclopaedia Britannica, the University of Chicago online. Accessed 11 January 2019.
- ^ a b Suetonius, Augustus 8.1
- ^ Nicolaus of Damascus, Augustus 4. Archived 14 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b c Rowell (1962), 16.
- ^ Nicolaus of Damascus, Augustus 6. Archived 14 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Velleius Paterculus 2.59.3.
- ^ a b Suetonius, Julius 83.
- ^ a b c Eck (2003), 9.
- ^ Rowell (1962), 15.
- ^ Suetonius, Augustus 68, 71.
- ^ Mihai Andrei (24 August 2018). "In ancient Rome, political discourse was sometimes like an internet fight". ZME Science. Retrieved 7 May 2019.
- ^ Weisberger, Mindy; September 2, Senior Writer |; ET, 2018 08:11am. "Think Politics Today Is Ugly? Politicians in Ancient Rome Were Insulting, Too". Live Science. Retrieved 7 May 2019.
- ^ Appian, Civil Wars 3.9–11.
- ^ E.g., Cicero. Letters to Atticus. Perseus Digital Library. pp. 16:14. Retrieved 8 December 2015.
- ^ Mackay (2004), 160.
- ^ a b c d Eck (2003), 10.
- ^ Southern, Augustus pp. 20–21
- ^ Southern, Augustus pp. 21
- ^ a b Eck (2003), 9–10.
- ^ a b Rowell (1962), 19.
- ^ Rowell (1962), 18.
- ^ Eder (2005), 18.
- ^ Appian, Civil Wars 3.11–12.
- ^ Chisholm (1981), 24.
- ^ Chisholm (1981), 27.
- ^ Rowell (1962), 20.
- ^ Eck (2003), 11.
- ^ Syme (1939), 114–120.
- ^ Chisholm (1981), 26.
- ^ Rowell (1962), 30.
- ^ Eck (2003), 11–12.
- ^ Rowell (1962), 21.
- ^ Syme (1939), 123–126.
- ^ a b c d Eck (2003), 12.
- ^ a b c Rowell (1962), 23.
- ^ Rowell (1962), 24.
- ^ Chisholm (1981), 29.
- ^ Syme (1939), 167.
- ^ Syme (1939), 173–174
- ^ Scullard (1982), 157.
- ^ Rowell (1962), 26–27.
- ^ a b c Rowell (1962), 27.
- ^ Chisholm (1981), 32–33.
- ^ Eck (2003), 14.
- ^ Rowell (1962), 28.
- ^ Syme (1939), 176–186.
- ^ Sear, David R. "Common Legend Abbreviations On Roman Coins". Archived from the original on 30 July 2007. Retrieved 24 August 2007.
- ^ a b Eck (2003), 15.
- ^ a b Scullard (1982), 163.
- ^ Southern (1998), 52–53.
- ^ a b Eck (2003), 16.
- ^ a b Scullard (1982), 164.
- ^ a b Scott (1933), 19–20.
- ^ a b Scott (1933), 19.
- ^ Scott (1933), 20.
- ^ Syme (1939), 202.
- ^ Eck (2003), 17.
- ^ Eck (2003), 17–18.
- ^ a b Eck (2003), 18.
- ^ Eck (2003), 18–19.
- ^ a b Eck (2003), 19.
- ^ a b Rowell (1962), 32.
- ^ a b c Eck (2003), 20.
- ^ Scullard (1982), 162
- ^ a b Eck (2003) 21.
- ^ a b c Eder (2005), 19.
- ^ a b Eck (2003), 22.
- ^ Eck (2003), 23.
- ^ a b Eck (2003), 24.
- ^ Eck (2003), 25.
- ^ Eck (2003), 25–26.
- ^ a b Eck (2003), 26.
- ^ Eck (2003), 26–27.
- ^ Eck (2003), 27–28.
- ^ Eck (2003), 29.
- ^ Eck (2003), 29–30.
- ^ a b Eck (2003), 30.
- ^ Eder (2005), 20.
- ^ Eck (2003), 31.
- ^ Eck (2003), 32–34.
- ^ Eck (2003), 34.
- ^ Eck (2003), 34–35
- ^ Eder (2005), 21–22.
- ^ Eck (2003), 35.
- ^ Eder (2005), 22.
- ^ Roller (2010), 175.
- ^ Walker (2008), 35, 42–44.
- ^ Eck (2003), 37.
- ^ Eck (2003), 38.
- ^ Eck (2003), 38–39.
- ^ Eck (2003), 39.
- ^ Green (1990), 697.
- ^ Scullard (1982), 171.
- ^ a b Eck (2003), 49.
- ^ Gruen (2005), 34–35.
- ^ a b c Eder (2005), 24–25.
- ^ a b Gruen (2005), 38–39.
- ^ a b Eck (2003), 45.
- ^ Eck (2003), 44–45.
- ^ Eck (2003), 113.
- ^ Eck (2003), 80.
- ^ a b Scullard (1982), 211.
- ^ a b Eck (2003), 46.
- ^ Scullard (1982), 210.
- ^ a b Gruen (2005), 34.
- ^ a b Eck (2003), 47.
- ^ a b c d Eder (2005), 24.
- ^ a b Eck (2003), 50.
- ^ Eck (2003), 149
- ^ Roberts, John (2007). "Princeps senatus". Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World. Oxford Reference. p. 858. doi:10.1093/acref/9780192801463.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-280146-3.
- ^ Eck (2003), 3, 149.
- ^ Eder (2005), 13.
- ^ Eck (2003), 3.
- ^ Wells, p. 51
- ^ Holland, p. 294
- ^ a b Davies, p. 259
- ^ Ando, p. 140; Raaflaub, p. 426; Wells, p. 53
- ^ Southern, p. 108; Holland, p. 295
- ^ Eder (2005), 25.
- ^ a b c Eck (2003), 56.
- ^ Gruen (2005), 38.
- ^ a b Stern, Gaius, Women, children, and senators on the Ara Pacis Augustae: A study of Augustus's vision of a new world order in 13 BC, p. 23
- ^ Holland, pp. 294–95; Southern, p. 108
- ^ a b c d Eder (2005), 26.
- ^ a b Gruen (2005), 36.
- ^ a b c Eck (2003), 57.
- ^ Gruen (2005), 37.
- ^ Eck (2003), 56–57.
- ^ a b Southern, p. 109; Holland, p. 299
- ^ Wells, p. 53
- ^ a b Southern, p. 108
- ^ Holland, p. 300
- ^ Syme, p. 333
- ^ Syme, p. 333; Holland, p. 300; Southern, p. 108
- ^ Wells, p. 53; Raaflaub, p. 426
- ^ Eck (2003), 57–58.
- ^ Eck (2003), 59.
- ^ a b Eder (2005), 30.
- ^ Bunson (1994), 80.
- ^ Bunson (1994), 427.
- ^ a b Eck (2003), 60.
- ^ Eck (2003), 61.
- ^ a b c Eck (2003), 117.
- ^ Ancient Rome at Encyclopedia Britannica
- ^ Dio 54.1, 6, 10.
- ^ Eck (2003), 78.
- ^ Swan, p. 241; Syme, p. 483
- ^ Wells, p. 53; Holland, p. 301
- ^ Davies, p. 260; Holland, p. 301
- ^ Holland, p. 301
- ^ a b Gruen (2005), 43.
- ^ Bowersock (1990), p. 380. The date is provided by inscribed calendars; see also Augustus, Res Gestae 10.2. Dio 27.2 reports this under 13 BC, probably as the year in which Lepidus died (Bowersock (1990), p. 383).
- ^ Eder (2005), 28.
- ^ Mackay (2004), 186.
- ^ Eck (2003), 129.
- ^ Suetonius, Augustus 81.
- ^ Syme (1939), 337–338.
- ^ Everett (2006), 217.
- ^ Eck (2003), 93.
- ^ Eck (2003), 95.
- ^ a b Eck (2003), 94.
- ^ Eck (2003), 97.
- ^ Eck (2003), 98.
- ^ Eck (2003), 98–99.
- ^ Eck (2003), 99.
- ^ a b c Bunson (1994), 416.
- ^ a b c d Eck (2003), 96.
- ^ Brosius (2006), 96–97, 136–138.
- ^ Eck (2003), 95–96.
- ^ Brosius (2006), 97; see also Bivar (1983), 66–67.
- ^ Rowell (1962), 13.
- ^ Eck (2003), 101–102.
- ^ Bunson (1994), 417.
- ^ Bunson (1994), 31.
- ^ Gruen (2005), 50.
- ^ Eck (2003), 114–115.
- ^ Eck (2003), 115.
- ^ a b Gruen (2005), 44.
- ^ a b Eck (2003), 58.
- ^ Syme (1939), 416–417.
- ^ Scullard (1982), 217.
- ^ Syme (1939), 417.
- ^ a b c Eck (2003), 116.
- ^ a b Gruen (2005), 46.
- ^ Eck (2003), 117–118.
- ^ Gruen (2005), 46–47.
- ^ Eck (2003), 119.
- ^ Eck (2003), 119–120.
- ^ Gruen (2005), 49.
- ^ Tacitus Annals 1.5
- ^ Cassius Dio 55.22.2; 56.30
- ^ a b Everitt, Anthony (2006). Agustus: The Life of rome's First Emperor. New York: Random House. pp. 312–20. ISBN 978-0-8129-7058-6.
- ^ a b Eck (2003), 123.
- ^ a b Eck (2003), 124.
- ^ Shotter (1966), 210–212.
- ^ a b Shotter (1966), 211.
- ^ a b Shaw-Smith (1971), 213.
- ^ Setton, Kenneth M. (1976). The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Volume I: The Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: The American Philosophical Society. p. 375. ISBN 978-0-87169-114-9.
- ^ Suetonius, Augustus 101.4.
- ^ Eck (2003), 1–2
- ^ Eck (2003), 2.
- ^ Bunson (1994), 47.
- ^ Bourne (1918), 53–66.
- ^ a b c Eck (2003), 79.
- ^ Bunson (1994), 345.
- ^ Eck (2003), 85–87.
- ^ Eck (2003), 86.
- ^ a b Eck (2003), 81.
- ^ Chisholm (1981), 122.
- ^ Bunson (1994), 6.
- ^ Bunson (1994), 341.
- ^ Bunson (1994), 341–342.
- ^ a b c Eder (2005), 23.
- ^ Tacitus, Annals I.3
- ^ Kelsall (1976), 120.
- ^ a b Starr (1952), 5.
- ^ Tacitus, The Annals, I 9
- ^ Tacitus, The Annals, I 10
- ^ Everitt (2006), 324–325.
- ^ a b Starr (1952), 6.
- ^ Kelsall (1976), 118.
- ^ a b Kelsall (1976), 119.
- ^ a b Eck (2003), 83–84.
- ^ Bunson (1994), 404.
- ^ a b Bunson (1994), 144.
- ^ Bunson (1994), 144–145.
- ^ Bunson (1994), 145.
- ^ Greg Woolf (2007). Ancient civilizations: the illustrated guide to belief, mythology, and art. Barnes & Noble. p. 397. ISBN 978-1-4351-0121-0.
- ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.12.35.
- ^ G. Giannelli, Trattato di storia romana. 1. L'Italia antica e la Repubblica romana, Roma, 1965
- ^ Dio 56.30.3
- ^ a b c Bunson (1994), 34.
- ^ Eck (2003), 122.
- ^ Bunson (1994), 32.
- ^ "The Deeds of the Divine Augustus".
- ^ Eck (2003), 118–121
- ^ Suetonius. Life of Augustus 72.
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, LIV 23
- ^ Ring, Trudy; Salkin, Robert M.; Boda, Sharon La (1 January 1996). International Dictionary of Historic Places: Southern Europe. Taylor & Francis. pp. 121–. ISBN 978-1-884964-02-2. Retrieved 5 July 2012.
- ^ Villa where Augustus probably died is unearthed. Associated Press (Documentary). 16 November 2016. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
- ^ Tacitus Annals 1.5
- ^ Suetonius, Augustus 79, translated by J. C. Rolfe.
- ^ Suetonius, Augustus 73
- ^ Panzanelli, Roberta (26 June 2008). The Color of Life: Polychromy in Sculpture from Antiquity to the Present (1st ed.). Getty Publishing. pp. 116–117. ISBN 978-0-89236-917-1.
- ^ Walker and Burnett, pp. 1, 18, 25 (quoted)
- ^ Smith, 186
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дальнейшее чтение
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Внешние ссылки
Primary sources
- Works by and about Augustus at Perseus Digital Library
- Cassius Dio's Roman History: Books 45–56, English translation
- Gallery of the Ancient Art: August
- Life of Augustus by Nicolaus of Damascus, English translation
- Suetonius's biography of Augustus, Latin text with English translation
- The Res Gestae Divi Augusti (The Deeds of Augustus, his own account: complete Latin and Greek texts with facing English translation)
- The Via Iulia Augusta: road built by the Romans; constructed on the orders of Augustus between the 13–12 B.C.
Secondary source material
- Augustan Legionaries – Augustus's legions and legionaries
- Augustus – short biography at the BBC
- Brown, F. The Achievements of Augustus Caesar, Clio History Journal, 2009.
- "Augustus Caesar and the Pax Romana" – essay by Steven Kreis about Augustus's legacy
- "De Imperatoribus Romanis" – article about Augustus at Garrett G. Fagan's online encyclopedia of Roman Emperors
- Augustus Why he is important – his place in world history
Augustus Julio-Claudian dynasty Born: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14 | ||
Roman Emperors | ||
---|---|---|
New title | Roman emperor 27 BC – AD 14 | Succeeded by Tiberius |
Political offices | ||
Preceded by C. Vibius Pansa Caetronianus A. Hirtius | Consul of Rome 43 BC (suffect) With: Q. Pedius | Succeeded by M. Aemilius Lepidus L. Munatius Plancus |
Preceded by Paullus Aemilius Lepidus M. Herennius Picens | Consul of Rome 33 BC With: L. Volcatius Tullus | Succeeded by Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus C. Sosius |
Preceded by Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus C. Sosius | Consul of Rome 31–23 BC With: Mark Antony M. Valerius Messalla Corvinus M. Licinius Crassus Sex. Appuleius M. Agrippa T. Statilius Taurus M. Junius Silanus C. Norbanus Flaccus Cn. Calpurnius Piso | Succeeded by M. Claudius Marcellus Aeserninus L. Arruntius |
Preceded by D. Laelius Balbus C. Antistius Vetus | Consul of Rome 5 BC With: L. Cornelius Sulla | Succeeded by C. Calvisius Sabinus L. Passienus Rufus |
Preceded by L. Cornelius Lentulus M. Valerius Messalla Messallinus | Consul of Rome 2 BC With: M. Plautius Silvanus | Succeeded by Cossus Cornelius Lentulus L. Calpurnius Piso |
Religious titles | ||
Preceded by M. Aemilius Lepidus | Pontifex Maximus 12 BC – AD 14 | Succeeded by Tiberius |