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Католическая церковь , иногда называют римско - католической церкви , это самая большая христианская церковь , с примерно 1300000000 крещеных католиков во всем мире , как в 2018 году . [4] Являясь старейшим и крупнейшим в мире постоянно действующим международным институтом [7], он сыграл выдающуюся роль в истории и развитии западной цивилизации . [8] Церковь состоит из 24 отдельных церквей и почти 3500 епархий и епархий по всему миру. Папа , который является епископом Рима(и чьи титулы также включают Наместника Иисуса Христа и Преемника Св. Петра), является главным пастырем церкви [9], на которую возложено всемирное петровское служение единства и исправления. Администрация церкви, Святой Престол , находится в Ватикане , крошечном анклаве Рима , главой государства которого является Папа .

Основные верования католицизма содержатся в Никейском символе веры . Католическая церковь учит, что это единая святая, католическая и апостольская церковь, основанная Иисусом Христом в его Великом Поручении , [10] [11] [примечание 1], что ее епископы являются преемниками апостолов Христа , и что Папа является преемник на святой Петр , на которых примат был возложенным Иисус Христом. [14] Он утверждает, что исповедует изначальную христианскую веру, сохраняя непогрешимость , переданнуюсвященная традиция . [15] латинская церковь , двадцать три Восточные Католические Церкви , а также институты , такие как нищенствующие ордена , заключенные монашеские ордена и третий порядков отражают разнообразие в богословских и духовных акцентах в церкви. [16] [17]

Из его семи таинств , то Евхаристия является главным, отмечаемой литургический в мессе . [18] Церковь учит , что через освящение с помощью священника , жертвенный хлеб и вино становятся телом и кровью Христа . Дева Мария является почитаемых в католической церкви как Божьей Матери и Царице Небесной , почитается в догматах и набожности . [19] Его учение включает в себя Божественное Милосердие ,Освящение через веру и евангелизацию из Евангелия , а также католического социального учение , в котором подчеркивается добровольная поддержка больного, бедный и страждущий через телесные и духовные дела милосердия . Католическая церковь управляет тысячами католических школ , больниц и детских домов по всему миру и является крупнейшим негосударственным поставщиком образования и здравоохранения в мире. [20] Среди других социальных служб - многочисленные благотворительные и гуманитарные организации.

Католическая церковь оказала влияние на западную философию , культуру , искусство , музыку и науку. Католики живут по всему миру через миссии , диаспоры и обращения . С 20 века большинство из них проживает в южном полушарии из-за секуляризации в Европе и усиления преследований на Ближнем Востоке . Католическая церковь разделяла общение с Восточной Православной Церковью до раскола Востока и Запада в 1054 году, особенно оспариваяавторитет папы . Перед Эфесским собором в 431 году нашей эры Церковь Востока также участвовала в этом общении, как и Восточные Православные церкви до Халкидонского Собора в 451 году нашей эры; все разделились прежде всего из-за различий в христологии . В 16 веке Реформация привела к распаду протестантизма . С конца 20-го века католическая церковь подвергалась критике за ее учение о сексуальности , ее неспособность рукоположить женщин и рассмотрение дел о сексуальном насилии с участием духовенства.

Имя

Впервые термин «католическая церковь» (буквально означающий «вселенская церковь») использовал отец церкви Святой Игнатий Антиохийский в своем Послании к Смирнеянам ( около  110  г.). [21] Игнатию Антиохийскому также приписывают самое раннее зарегистрированное использование термина «христианство» (греч. Χριστιανισμός ) c.  100 г.  н.э. [22] Он умер в Риме, а его мощи находятся в базилике Сан-Клементе-аль-Латерано .

Католический (от греческого : καθολικός , латинизированный :  katholikos , букв.  «Универсальный») был впервые использован для описания церкви в начале 2-го века. [23] Первое известное использование фразы «католическая церковь» ( греч . Καθολικὴ ἐκκλησία , латинизировано :  he katholike ekklesia ) произошло в письме, написанном около 110 г. н.э. от Святого Игнатия Антиохийского к Смирне . [примечание 2] В Катехизических лекциях ( ок.  350 ) святого Кирилла Иерусалимского., название «католическая церковь» использовалось, чтобы отличить ее от других групп, которые также называли себя «церковью». [24] [25] Понятие «католицизм» было дополнительно подчеркнуто в указе « De fide Catolica», изданном 380 г. Феодосием I , последним императором, правившим как восточной, так и западной половиной Римской империи , при учреждении государственной церкви Римская империя . [26]

После раскола Востока и Запада в 1054 году Восточная церковь взяла прилагательное «православный» в качестве отличительного эпитета (однако ее официальное название по-прежнему остается «Православная католическая церковь» [27] ), а Западная церковь в общении с Святой Престол аналогичным образом принял слово «католик», сохранив это определение и после протестантской Реформации 16 века, когда те, кто перестал причащаться, стали известны как «протестанты». [28] [29]

В то время как «Римская церковь» использовалась для описания Папской епархии Рима с момента падения Западной Римской империи и до раннего средневековья (6-10 века), «Римско-католическая церковь» применялась ко всей церкви. на английском языке со времен протестантской Реформации в конце 16 века. [30] «Римско-католический» иногда появляется также в документах, подготовленных как Святым Престолом, [примечание 3], особенно применительно к определенным национальным епископальным конференциям , так и местным епархиям. [примечание 4]

Название «Католическая церковь» для всей церкви используется в Катехизисе Католической церкви (1990 г.) и Кодексе канонического права (1983 г.). Название «Католическая церковь» также используется в документах Совета Второго Ватиканского (1962-1965), [31] Первый Ватиканский Собор (1869-1870), [32] Совет Трент (1545-1563), [ 33] и множество других официальных документов. [34] [35]

История

Эта фреска (1481-82) от Пьетро Перуджино в Сикстинской капелле показывает , что Иисус , давая ключи от неба до Святого Петра .
Тайная вечеря , фреска конца 1490-х годов Леонардо да Винчи , изображающая последнюю вечерю Иисуса и его двенадцать апостолов накануне его распятия . Большинство апостолов похоронены в Риме, в том числе святой Петр.

Христианская религия основана на учении Иисуса Христа , который жил и проповедовал в 1 - ом веке нашей эры в провинции Иудеи в Римской империи . Католическое богословие учит, что современная католическая церковь является продолжением этой раннехристианской общины, основанной Иисусом. [10] Христианство распространилось по всей ранней Римской империи, несмотря на преследования из-за конфликтов с языческой государственной религией. Император Константин узаконил практику христианства в 313 году, а в 380 году оно стало государственной религией. Германские захватчики римской территории в V и VI веках, многие из которых ранее приняли арианство., в конце концов приняли католицизм, чтобы вступить в союз с папством и монастырями.

В VII и VIII веках расширение мусульманских завоеваний после прихода ислама привело к арабскому господству в Средиземноморье, которое разорвало политические связи между этой территорией и Северной Европой и ослабило культурные связи между Римом и Византийской империей . Конфликты, связанные с властью в церкви , особенно с властью епископа Рима, в конце концов достигли высшей точки в расколе между Востоком и Западом в 11 веке, разделив церковь на Католическую и Православную церкви. Ранее раскол в церкви произошел после Ефесского Собора (431 г.) и Собора Халкидона.(451). Однако несколько восточных церквей остались в общении с Римом, а части некоторых других установили общение в 15 веке и позже, образовав так называемые восточные католические церкви.

Ранние монастыри по всей Европе помогли сохранить греческую и римскую классическую цивилизацию . Церковь в конечном итоге стала доминирующим влиянием в западной цивилизации в современную эпоху. Многие деятели эпохи Возрождения спонсировались церковью. Однако в 16 веке церкви, в частности, ее религиозный авторитет, стали бросать вызов деятелям протестантской Реформации , а в 17 веке - светским интеллектуалам эпохи Просвещения. Одновременно испанские и португальские исследователи и миссионеры распространяли влияние церкви через Африку, Азию и Новый Свет .

В 1870 году Первый Ватиканский собор провозгласил догму о непогрешимости папы, и Королевство Италии аннексировало город Рим, последнюю часть Папской области, которая была включена в новую нацию. В 20 веке антиклерикальные правительства по всему миру, включая Мексику и Испанию, преследовали или казнили тысячи священнослужителей и мирян. Во время Второй мировой войны церковь осудила нацизм и защитила сотни тысяч евреев от Холокоста ; однако его усилия были раскритикованы как неадекватные. После войны свобода вероисповедания была жестко ограничена в коммунистических странах, недавно присоединившихся к Советскому Союзу., некоторые из которых имели большое католическое население.

В 1960-х годах Второй Ватиканский собор привел к реформам церковной литургии и практики, которые защитники описали как «открытие окон», но подверглись критике со стороны католиков-традиционалистов . Перед лицом растущей критики как изнутри, так и извне, церковь в разное время поддерживала или подтверждала противоречивые доктринальные позиции относительно сексуальности и пола, включая ограничение духовенства мужчинами и моральные призывы против абортов , контрацепции , сексуальной активности вне брака, повторного брака. после развода без аннулирования и против однополых браков .

Апостольская эпоха и папство

Поручение Иисуса святому Петру

Новый Завет , в частности , в Евангелиях , записывает деятельность и учение Иисуса, его назначение Двенадцать Апостолов]] и его Великое Поручение апостолов, поручив им продолжать свою работу. [36] [37] Книга Деяния апостолов рассказывает об основании христианской церкви и распространении ее послания в Римской империи. [38] Католическая церковь учит, что ее общественное служение началось в Пятидесятницу , через пятьдесят дней после даты, когда, как считается, воскрес Христос . [39]Считается, что в день Пятидесятницы апостолы получили Святого Духа, подготовив их к их миссии по руководству церковью. [40] [41] Католическая церковь учит, что коллегия епископов , возглавляемая епископом Рима , является преемниками апостолов. [42]

В описании Исповеди Петра в Евангелии от Матфея Христос называет Петра «камнем», на котором будет построена Церковь Христова. [43] [44] Католическая церковь считает епископа Рима, папу, преемником Святого Петра . [45] Некоторые ученые утверждают, что Петр был первым епископом Рима. [46] [примечание 5] Другие говорят, что учреждение папства не зависит от идеи, что Петр был епископом Рима, или даже от того, что он когда-либо был в Риме. [47]Многие ученые считают, что церковная структура множественного числа пресвитеров / епископов сохранялась в Риме до середины 2-го века, когда была принята структура единственного епископа и множественного числа пресвитеров, [48] и что более поздние авторы ретроспективно применили термин «епископ Рима». "наиболее выдающимся представителям духовенства в более ранний период, а также самому Петру. [48] На этом основании, Oscar Cullmann , [49] Генри Чедвик , [50] и Барт Д. Эрман [51] вопрос , существует ли формальная связь между Питером и современным папством. Раймонд Э. Браунтакже говорит, что было бы анахронизмом говорить о Петре как о местном епископе Рима, но христиане того периода считали, что Петр играет «роль, которая внесет существенный вклад в развитие роли папства в последующая церковь ». Эти роли, по словам Брауна, «внесли огромный вклад в то, чтобы увидеть епископа Рима, епископа города, где умер Петр и где Павел свидетельствовал об истине Христа, как преемника Петра в заботе о всемирной церкви». [48]

Античность и Римская империя

Условия в Римской империи способствовали распространению новых идей. Сеть дорог и водных путей империи облегчила путешествие, а Пакс Романа сделал путешествие безопасным. Империя поощряла распространение общей культуры с греческими корнями, что позволяло легче выражать и понимать идеи. [52]

Однако, в отличие от большинства религий Римской империи, христианство требовало от своих приверженцев отречения от всех других богов, практика, заимствованная из иудаизма (см. Идолопоклонство ). Отказ христиан присоединиться к языческим праздникам означал, что они не могли участвовать в большей части общественной жизни, что заставляло нехристиан, в том числе правительственные власти, опасаться, что христиане злят богов и тем самым угрожают миру и процветанию Империи. Последующие преследования были определяющей чертой христианского самопонимания до тех пор, пока христианство не было узаконено в 4 веке. [53]

Рисунок XIX века старой базилики Святого Петра , построенной в 318 году императором Константином.

В 313 году император Константин I «s Миланский эдикт узаконил христианство, а в 330 году Константин перенес имперскую столицу в Константинополь , современный Стамбул, Турция . В 380 эдиктах Солунского сделали Никейское христианство государственной церкви Римской империи , положение , что в уменьшающейся территории Византийской империи не будет сохраняться до империи самой закончившуюси падения Константинополя в 1453 году, в то время как в другом месте церковь была независимой от империи, что особенно ярко проявилось в расколе между Востоком и Западом . В периодВозникли семь Вселенских соборов , пять первичных кафедр, договоренность, оформленная в середине VI века императором Юстинианом I как пентархия Рима, Константинополя , Антиохии , Иерусалима и Александрии . [54] [55] В 451 году Халкидонский собор в каноне, имеющем спорную силу, [56] поднял кафедру Константинополя до положения «второго по величине и власти епископа Рима». [57] Из ок. 350 к с. 500 г., епископы или папы Рима неуклонно росли в своем авторитете благодаря их постоянному вмешательству в поддержкуправославные лидеры в богословских диспутах, которые поощряли обращения к ним. [58] Император Юстиниан , который в областях, находящихся под его контролем, окончательно установил форму цезаропапизма , [59] в которой «он имел право и обязанность регулировать своими законами мельчайшие детали поклонения и дисциплины, а также диктовать богословские взгляды, которые должны поддерживаться в церкви », [60] восстановив имперскую власть над Римом и другими частями Запада, положив начало периоду, названному византийским папством(537–752), во время которого епископы Рима или папы требовали одобрения императора в Константинополе или его представителя в Равенне для хиротонии, и большинство из них были выбраны императором из его грекоязычных подданных [61], в результате чего в «плавильном котле» западных и восточных христианских традиций в искусстве и литургии. [62]

Большинство германских племен, вторгшихся в следующие столетия в Римскую империю, приняли христианство в его арианской форме, которую католическая церковь объявила еретической . [63] Возникшие в результате религиозные разногласия между германскими правителями и католическими подданными [64] удалось избежать, когда в 497 году Хлодвиг I , франкский правитель, обратился в ортодоксальный католицизм, вступив в союз с папством и монастырями. [65] Вестготы в Испании последовали его примеру в 589, [66] и лангобарды в Италии в течение 7 века. [67]

Западное христианство , особенно через его монастыри , было важным фактором в сохранении классической цивилизации с ее искусством (см. Иллюминированный манускрипт ) и грамотностью. [68] [69] Через его Правила , Бенедикт Нурсийского (с. 480-543), один из основателей западного монашества , оказал огромное влияние на европейской культуре через присвоение монашеского духовного наследия ранней католической церкви и с распространением бенедиктинской традиции через сохранение и передачу древней культуры. В этот период монашеская Ирландия стала центром обучения и первых ирландских миссионеров, таких какКолумб и Колумба распространили христианство и основали монастыри по всей континентальной Европе. [1]

Средневековье и Возрождение

Шартрский собор , 1220 г.

Католическая церковь оказала доминирующее влияние на западную цивилизацию от поздней античности до рассвета современной эпохи. [8] Он был основным спонсором романского, готического, ренессансного, маньеризма и барокко в искусстве, архитектуре и музыке. [70] Такие деятели эпохи Возрождения, как Рафаэль , Микеланджело , Леонардо да Винчи , Боттичелли , Фра Анджелико , Тинторетто , Тициан , Бернини и Караваджо, являются примерами многочисленных художников, спонсируемых церковью. [71]Историк Пол Легутко из Стэнфордского университета сказал, что католическая церковь находится «в центре развития ценностей, идей, науки, законов и институтов, которые составляют то, что мы называем западной цивилизацией ». [72]

Массовые исламские вторжения середины VII века положили начало длительной борьбе между христианством и исламом по всему Средиземноморскому бассейну. Византия вскоре потеряла земли восточных патриархатов из Иерусалима , Александрии и Антиохии и сводится к Константинопольскому , столице империи. В результате исламского господства в Средиземном море франкское государство, находившееся вдали от этого моря, смогло развиться как доминирующая держава, которая сформировала Западную Европу в средние века. [73] Битвы при Тулузе иПуатье остановил наступление ислама на Западе, а неудавшаяся осада Константинополя остановила его на Востоке. Два или три десятилетия спустя, в 751 году, Византийская империя уступила лангобардам город Равенна, из которого она управляла небольшими частями Италии, включая Рим, признавший ее суверенитет. Падение Равенны означало, что во время выборов в 752 году Папы Стефана II не требовалось подтверждения от несуществующего экзарха, и что папство было вынуждено искать в другом месте гражданскую власть, чтобы защитить его. [74] В 754 году по настоятельной просьбе папы Стефана франкский король Пипин Короткий завоевал лангобардов. Затем он подарилземли бывшего экзархата папе, тем самым положив начало Папской области . Рим и Византийский Восток углубятся в дальнейший конфликт во время Фотийского раскола 860-х годов, когда Фотий раскритиковал латинский запад за добавление пункта filioque после того, как Николай I отлучил его от церкви . Хотя раскол был улажен, нерешенные вопросы приведут к дальнейшему расколу. [75]

В 11 веке усилия Хильдебранда из Сованы привели к созданию Коллегии кардиналов для избрания новых пап, начиная с папы Александра II на папских выборах 1061 года . Когда Александр II умер, Хильдебранд был избран его преемником в качестве папы Григория VII . Основная избирательная система Коллегии кардиналов, которую помог создать Григорий VII, продолжала действовать в 21 веке. Папа Григорий VII далее инициировал григорианские реформы, касающиеся независимости духовенства от светской власти. Это привело к полемике между церковью и императорами Священной Римской империи., над которым имел власть назначать епископов и пап. [76] [77]

В 1095 году византийский император Алексий I обратился к папе Урбану II за помощью против возобновления мусульманских нашествий в византийско-сельджукских войн , [78] , который вызвал Urban запустить первый крестовый поход , направленный на оказание помощи в Византию и возвращение Святой Земли христианскому контроля . [79] В XI веке натянутые отношения между преимущественно греческой церковью и Латинской церковью разделили их в расколе Восток-Запад , частично из-за конфликтов из-за папской власти . Четвертый крестовый походи разграбление Константинополя крестоносцами-ренегатами доказало окончательный разрыв. [80] В то время великие готические соборы во Франции были выражением народной гордости христианской верой.

В начале 13 века нищенствующие ордена основали Франциск Ассизский и Доминик де Гусман . В Studia conventualia и Studia общие принципы из нищенствующих орденов сыграли большую роль в превращении церкви спонсируемых кафедральных школ и дворцовых школ, таких , как у Карла в Аахене , в ведущих университетах Европы. [81] Ученые богословы и философы, такие как доминиканский священник Фома Аквинский, учились и преподавали в этих студиях. Summa Theologica Аквинскогобыла интеллектуальной вехой в синтезе наследия древнегреческих философов, таких как Платон и Аристотель, с содержанием христианского откровения. [82]

XIV век отмечен растущим чувством церковно-государственных конфликтов. Чтобы избежать нестабильности в Риме, Климент V в 1309 году стал первым из семи пап, проживавших в укрепленном городе Авиньон на юге Франции [83] в период, известный как Авиньонское папство . Папство в Авиньоне закончилось в 1376 г., когда папа вернулся в Рим [84], но в 1378 г. последовал 38-летний западный раскол с претендентами на папство в Риме, Авиньоне и (после 1409 г.) Пизе. [84] Вопрос был в основном решен в 1415–1417 гг. На Констанцском соборе, заявители в Риме и Пизе соглашаются уйти в отставку, а третий заявитель отлучен от церкви кардиналами, которые провели новые выборы и назвали Мартина V Папой. [85]

Период Возрождения был золотым веком католического искусства . На фото: потолок Сикстинской капеллы, расписанный Микеланджело.

В 1438 году был созван Флорентийский собор, на котором состоялся активный диалог, посвященный пониманию богословских различий между Востоком и Западом с надеждой на воссоединение католической и православной церквей. [86] Несколько восточных церквей воссоединились, образуя большинство восточно-католических церквей . [87]

Эпоха Великих географических открытий

Возраст открытий , начиная с 15 - го века увидел расширение политического и культурного Западной Европа влияния во всем мире. Из-за выдающейся роли сильно католических наций Испании и Португалии в западном колониализме, католицизм распространился на Америку, Азию и Океанию исследователями, конкистадорами и миссионерами, а также трансформацией обществ через социально-политические механизмы. колониального господства. Папа Александр VI передал колониальные права на большую часть вновь открытых земель Испании и Португалии [88], и последующая система патроната позволила государственным властям, а не Ватикану, контролировать все назначения клерикалов в новых колониях.[89] В 1521 году португальский исследователь Фердинанд Магеллан обратил первых католиков на Филиппинах . [90] В другом месте португальские миссионеры под руководством испанского иезуита Фрэнсиса Ксавьера проповедовали в Индии, Китае и Японии. [91] Французская колонизация Северной и Южной Америки , начиная с 16го века установили римскокатолической франкоязычной населения и запретил некатоликов осесть в Квебеке . [92]

Протестантская Реформация и Контрреформация

Мартин Лютер , первоначально монах- августинец , опубликовал 95 тезисов в 1517 году.

В 1415 году Ян Гус был сожжен на костре за ересь, но его реформаторские усилия поощряются Мартина Лютера , в августинцев монах в Германии, который послал его Девяносто пять тезисов до нескольких епископов в 1517 году [93] Его тезисы протестовал ключевые моменты католика доктриной , а также продажа индульгенций , и вместе с Лейпцигский диспут это привело к его отлучению в 1521 году [93] [94] в Швейцарии , Цвингли , Кальвина и других протестантских реформаторовдалее критиковал католическое учение. Эти вызовы переросли в Реформацию, которая породила подавляющее большинство протестантских деноминаций [95], а также крипто-протестантизм в католической церкви. [96] Тем временем Генрих VIII обратился к Папе с ходатайством о признании недействительным брака с Екатериной Арагонской . Когда это было отвергнуто, он принял Акты о превосходстве, чтобы сделать его главой англиканской церкви , что стимулировало английскую Реформацию и, в конечном итоге, развитие англиканства . [97]

Реформация способствовала столкновениям между протестантской Шмалькальдийской лигой и католическим императором Карлом V и его союзниками. Первая девятилетняя война закончилась в 1555 году Аугсбургским миром, но продолжающаяся напряженность привела к гораздо более серьезному конфликту - Тридцатилетней войне, которая разразилась в 1618 году. [98] Во Франции серия конфликтов была названа французскими войнами Великой Отечественной войны. С 1562 по 1598 годы между религиями велась борьба между гугенотами (французскими кальвинистами ) и силами Французской католической лиги , которые поддерживались и финансировались рядом пап. [99] Это закончилосьПапа Климент VIII , который нерешительно принял Нантский эдикт 1598 года короля Генриха IV, даровавший французским протестантам гражданскую и религиозную терпимость . [98] [99]

Совет Трент (1545-1563) стал движущей силой контрреформации в ответ на движение протестантской. В доктринальном плане он подтвердил основные католические учения, такие как пресуществление и требование любви и надежды, а также веры для достижения спасения. [100] В последующие века католицизм широко распространился по миру, отчасти благодаря миссионерам и империализму , хотя его влияние на европейское население снизилось из-за роста религиозного скептицизма во время и после Просвещения. [101]

Просвещение и современный период

Руины иезуитской редукции в Сан-Мигель-дас-Миссойнс в Бразилии

Начиная с 17 века Просвещение ставило под сомнение силу и влияние католической церкви на западное общество. [102] В 18 веке такие писатели, как Вольтер и Энциклопедисты, писали резкую критику как религии, так и католической церкви. Одной из целей их критики была отмена Нантского эдикта 1685 года королем Франции Людовиком XIV , положившая конец вековой политике религиозной терпимости к протестантским гугенотам. Поскольку папство сопротивлялось натискам галликанизма , Французская революция 1789 года передала власть государству, вызвала разрушение церквей, созданиеКульт Причины , [103] и мученичество монахинь во время террора . [104] В 1798 году генерал Наполеона Бонапарта Луи-Александр Бертье вторгся на Итальянский полуостров , заключив в тюрьму Папу Пия VI , который умер в плену. Позже Наполеон восстановил католическую церковь во Франции посредством Конкордата 1801 года . [105] Конец наполеоновских войн принес католическое возрождение и возвращение Папской области . [106]

В 1854 году папа Пий IX , при поддержке подавляющего большинства католических епископов, которых он консультировался с 1851 по 1853 г., провозгласил непорочное зачатие как догма в католической церкви . [107] В 1870 году Первый Ватиканский собор подтвердил доктрину непогрешимости папы, выраженную в специально определенных заявлениях, [108] [109] нанеся удар по конкурирующей позиции соборности . Споры по этому и другим вопросам в результате движения мятежного называется Старокатолицизм , [110]

Объединение Италии 1860 - х годов включены Папского государства, в том числе сам Рим от 1870 г., в Королевство Италии , таким образом завершая папства светской власти . В ответ Папа Пий IX отлучил короля Виктора Эммануила II от церкви , отказался платить за землю и отклонил итальянский закон о гарантиях , который предоставил ему особые привилегии. Чтобы не подвергать себя явному подчинению итальянским властям, он оставался « узником Ватикана ». [111] Это противостояние, о котором говорили как о римском вопросе , было разрешено Латеранскими договорами 1929 г., посредством чего Святой Престол признал суверенитет Италии над бывшими Папскими областями в обмен на вознаграждение и признание Италией папского суверенитета над Ватиканом как новым суверенным и независимым государством. [112]

20 век

Во время Первой мировой войны католическая церковь неоднократно призывала к миру. Инициатива «Dès le début» Папы Бенедикта XV от 1 августа 1917 года потерпела неудачу из-за неприятия враждующих сторон. [113]

В ХХ веке возник ряд антиклерикальных правительств. Закон Каллеса 1926 года, разделяющий церковь и государство в Мексике, привел к Кристеро-войне [114], в ходе которой более 3000 священников были изгнаны или убиты [115], церкви осквернены, службы высмеиваются, монахини изнасилованы, а захваченные священники расстреляны. [114] После Октябрьской революции 1917 года преследования церкви и католиков в Советском Союзе продолжались до 1930-х годов, когда священнослужители, монахи и миряне подвергались казни и изгнанию, конфисковывались религиозные принадлежности и закрывались церкви. [116] [117] Во время гражданской войны в Испании 1936–39 гг.Католическая иерархия в союзе с Франко националистами против Народного фронта правительства, [118] приводя в качестве оправдания Республиканском насилия против церкви. [119] [120] Папа Пий XI назвал эти три страны «ужасным треугольником». [121] [122]

В то время как церковь подвергается резкой критике за то, что она слишком мало сделала против Холокоста , войны и нацистов, отдельные группы католического сопротивления, такие как возглавляемая священником Генрихом Майером, помогали союзникам бороться с V-2, который был произведен узниками концлагерей. .

После нарушения 1933 Конкордат с нацистской Германией между церковью и нацистской Германии , Папа Пий XI издал энциклику 1937 Mit brennender Зорге , который публично осудил преследование нацистов церкви и их идеологию неоязычества и расового превосходства . [123] [124] [125] Церковь осудила вторжение в Польшу в 1939 году , начавшее Вторую мировую войну и другие последующие вторжения нацистов во время войны. [126]Тысячи католических священников, монахинь и братьев были заключены в тюрьмы в странах, оккупированных нацистами, были отправлены в концлагеря, подвергались пыткам и убийствам, в том числе святые Максимилиан Кольбе и Эдит Штайн . [127] [128] Речь шла не только о пассивном сопротивлении, но и об активном поражении национал-социализма. Например, католическая группа сопротивления во главе со священником Генрихом Майером очень успешно передала планы и производственные мощности для ракет Фау-2 , танков Tiger , Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet.и другие самолеты для союзников, с помощью которых они могли нацеливаться на немецкие производственные объекты. Майер и его группа очень рано проинформировали американскую секретную службу OSS о массовом убийстве евреев в Освенциме. [129]

Члены Канадской Королевской 22 е полка в аудитории с папой Пием XII , вслед за освобождение Рима в 1944 году во время Второй мировой войны

Примерно в 1943 году Адольф Гитлер планировал похищение Папы и его интернирование в Германии. Он отдал генералу СС Вольфу соответствующий приказ о подготовке к операции. [130] [131] В то время как Папа Пий XII был начислено помогает сэкономить сотни тысяч евреев во время Холокоста , [132] [133] Церковь также обвиняется в поощряться веков антисемитизме его учения [134] и не делают достаточно, чтобы остановить зверства нацистов. [135] Многие нацистские преступники бежали за границу после Второй мировой войны, в том числе потому, что у них были влиятельные сторонники из Ватикана.[136] [137] [138] Суд Пия XII. источники затрудняют это, потому что церковные архивы за его пребывание в качестве нунция, кардинального государственного секретаря и папы частично закрыты или еще не обработаны. [139]

В расчлененной Югославии Церковь поддерживала установленный нацистами хорватский римско-католический фашистский режим усташей из-за его антикоммунистической идеологии и возможности восстановить католическое влияние в регионе после распада Австро-Венгрии . [140] Однако официально независимое государство Хорватия (NDH) не было признано . [140] Несмотря на то , что Церковь была проинформирована о геноциде православных сербов , евреев и других нехорватов, она публично не выступала против этого, предпочитая оказывать давление с помощью дипломатии. [141] Оценивая позицию Ватикана, историкЙозо Томасевич пишет, что «кажется, что католическая церковь полностью поддержала режим [усташей] и его политику». [142]

В послевоенный период коммунистические правительства в Центральной и Восточной Европе жестко ограничили религиозные свободы. [143] Хотя некоторые священники и религиозные люди сотрудничали с коммунистическими режимами, [144] многие другие были заключены в тюрьмы, депортированы или казнены. Церковь сыграла важную роль в падении коммунизма в Европе, особенно в Польской Народной Республике . [145]

В 1949 году победа коммунистов в гражданской войне в Китае привела к изгнанию всех иностранных миссионеров. [146] Новое правительство также создало Патриотическую церковь и назначило ее епископов. Эти назначения были первоначально отклонены Римом, прежде чем многие из них были приняты. [147] [ нужен лучший источник ] В 1960-х годах во время Культурной революции китайские коммунисты закрыли все религиозные учреждения. Когда китайские церкви в конце концов открылись вновь, они остались под контролем Патриотической церкви. Многих католических пасторов и священников по-прежнему сажали в тюрьмы за отказ отказаться от верности Риму. [148]

Второй Ватиканский собор

Епископы слушают Второй Ватиканский Собор

Второй Ватиканский собор (1962-1965) внес наиболее существенные изменения в практику католической , поскольку Совет Трента , четыре столетия назад. [149] Этот экуменический собор, инициированный Папой Иоанном XXIII , модернизировал практику католической церкви, позволив мессу произносить на родном языке (местный язык) и поощряя «полностью сознательное и активное участие в литургических торжествах». [150] Он намеревался более тесно вовлечь церковь в настоящий мир ( agiornamento ), который ее сторонники описывали как «открытие окон». [151]В дополнение к изменениям в литургии, это привело к изменениям в подходе Церкви к экуменизму , [152] и призыв к улучшению отношений с нехристианскими религиями, особенно иудаизма , в его документе Nostra Aetate . [153]

Однако собор вызвал серьезные разногласия при проведении реформ: сторонники « Духа Второго Ватикана », такие как швейцарский богослов Ханс Кюнг, заявили, что Второй Ватикан «не зашел достаточно далеко», чтобы изменить политику церкви. [154] Католики-традиционалисты , такие как архиепископ Марсель Лефевр , резко критиковали собор, утверждая, что его литургические реформы привели, среди прочего, к «разрушению священной мессы и таинств». [155]

Некоторые учения католической церкви подверглись повышенному вниманию как одновременно с собором, так и после него; Среди этих учений было учение церкви об аморальности противозачаточных средств . Недавнее введение гормональной контрацепции (включая «таблетки»), которые, по мнению некоторых, морально отличаются от предыдущих методов, побудило Иоанна XXIII сформировать комитет, чтобы проконсультировать его по моральным и теологическим вопросам, связанным с новым методом. [156] [157] Папа Павел VIпозже расширили сферу деятельности комитета, чтобы свободно исследовать все методы, и, по слухам, неопубликованный окончательный отчет комитета предлагал разрешить по крайней мере некоторые методы контрацепции. Павел не согласился с представленными аргументами и в конце концов выпустил Humanae vitae , заявив, что он поддерживает постоянное учение церкви против контрацепции. Он прямо включил гормональные методы в список запрещенных. [примечание 6] Этот документ вызвал в основном отрицательную реакцию у многих католиков. [ от кого? ] [158]

Иоанн Павел II

Папа Иоанн Павел II оказал большое влияние на окончание холодной войны и падение коммунизма . Здесь с президентом США Рональдом Рейганом и его женой Нэнси в 1982 году.

В 1978 году Папа Иоанн Павел II , бывший архиепископ Краковский в Польской Народной Республике , стал первым не итальянским папой за 455 лет. Его понтификат продолжительностью 26 с половиной лет был одним из самых продолжительных в истории. [159] Михаил Горбачев , президент Советского Союза , считал, что польский папа ускорил падение коммунизма в Европе. [160]

Иоанн Павел II стремился проповедовать все более светский мир . Он учредил Всемирный день молодежи как «всемирную встречу с папой» для молодых людей; теперь он проводится каждые два-три года. [161] Он путешествовал больше, чем любой другой Папа, посетив 129 стран, [162] и использовал телевидение и радио как средство распространения учения церкви. Он также подчеркнул достоинство труда и естественные права рабочих на справедливую заработную плату и безопасные условия в Laborem exercens . [163] Он подчеркнул несколько церковных учений, в том числе моральные призывы против абортов и эвтаназии.и против широко распространенного применения смертной казни в Evangelium Vitae . [164]

С конца 20 века католическую церковь критиковали за ее доктрины о сексуальности , неспособность рукоположить женщин и рассмотрение дел о сексуальном насилии .

21-го века

В 2005 году, после смерти Иоанна Павла II , был избран Папа Бенедикт XVI , глава Конгрегации доктрины веры Иоанна Павла. Он был известен своей защитой традиционных христианских ценностей против секуляризации , [165] и более широким использованием Трезубской Мессы, как это указано в Римском Миссале 1962 года. [166] В 2012 году, когда отмечалось 50-летие Второго Ватикана, собрание Синода Епископы обсуждали повторное евангелизацию отсталых католиков в развитом мире . [167] Ссылаясь на слабости преклонного возраста, Бенедиктушел в отставку в 2013 году, став первым Папой, сделавшим это почти за 600 лет. [168]

Папа Франциск

Папа Франциск, нынешний Папа Католической церкви, сменил Папу Бенедикта XVI в 2013 году в качестве первого Папы из Америки , первого из Южного полушария и первого Папы из-за пределов Европы после сирийского Григория III , правившего в 8-м веке. век. Папа Франциск был известен своим смирением , упором на Божье милосердие, заботой о бедных и окружающей среде , а также своей приверженностью межконфессиональному диалогу . Ему приписывают менее формальный подход к папству, чем у его предшественников.

Папа Франциск получил признание за его усилия «по дальнейшему закрытию почти тысячелетнего отчуждения с Православными церквями ». [169] Его установка присутствовал патриарх Варфоломей I Константинопольский в Восточной Православной Церкви , [170] в первый раз с Великой схизмы 1054 , что Восточный ортодокс Патриарх Константинопольский присутствовал папский установку. [171] 12 февраля 2016 года Папа Франциск и Патриарх Московский Кирилл , глава крупнейшей Восточной православной церкви, встретились в Гаване , Куба , и выпустилисовместная декларация, призывающая к восстановлению христианского единства между двумя церквями. Сообщается, что это первая такая встреча на высоком уровне между двумя церквями после Великого раскола 1054 года. [172]

В 2014 году Третья внеочередная Генеральная ассамблея Синода епископов обратилась к служению церкви семьям и бракам, а также к католикам, состоящим в «нерегулярных» отношениях, например, к тем, кто развелся и вступил в повторный брак вне церкви без объявления недействительности . [173] [174] Хотя некоторые приветствовали его, некоторые критиковали его за кажущуюся двусмысленность, вызывающую споры среди отдельных представителей различных точек зрения. [175]

В 2017 году во время визита в Египет Папа Франциск восстановил взаимное признание крещения с Коптской православной церковью . [176]

Организация

«Я дам вам ключи Царства Небесного, и все, что вы свяжете на Земле, будет связано на небесах, и все, что вы разрешите на Земле, будет разрешено на небесах». Иисус Петру в Евангелии от Матфея , 16:19 . Перекрещенные золотые и серебряные ключи от Святого Престола символизируют ключи Симона Петра , олицетворяющие власть папской службы освобождать и связывать. Папская тиара с тройной короной символизирует тройную власть папы как «отца королей», «правителя мира» и «наместника Христа». Золотой крест на монде ( глобусе ), возвышающийся над тиарой, символизирует верховную власть Иисуса .

Католическая церковь следует епископальной системе правления , которую возглавляют епископы, получившие таинство священных орденов, которым даны формальные полномочия управления внутри церкви. [177] [178] Существует три уровня духовенства, епископат, состоящий из епископов, которые обладают юрисдикцией в географической области, называемой епархией или епархией ; пресвитер, состоящий из священников, рукоположенных епископами и работающих в местных епархиях или религиозных орденах; и диаконат, состоящий из диаконов, которые помогают епископам и священникам в различных министерских ролях. В конечном итоге всю католическую церковь возглавляет епископ Рима, обычно называемый папой, чья юрисдикция называетсяСвятой Престол . Параллельно с епархиальной структурой существуют различные религиозные институты, которые функционируют автономно, часто подчиняясь только власти папы, хотя иногда и местному епископу. В большинстве религиозных институтов есть только мужчины или женщины, но в некоторых есть и то, и другое. Кроме того, миряне участвуют во многих литургических функциях во время богослужений.

Святой Престол, папство, Римская курия и Коллегия кардиналов

Франциск является 266-м и действующим папой католической церкви, титул, который он носит ex officio как епископ Рима и суверен Ватикана. Он был избран на Папский конклав в 2013 году .
Archbasilica Святого Иоанна Латеранского , то собор для епархии Рима

Иерархия католической церкви во главе [примечания 7] от епископа Рима , известным как попа ( Latin : папа ; «отец»), который является лидером во всем мире католической церкви. [184] Нынешний Папа Франциск был избран 13 марта 2013 года папским конклавом . [185]

The office of the pope is known as the papacy. The Catholic Church holds that Christ instituted the papacy upon giving the keys of Heaven to Saint Peter. His ecclesiastical jurisdiction is called the "Holy See" (Sancta Sedes in Latin), or the "Apostolic See" (meaning the see of the apostle Peter).[186][187] Directly serving the pope is the Roman Curia, the central governing body that administers the day-to-day business of the Catholic Church.

The pope is also Sovereign of Vatican City,[188] a small city-state entirely enclaved within the city of Rome, which is an entity distinct from the Holy See. It is as head of the Holy See, not as head of Vatican City State, that the pope receives ambassadors of states and sends them his own diplomatic representatives.[189] The Holy See also confers orders, decorations and medals, such as the orders of chivalry originating from the Middle Ages.

While the famous Saint Peter's Basilica is located in Vatican City, above the traditional site of Saint Peter's tomb, the papal cathedral for the Diocese of Rome is the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran, located within the city of Rome, though enjoying extraterritorial privileges accredited to the Holy See.

The position of cardinal is a rank of honour bestowed by popes on certain clerics, such as leaders within the Roman Curia, bishops serving in major cities and distinguished theologians. For advice and assistance in governing, the pope may turn to the College of Cardinals.[190]

Following the death or resignation of a pope,[note 8] members of the College of Cardinals who are under age 80 act as an electoral college, meeting in a papal conclave to elect a successor.[192] Although the conclave may elect any male Catholic as pope since 1389 only cardinals have been elected.[193]

Canon law

Canon law (Latin: jus canonicum)[194] is the system of laws and legal principles made and enforced by the hierarchical authorities of the Catholic Church to regulate its external organization and government and to order and direct the activities of Catholics toward the mission of the church.[195] The canon law of the Latin Church was the first modern Western legal system[196] and is the oldest continuously functioning legal system in the West,[197][198] while the distinctive traditions of Eastern Catholic canon law govern the 23 Eastern Catholic particular churches sui iuris.

Positive ecclesiastical laws, based directly or indirectly upon immutable divine law or natural law, derive formal authority in the case of universal laws from promulgation by the supreme legislator—the Supreme Pontiff—who possesses the totality of legislative, executive and judicial power in his person,[199] while particular laws derive formal authority from promulgation by a legislator inferior to the supreme legislator, whether an ordinary or a delegated legislator. The actual subject material of the canons is not just doctrinal or moral in nature, but all-encompassing of the human condition. It has all the ordinary elements of a mature legal system:[200] laws, courts, lawyers, judges,[200] a fully articulated legal code for the Latin Church[201] as well as a code for the Eastern Catholic Churches,[201] principles of legal interpretation,[202] and coercive penalties.[203][204]

Canon law concerns the Catholic Church's life and organization and is distinct from civil law. In its own field it gives force to civil law only by specific enactment in matters such as the guardianship of minors.[205] Similarly, civil law may give force in its field to canon law, but only by specific enactment, as with regard to canonical marriages.[206] Currently, the 1983 Code of Canon Law is in effect for the Latin Church.[207] The distinct 1990 Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches (CCEO, after the Latin initials) applies to the autonomous Eastern Catholic Churches.[208]

Latin and Eastern churches

In the first thousand years of Catholic history, different varieties of Christianity developed in the Western and Eastern Christian areas of Europe. Though most Eastern-tradition churches are no longer in communion with the Catholic Church after the Great Schism of 1054, autonomous particular churches of both traditions currently participate, also known as "churches sui iuris" (Latin: "of one's own right"). The largest and most well known is the Latin Church, the only Western-tradition church, with more than 1 billion members worldwide. Relatively small in terms of adherents compared to the Latin Church, are the 23 self-governing Eastern Catholic Churches with a combined membership of 17.3 million as of 2010.[209][210][211][212]

The Latin Church is governed by the pope and diocesan bishops directly appointed by him. The pope exercises a direct patriarchal role over the Latin Church, which is considered to form the original and still major part of Western Christianity, a heritage of certain beliefs and customs originating in Europe and northwestern Africa, some of which are inherited by many Christian denominations that trace their origins to the Protestant Reformation.[213]

The Eastern Catholic Churches follow the traditions and spirituality of Eastern Christianity and are churches which have always remained in full communion with the Catholic Church or who have chosen to re-enter full communion in the centuries following the East–West Schism and earlier divisions. These churches are communities of Catholic Christians whose forms of worship reflect distinct historical and cultural influences rather than differences in doctrine.

A church sui iuris is defined in the Code of Canons for the Eastern Churches as a "group of Christian faithful united by a hierarchy" that is recognised by the pope in his capacity as the supreme authority on matters of doctrine within the church.[214] The term is an innovation of the CCEO to denote the relative autonomy of the Eastern Catholic Churches,[215] who remain in full communion with the pope, but have governance structures and liturgical traditions separate from that of the Latin Church.[210] While the Latin Church's canons do not explicitly use the term, it is tacitly recognised as equivalent.

Some Eastern Catholic churches are governed by a patriarch who is elected by the synod of the bishops of that church,[216] others are headed by a major archbishop,[217] others are under a metropolitan,[218] and others are organized as individual eparchies.[219] Each church has authority over the particulars of its internal organization, liturgical rites, liturgical calendar and other aspects of its spirituality, subject only to the authority of the pope.[220] The Roman Curia has a specific department, the Congregation for the Oriental Churches, to maintain relations with them.[221] The pope does not generally appoint bishops or clergy in the Eastern Catholic Churches, deferring to their internal governance structures, but may intervene if he feels it necessary.

Dioceses, parishes, organizations and institutes

Distribution of Catholics[222]
Percentage of Catholics by country
Number of Catholics by country

Individual countries, regions, or major cities are served by particular churches known as dioceses in the Latin Church, or eparchies in the Eastern Catholic Churches, each overseen by a bishop. As of 2008, the Catholic Church has 2,795 dioceses.[223] The bishops in a particular country are members of a national or regional episcopal conference.[224]

Dioceses are divided into parishes, each with one or more priests, deacons or lay ecclesial ministers.[225] Parishes are responsible for the day to day celebration of the sacraments and pastoral care of the laity.[226] As of 2016, there are 221,700 parishes worldwide.[227]

In the Latin Church, Catholic men may serve as deacons or priests by receiving sacramental ordination. Men and women may serve as extraordinary ministers of Holy Communion, as readers (lectors), or as altar servers. Historically, boys and men have only been permitted to serve as altar servers; however, since the 1990s, girls and women have also been permitted.[228][note 9]

Ordained Catholics, as well as members of the laity, may enter into consecrated life either on an individual basis, as a hermit or consecrated virgin, or by joining an institute of consecrated life (a religious institute or a secular institute) in which to take vows confirming their desire to follow the three evangelical counsels of chastity, poverty and obedience.[229] Examples of institutes of consecrated life are the Benedictines, the Carmelites, the Dominicans, the Franciscans, the Missionaries of Charity, the Legionaries of Christ and the Sisters of Mercy.[229]

"Religious institutes" is a modern term encompassing both "religious orders" and "religious congregations," which were once distinguished in canon law.[230] The terms "religious order" and "religious institute" tend to be used as synonyms colloquially.[231]

By means of Catholic charities and beyond, the Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and health care in the world.[20]

Membership

Catholicism is the second largest religious body in the world, surpassed in size only by Sunni Islam.[232] Church membership, defined as baptised Catholics, was 1.329 billion at the end of 2018, which is 18% of the world population.[4] Catholics represent about half of all Christians.[233]

Geographic distribution of Catholics worldwide continues to shift, with 17.8% in Africa, 48.3% in the Americas, 11.1% Asia, 21.5% in Europe, and 0.9% in Oceania.[4]

Catholic ministers include ordained clergy, lay ecclesial ministers, missionaries, and catechists. Also as of the end of 2014, there were 465,595 ordained clergy, including 5,237 bishops, 415,792 priests (diocesan and religious), and 44,566 deacons (permanent).[234] Non-ordained ministers included 3,157,568 catechists, 367,679 lay missionaries, and 39,951 lay ecclesial ministers.[235]

Catholics who have committed to religious or consecrated life instead of marriage or single celibacy, as a state of life or relational vocation, include 54,559 male religious, 705,529 women religious. These are not ordained, nor generally considered ministers unless also engaged in one of the lay minister categories above.[234]

Doctrine

Catholic doctrine has developed over the centuries, reflecting direct teachings of early Christians, formal definitions of heretical and orthodox beliefs by ecumenical councils and in papal bulls, and theological debate by scholars. The church believes that it is continually guided by the Holy Spirit as it discerns new theological issues and is protected infallibly from falling into doctrinal error when a firm decision on an issue is reached.[236][237]

It teaches that revelation has one common source, God, and two distinct modes of transmission: Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition,[238][239] and that these are authentically interpreted by the Magisterium.[240][241] Sacred Scripture consists of the 73 books of the Catholic Bible, consisting of 46 Old Testament and 27 New Testament writings. Sacred Tradition consists of those teachings believed by the church to have been handed down since the time of the Apostles.[242] Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition are collectively known as the "deposit of faith" (depositum fidei in Latin). These are in turn interpreted by the Magisterium (from magister, Latin for "teacher"), the church's teaching authority, which is exercised by the pope and the College of Bishops in union with the pope, the Bishop of Rome.[243] Catholic doctrine is authoritatively summarized in the Catechism of the Catholic Church, published by the Holy See.[244][245]

Nature of God

C. 1210 manuscript version of the traditional Shield of the Trinity theological diagram

The Catholic Church holds that there is one eternal God, who exists as a perichoresis ("mutual indwelling") of three hypostases, or "persons": God the Father; God the Son; and God the Holy Spirit, which together are called the "Holy Trinity".[246]

Catholics believe that Jesus Christ is the "Second Person" of the Trinity, God the Son. In an event known as the Incarnation, through the power of the Holy Spirit, God became united with human nature through the conception of Christ in the womb of the Blessed Virgin Mary. Christ, therefore, is understood as being both fully divine and fully human, including possessing a human soul. It is taught that Christ's mission on earth included giving people his teachings and providing his example for them to follow as recorded in the four Gospels.[247] Jesus is believed to have remained sinless while on earth, and to have allowed himself to be unjustly executed by crucifixion, as a sacrifice of himself to reconcile humanity to God; this reconciliation is known as the Paschal Mystery.[248] The Greek term "Christ" and the Hebrew "Messiah" both mean "anointed one", referring to the Christian belief that Jesus' death and resurrection are the fulfilment of the Old Testament's messianic prophecies.[249]

The Catholic Church teaches dogmatically that "the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally from the Father and the Son, not as from two principles but as from one single principle".[250] It holds that the Father, as the "principle without principle", is the first origin of the Spirit, but also that he, as Father of the only Son, is with the Son the single principle from which the Spirit proceeds.[251] This belief is expressed in the Filioque clause which was added to the Latin version of the Nicene Creed of 381 but not included in the Greek versions of the creed used in Eastern Christianity.[252]

Nature of the church

The Catholic Church teaches that it is the "one true church",[10][253] "the universal sacrament of salvation for the human race",[254][255] and "the one true religion".[256] According to the Catechism, the Catholic Church is further described in the Nicene Creed as the "one, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church".[257] These are collectively known as the Four Marks of the Church. The church teaches that its founder is Jesus Christ.[258][36] The New Testament records several events considered integral to the establishment of the Catholic Church, including Jesus' activities and teaching and his appointment of the apostles as witnesses to his ministry, suffering, and resurrection. The Great Commission, after his resurrection, instructed the apostles to continue his work. The coming of the Holy Spirit upon the apostles, in an event known as Pentecost, is seen as the beginning of the public ministry of the Catholic Church.[39] The church teaches that all duly consecrated bishops have a lineal succession from the apostles of Christ, known as apostolic succession.[259] In particular, the Bishop of Rome (the pope) is considered the successor to the apostle Simon Peter, a position from which he derives his supremacy over the church.[260]

Catholic belief holds that the church "is the continuing presence of Jesus on earth"[261] and that it alone possesses the full means of salvation.[262] Through the passion (suffering) of Christ leading to his crucifixion as described in the Gospels, it is said Christ made himself an oblation to God the Father in order to reconcile humanity to God;[263] the Resurrection of Jesus makes him the firstborn from the dead, the first among many brethren.[264] By reconciling with God and following Christ's words and deeds, an individual can enter the Kingdom of God.[265] The church sees its liturgy and sacraments as perpetuating the graces achieved through Christ's sacrifice to strengthen a person's relationship with Christ and aid in overcoming sin.[266]

Final judgement

The Catholic Church teaches that, immediately after death, the soul of each person will receive a particular judgement from God, based on their sins and their relationship to Christ.[267][268] This teaching also attests to another day when Christ will sit in universal judgement of all mankind. This final judgement, according to the church's teaching, will bring an end to human history and mark the beginning of both a new and better heaven and earth ruled by God in righteousness.[269]

Depending on the judgement rendered following death, it is believed that a soul may enter one of three states of the afterlife:

  • Heaven is a state of unending union with the divine nature of God, not ontologically, but by grace. It is an eternal life, in which the soul contemplates God in ceaseless beatitude.[270]
  • Purgatory is a temporary condition for the purification of souls who, although destined for Heaven, are not fully detached from sin and thus cannot enter Heaven immediately.[271] In Purgatory, the soul suffers, and is purged and perfected. Souls in purgatory may be aided in reaching heaven by the prayers of the faithful on earth and by the intercession of saints.[272]
  • Final Damnation: Finally, those who persist in living in a state of mortal sin and do not repent before death subject themselves to hell, an everlasting separation from God.[273] The church teaches that no one is condemned to hell without having freely decided to reject God.[274] No one is predestined to hell and no one can determine with absolute certainty who has been condemned to hell.[275] Catholicism teaches that through God's mercy a person can repent at any point before death, be illuminated with the truth of the Catholic faith, and thus obtain salvation.[276] Some Catholic theologians have speculated that the souls of unbaptised infants and non-Christians without mortal sin but who die in original sin are assigned to limbo, although this is not an official dogma of the church.[277]

While the Catholic Church teaches that it alone possesses the full means of salvation,[262] it also acknowledges that the Holy Spirit can make use of Christian communities separated from itself to "impel towards Catholic unity"[278] and "tend and lead toward the Catholic Church",[278] and thus bring people to salvation, because these separated communities contain some elements of proper doctrine, albeit admixed with errors. It teaches that anyone who is saved is saved through the Catholic Church but that people can be saved outside of the ordinary means known as baptism of desire, and by pre-baptismal martyrdom, known as baptism of blood, as well as when conditions of invincible ignorance are present, although invincible ignorance in itself is not a means of salvation.[279]

Saints and devotions

A saint (also historically known as a hallow) is a person who is recognised as having an exceptional degree of holiness or likeness or closeness to God, while canonization is the act by which a Christian church declares that a person who has died was a saint, upon which declaration the person is included in the "canon", or list, of recognised saints.[280][281] The first persons honoured as saints were the martyrs. Pious legends of their deaths were considered affirmations of the truth of their faith in Christ. By the fourth century, however, "confessors"—people who had confessed their faith not by dying but by word and life—began to be venerated publicly.

In the Catholic Church, both in Latin and Eastern Catholic churches, the act of canonization is reserved to the Apostolic See and occurs at the conclusion of a long process requiring extensive proof that the candidate for canonization lived and died in such an exemplary and holy way that he is worthy to be recognised as a saint. The church's official recognition of sanctity implies that the person is now in Heaven and that he may be publicly invoked and mentioned officially in the liturgy of the church, including in the Litany of the Saints. Canonization allows universal veneration of the saint in the liturgy of the Roman Rite; for permission to venerate merely locally, only beatification is needed.[282]

Devotions are "external practices of piety" which are not part of the official liturgy of the Catholic Church but are part of the popular spiritual practices of Catholics.[283] These include various practices regarding the veneration of the saints, especially veneration of the Virgin Mary. Other devotional practices include the Stations of the Cross, the Sacred Heart of Jesus, the Holy Face of Jesus,[284] the various scapulars, novenas to various saints,[285] pilgrimages[286] and devotions to the Blessed Sacrament,[285] and the veneration of saintly images such as the santos.[287] The bishops at the Second Vatican Council reminded Catholics that "devotions should be so drawn up that they harmonise with the liturgical seasons, accord with the sacred liturgy, are in some fashion derived from it, and lead the people to it, since, in fact, the liturgy by its very nature far surpasses any of them."[288]

Virgin Mary

The Blessed Virgin Mary is highly regarded in the Catholic Church, proclaiming her as Mother of God, free from original sin and an intercessor.

Catholic Mariology deals with the doctrines and teachings concerning the life of the Mary, mother of Jesus, as well as the veneration of Mary by the faithful. Mary is held in special regard, declared the Mother of God (Greek: Θεοτόκος, romanized: Theotokos, lit. 'God-bearer'), and believed as dogma to have remained a virgin throughout her life.[289] Further teachings include the doctrines of the Immaculate Conception (her own conception without the stain of original sin) and the Assumption of Mary (that her body was assumed directly into heaven at the end of her life). Both of these doctrines were defined as infallible dogma, by Pope Pius IX in 1854 and Pope Pius XII in 1950 respectively,[290] but only after consulting with the Catholic bishops throughout the world to ascertain that this is a Catholic belief.[291]

Devotions to Mary are part of Catholic piety but are distinct from the worship of God.[292] Practices include prayers and Marian art, music, and architecture. Several liturgical Marian feasts are celebrated throughout the Church Year and she is honoured with many titles such as Queen of Heaven. Pope Paul VI called her Mother of the Church because, by giving birth to Christ, she is considered to be the spiritual mother to each member of the Body of Christ.[290] Because of her influential role in the life of Jesus, prayers and devotions such as the Hail Mary, the Rosary, the Salve Regina and the Memorare are common Catholic practices.[293] Pilgrimage to the sites of several Marian apparitions affirmed by the church, such as Lourdes, Fátima, and Guadalupe,[294] are also popular Catholic devotions.[295]

Sacraments

Mass at the Grotto at Lourdes, France. The chalice is displayed to the people immediately after the consecration of the wine.

The Catholic Church teaches that it was entrusted with seven sacraments that were instituted by Christ. The number and nature of the sacraments were defined by several ecumenical councils, most recently the Council of Trent.[296][note 10] These are Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, Penance, Anointing of the Sick (formerly called Extreme Unction, one of the "Last Rites"), Holy Orders and Holy Matrimony. Sacraments are visible rituals that Catholics see as signs of God's presence and effective channels of God's grace to all those who receive them with the proper disposition (ex opere operato).[297] The Catechism of the Catholic Church categorizes the sacraments into three groups, the "sacraments of Christian initiation", "sacraments of healing" and "sacraments at the service of communion and the mission of the faithful". These groups broadly reflect the stages of people's natural and spiritual lives which each sacrament is intended to serve.[298]

The liturgies of the sacraments are central to the church's mission. According to the Catechism:

In the liturgy of the New Covenant every liturgical action, especially the celebration of the Eucharist and the sacraments, is an encounter between Christ and the Church. The liturgical assembly derives its unity from the "communion of the Holy Spirit" who gathers the children of God into the one Body of Christ. This assembly transcends racial, cultural, social—indeed, all human affinities.[299]

According to church doctrine, the sacraments of the church require the proper form, matter, and intent to be validly celebrated.[300] In addition, the Canon Laws for both the Latin Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches govern who may licitly celebrate certain sacraments, as well as strict rules about who may receive the sacraments.[301] Notably, because the church teaches that Christ is present in the Eucharist,[302] those who are conscious of being in a state of mortal sin are forbidden to receive the sacrament until they have received absolution through the sacrament of Reconciliation (Penance).[303] Catholics are normally obliged to abstain from eating for at least an hour before receiving the sacrament.[303] Non-Catholics are ordinarily prohibited from receiving the Eucharist as well.[301][304]

Catholics, even if they were in danger of death and unable to approach a Catholic minister, may not ask for the sacraments of the Eucharist, penance or anointing of the sick from someone, such as a Protestant minister, who is not known to be validly ordained in line with Catholic teaching on ordination.[305][306] Likewise, even in grave and pressing need, Catholic ministers may not administer these sacraments to those who do not manifest Catholic faith in the sacrament. In relation to the churches of Eastern Christianity not in communion with the Holy See, the Catholic Church is less restrictive, declaring that "a certain communion in sacris, and so in the Eucharist, given suitable circumstances and the approval of Church authority, is not merely possible but is encouraged."[307]

Sacraments of initiation

Baptism

Baptism of Augustine of Hippo as represented in a sculptural group in Troyes Cathedral (1549), France

As viewed by the Catholic Church, Baptism is the first of three sacraments of initiation as a Christian.[308] It washes away all sins, both original sin and personal actual sins.[309] It makes a person a member of the church.[310] As a gratuitous gift of God that requires no merit on the part of the person who is baptised, it is conferred even on children,[311] who, though they have no personal sins, need it on account of original sin.[312] If a new-born child is in a danger of death, anyone—be it a doctor, a nurse, or a parent—may baptise the child.[313] Baptism marks a person permanently and cannot be repeated.[314] The Catholic Church recognises as valid baptisms conferred even by people who are not Catholics or Christians, provided that they intend to baptise ("to do what the Church does when she baptises") and that they use the Trinitarian baptismal formula.[315]

Confirmation

The Catholic Church sees the sacrament of confirmation as required to complete the grace given in baptism.[316] When adults are baptised, confirmation is normally given immediately afterwards,[317] a practice followed even with newly baptised infants in the Eastern Catholic Churches.[318] In the West confirmation of children is delayed until they are old enough to understand or at the bishop's discretion.[319] In Western Christianity, particularly Catholicism, the sacrament is called confirmation, because it confirms and strengthens the grace of baptism; in the Eastern Churches, it is called chrismation, because the essential rite is the anointing of the person with chrism,[320] a mixture of olive oil and some perfumed substance, usually balsam, blessed by a bishop.[320][321] Those who receive confirmation must be in a state of grace, which for those who have reached the age of reason means that they should first be cleansed spiritually by the sacrament of Penance; they should also have the intention of receiving the sacrament, and be prepared to show in their lives that they are Christians.[322]

Eucharist

Pope Benedict XVI celebrates the Eucharist at the canonization of Frei Galvão in São Paulo, Brazil on 11 May 2007

For Catholics, the Eucharist is the sacrament which completes Christian initiation. It is described as "the source and summit of the Christian life".[323] The ceremony in which a Catholic first receives the Eucharist is known as First Communion.[324]

The Eucharistic celebration, also called the Mass or Divine liturgy, includes prayers and scriptural readings, as well as an offering of bread and wine, which are brought to the altar and consecrated by the priest to become the body and the blood of Jesus Christ, a change called transubstantiation.[325][note 11] The words of consecration reflect the words spoken by Jesus during the Last Supper, where Christ offered his body and blood to his Apostles the night before his crucifixion. The sacrament re-presents (makes present) the sacrifice of Jesus on the cross,[326] and perpetuates it. Christ's death and resurrection gives grace through the sacrament that unites the faithful with Christ and one another, remits venial sin, and aids against committing moral sin (though mortal sin itself is forgiven through the sacrament of penance).[327]

A Catholic believer prays in a church in Mexico

Sacraments of healing

The two sacraments of healing are the Sacrament of Penance and Anointing of the Sick.

Penance

The Sacrament of Penance (also called Reconciliation, Forgiveness, Confession, and Conversion[328]) exists for the conversion of those who, after baptism, separate themselves from Christ by sin.[329] Essential to this sacrament are acts both by the sinner (examination of conscience, contrition with a determination not to sin again, confession to a priest, and performance of some act to repair the damage caused by sin) and by the priest (determination of the act of reparation to be performed and absolution).[330] Serious sins (mortal sins) should be confessed at least once a year and always before receiving Holy Communion, while confession of venial sins also is recommended.[331] The priest is bound under the severest penalties to maintain the "seal of confession", absolute secrecy about any sins revealed to him in confession.[332]

Anointing of the sick

The Seven Sacraments Altarpiece triptych painting of Extreme Unction (Anointing of the Sick) with oil being administered by a priest during last rites. Rogier van der Weyden, c. 1445.

While chrism is used only for the three sacraments that cannot be repeated, a different oil is used by a priest or bishop to bless a Catholic who, because of illness or old age, has begun to be in danger of death.[333] This sacrament, known as Anointing of the Sick, is believed to give comfort, peace, courage and, if the sick person is unable to make a confession, even forgiveness of sins.[334]

The sacrament is also referred to as Unction, and in the past as Extreme Unction, and it is one of the three sacraments that constitute the last rites, together with Penance and Viaticum (Eucharist).[335]

Sacraments at the service of communion

According to the Catechism, there are two sacraments of communion directed towards the salvation of others: priesthood and marriage.[336] Within the general vocation to be a Christian, these two sacraments "consecrate to specific mission or vocation among the people of God. Men receive the holy orders to feed the Church by the word and grace. Spouses marry so that their love may be fortified to fulfil duties of their state".[337]

Holy Orders

Priests lay their hands on the ordinands during the rite of ordination.

The sacrament of Holy Orders consecrates and deputes some Christians to serve the whole body as members of three degrees or orders: episcopate (bishops), presbyterate (priests) and diaconate (deacons).[338][339] The church has defined rules on who may be ordained into the clergy. In the Latin Church, the priesthood is generally restricted to celibate men, and the episcopate is always restricted to celibate men.[340] Men who are already married may be ordained in certain Eastern Catholic churches in most countries,[341] and the personal ordinariates and may become deacons even in the Western Church[342][343] (see Clerical marriage). But after becoming a Catholic priest, a man may not marry (see Clerical celibacy) unless he is formally laicized.

All clergy, whether deacons, priests or bishops, may preach, teach, baptise, witness marriages and conduct funeral liturgies.[344] Only bishops and priests can administer the sacraments of the Eucharist, Reconciliation (Penance) and Anointing of the Sick.[345][346] Only bishops can administer the sacrament of Holy Orders, which ordains someone into the clergy.[347]

Matrimony

Wedding mass in the Philippines

The Catholic Church teaches that marriage is a social and spiritual bond between a man and a woman, ordered towards the good of the spouses and procreation of children; according to Catholic teachings on sexual morality, it is the only appropriate context for sexual activity. A Catholic marriage, or any marriage between baptised individuals of any Christian denomination, is viewed as a sacrament. A sacramental marriage, once consummated, cannot be dissolved except by death.[348][note 12] The church recognises certain conditions, such as freedom of consent, as required for any marriage to be valid; In addition, the church sets specific rules and norms, known as canonical form, that Catholics must follow.[351]

The church does not recognise divorce as ending a valid marriage and allows state-recognised divorce only as a means of protecting the property and well-being of the spouses and any children. However, consideration of particular cases by the competent ecclesiastical tribunal can lead to declaration of the invalidity of a marriage, a declaration usually referred to as an annulment.[352] Remarriage following a divorce is not permitted unless the prior marriage was declared invalid.[352]

Liturgy

Catholic religious objects – Holy Bible, crucifix and rosary

Among the 24 autonomous (sui iuris) churches, numerous liturgical and other traditions exist, called rites, which reflect historical and cultural diversity rather than differences in belief.[353] In the definition of the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches, "a rite is the liturgical, theological, spiritual, and disciplinary patrimony, culture and circumstances of history of a distinct people, by which its own manner of living the faith is manifested in each Church sui iuris".[354]

The liturgy of the sacrament of the Eucharist, called the Mass in the West and Divine Liturgy or other names in the East, is the principal liturgy of the Catholic Church.[355] This is because it is considered the propitiatory sacrifice of Christ himself.[356] Its most widely used form is that of the Roman Rite as promulgated by Paul VI in 1969 and revised by Pope John Paul II in 2002. In certain circumstances, the 1962 form of the Roman Rite remains authorized in the Latin Church. Eastern Catholic Churches have their own rites. The liturgies of the Eucharist and the other sacraments vary from rite to rite, reflecting different theological emphases.

Western rites

The Roman Rite is the most common rite of worship used by the Catholic Church. Its use is found worldwide, originating in Rome and spreading throughout Europe, influencing and eventually supplanting local rites.[357] The present ordinary form of Mass in the Roman Rite, found in the post-1969 editions of the Roman Missal, is usually celebrated in the local vernacular language, using an officially approved translation from the original text in Latin. An outline of its major liturgical elements can be found in the sidebar.

Elevation of the chalice before an altar after the consecration during a Solemn Mass of Tridentine Mass

In 2007, Pope Benedict XVI affirmed the licitness of continued use of the 1962 Roman Missal as an "extraordinary form" (forma extraordinaria) of the Roman Rite, speaking of it also as an usus antiquior ("older use"), and issuing new more permissive norms for its employment.[358] An instruction issued four years later spoke of the two forms or usages of the Roman Rite approved by the pope as the ordinary form and the extraordinary form ("the forma ordinaria" and "the forma extraordinaria").[359]

The 1962 edition of the Roman Missal, published a few months before the Second Vatican Council opened, was the last that presented the Mass as standardized in 1570 by Pope Pius V at the request of the Council of Trent and that is therefore known as the Tridentine Mass.[302] Pope Pius V's Roman Missal was subjected to minor revisions by Pope Clement VIII in 1604, Pope Urban VIII in 1634, Pope Pius X in 1911, Pope Pius XII in 1955, and Pope John XXIII in 1962. Each successive edition was the ordinary form of the Roman Rite Mass until superseded by a later edition. When the 1962 edition was superseded by that of Paul VI, promulgated in 1969, its continued use at first required permission from bishops;[360] but Pope Benedict XVI's 2007 motu proprio Summorum Pontificum allowed free use of it for Mass celebrated without a congregation and authorized parish priests to permit, under certain conditions, its use even at public Masses. Except for the scriptural readings, which Pope Benedict allowed to be proclaimed in the vernacular language, it is celebrated exclusively in liturgical Latin.[361]

Since 2014, clergy in the small personal ordinariates set up for groups of former Anglicans under the terms of the 2009 document Anglicanorum Coetibus[362] are permitted to use a variation of the Roman Rite called "Divine Worship" or, less formally, "Ordinariate Use",[363] which incorporates elements of the Anglican liturgy and traditions,[note 13] an accommodation protested by Anglican leaders.

In the Archdiocese of Milan, with around five million Catholics the largest in Europe,[364] Mass is celebrated according to the Ambrosian Rite. Other Latin Church rites include the Mozarabic[365] and those of some religious institutes.[366] These liturgical rites have an antiquity of at least 200 years before 1570, the date of Pope Pius V's Quo primum, and were thus allowed to continue.[367]

Eastern rites

East Syrian Rite wedding crowning celebrated by a bishop of the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church in India, one of the 23 Eastern Catholic Churches in full communion with the pope and the Catholic Church.

The Eastern Catholic Churches share common patrimony and liturgical rites as their counterparts, including Eastern Orthodox and other Eastern Christian churches who are no longer in communion with the Holy See. These include churches that historically developed in Russia, Caucasus, the Balkans, North Eastern Africa, India and the Middle East. The Eastern Catholic Churches are groups of faithful who have either never been out of communion with the Holy See or who have restored communion with it at the cost of breaking communion with their associates of the same tradition.[368]

The rites used by the Eastern Catholic Churches include the Byzantine Rite, in its Antiochian, Greek and Slavonic varieties; the Alexandrian Rite; the Syriac Rite; the Armenian Rite; the Maronite Rite and the Chaldean Rite. Eastern Catholic Churches have the autonomy to set the particulars of their liturgical forms and worship, within certain limits to protect the "accurate observance" of their liturgical tradition.[369] In the past some of the rites used by the Eastern Catholic Churches were subject to a degree of liturgical Latinization. However, in recent years Eastern Catholic Churches have returned to traditional Eastern practices in accord with the Vatican II decree Orientalium Ecclesiarum.[370] Each church has its own liturgical calendar.[371]

Social and cultural issues

Catholic social teaching

Catholic social teaching, reflecting the concern Jesus showed for the impoverished, places a heavy emphasis on the corporal works of mercy and the spiritual works of mercy, namely the support and concern for the sick, the poor and the afflicted.[372][373] Church teaching calls for a preferential option for the poor while canon law prescribes that "The Christian faithful are also obliged to promote social justice and, mindful of the precept of the Lord, to assist the poor."[374] Its foundations are widely considered to have been laid by Pope Leo XIII's 1891 encyclical letter Rerum novarum which upholds the rights and dignity of labour and the right of workers to form unions.

Catholic teaching regarding sexuality calls for a practice of chastity, with a focus on maintaining the spiritual and bodily integrity of the human person. Marriage is considered the only appropriate context for sexual activity.[375] Church teachings about sexuality have become an issue of increasing controversy, especially after the close of the Second Vatican Council, due to changing cultural attitudes in the Western world described as the sexual revolution.

The church has also addressed stewardship of the natural environment, and its relationship to other social and theological teachings. In the document Laudato si', dated 24 May 2015, Pope Francis critiques consumerism and irresponsible development, and laments environmental degradation and global warming.[376] The pope expressed concern that the warming of the planet is a symptom of a greater problem: the developed world's indifference to the destruction of the planet as humans pursue short-term economic gains.[377]

Social services

Saint Teresa of Calcutta advocated for the sick, the poor and the needy by practicing the acts of corporal works of mercy.

The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world.[20] In 2010, the Catholic Church's Pontifical Council for Pastoral Assistance to Health Care Workers said that the church manages 26% of health care facilities in the world, including hospitals, clinics, orphanages, pharmacies and centres for those with leprosy.[378]

The church has always been involved in education, since the founding of the first universities of Europe. It runs and sponsors thousands of primary and secondary schools, colleges and universities throughout the world[379][380] and operates the world's largest non-governmental school system.[381]

Religious institutes for women have played a particularly prominent role in the provision of health and education services,[382] as with orders such as the Sisters of Mercy, Little Sisters of the Poor, the Missionaries of Charity, the Sisters of St. Joseph of the Sacred Heart, the Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament and the Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul.[383] The Catholic nun Mother Teresa of Calcutta, India, founder of the Missionaries of Charity, was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979 for her humanitarian work among India's poor.[384] Bishop Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo won the same award in 1996 for "work towards a just and peaceful solution to the conflict in East Timor".[385]

The church is also actively engaged in international aid and development through organizations such as Catholic Relief Services, Caritas International, Aid to the Church in Need, refugee advocacy groups such as the Jesuit Refugee Service and community aid groups such as the Saint Vincent de Paul Society.[386]

Sexual morality

Allegory of chastity by Hans Memling

The Catholic Church calls all members to practise chastity according to their state in life. Chastity includes temperance, self-mastery, personal and cultural growth, and divine grace. It requires refraining from lust, masturbation, fornication, pornography, prostitution and, especially, rape. Chastity for those who are not married requires living in continence, abstaining from sexual activity; those who are married are called to conjugal chastity.[387]

In the church's teaching, sexual activity is reserved to married couples, whether in a sacramental marriage among Christians or in a natural marriage where one or both spouses are unbaptised. Even in romantic relationships, particularly engagement to marriage, partners are called to practise continence, in order to test mutual respect and fidelity.[388] Chastity in marriage requires in particular conjugal fidelity and protecting the fecundity of marriage. The couple must foster trust and honesty as well as spiritual and physical intimacy. Sexual activity must always be open to the possibility of life;[389] the church calls this the procreative significance. It must likewise always bring a couple together in love; the church calls this the unitive significance.[390]

Contraception and certain other sexual practices are not permitted, although natural family planning methods are permitted to provide healthy spacing between births, or to postpone children for a just reason.[391] Pope Francis said in 2015 that he is worried that the church has grown "obsessed" with issues such as abortion, same-sex marriage and contraception and has criticized the Catholic Church for placing dogma before love, and for prioritizing moral doctrines over helping the poor and marginalized.[392][393]

Divorce and declarations of nullity

Canon law makes no provision for divorce between baptised individuals, as a valid, consummated sacramental marriage is considered to be a lifelong bond.[394] However, a declaration of nullity may be granted when the proof is produced that essential conditions for contracting a valid marriage were absent from the beginning—in other words, that the marriage was not valid due to some impediment. A declaration of nullity, commonly called an annulment, is a judgement on the part of an ecclesiastical tribunal determining that a marriage was invalidly attempted.[395] In addition, marriages among unbaptised individuals may be dissolved with papal permission under certain situations, such as a desire to marry a Catholic, under Pauline or Petrine privilege.[349][350] An attempt at remarriage following divorce without a declaration of nullity places "the remarried spouse ... in a situation of public and permanent adultery". An innocent spouse who lives in continence following divorce, or couples who live in continence following a civil divorce for a grave cause, do not sin.[396]

Worldwide, diocesan tribunals completed over 49000 cases for nullity of marriage in 2006. Over the past 30 years about 55 to 70% of annulments have occurred in the United States. The growth in annulments has been substantial; in the United States, 27,000 marriages were annulled in 2006, compared to 338 in 1968. However, approximately 200,000 married Catholics in the United States divorce each year; 10 million total as of 2006.[397][note 14] Divorce is increasing in some predominantly Catholic countries in Europe.[399] In some predominantly Catholic countries, it is only in recent years that divorce was introduced (e.g. Italy (1970), Portugal (1975), Brazil (1977), Spain (1981), Ireland (1996), Chile (2004) and Malta (2011), while the Philippines and the Vatican City have no procedure for divorce. (The Philippines does, however, allow divorce for Muslims.)

Contraception

Pope Paul VI issued Humanae vitae on 25 July 1968.

The church teaches that sexual intercourse should only take place between a man and woman who are married to each other, and should be without the use of birth control or contraception. In his encyclical Humanae vitae[400] (1968), Pope Paul VI firmly rejected all contraception, thus contradicting dissenters in the church that saw the birth control pill as an ethically justifiable method of contraception, though he permitted the regulation of births by means of natural family planning. This teaching was continued especially by John Paul II in his encyclical Evangelium Vitae, where he clarified the church's position on contraception, abortion and euthanasia by condemning them as part of a "culture of death" and calling instead for a "culture of life".[401]

Many Western Catholics have voiced significant disagreement with the church's teaching on contraception.[402] Catholics for Choice, a political lobbyist group which is not associated with the Catholic Church, stated in 1998 that 96% of U.S. Catholic women had used contraceptives at some point in their lives and that 72% of Catholics believed that one could be a good Catholic without obeying the church's teaching on birth control.[403] Use of natural family planning methods among United States Catholics purportedly is low, although the number cannot be known with certainty.[note 15] As Catholic health providers are among the largest providers of services to patients with HIV/AIDS worldwide, there is significant controversy within and outside the church regarding the use of condoms as a means of limiting new infections, as condom use ordinarily constitutes prohibited contraceptive use.[406]

Similarly, the Catholic Church opposes in vitro fertilization (IVF), saying that the artificial process replaces the love between a husband and wife.[407] In addition, it opposes IVF because it might cause disposal of embryos; Catholics believe an embryo is an individual with a soul who must be treated as such.[408] For this reason, the church also opposes abortion.[409]

Homosexuality

The Catholic Church also teaches that "homosexual acts" are "contrary to the natural law", "acts of grave depravity" and "under no circumstances can they be approved", but that persons experiencing homosexual tendencies must be accorded respect and dignity.[410] According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church,

The number of men and women who have deep-seated homosexual tendencies is not negligible. This inclination, which is objectively disordered, constitutes for most of them a trial. They must be accepted with respect, compassion, and sensitivity. Every sign of unjust discrimination in their regard should be avoided. ... Homosexual persons are called to chastity. By the virtues of self-mastery that teach them inner freedom, at times by the support of disinterested friendship, by prayer and sacramental grace, they can and should gradually and resolutely approach Christian perfection.[411]

This part of the Catechism was quoted by Pope Francis in a 2013 press interview in which he remarked, when asked about an individual:

I think that when you encounter a person like this [the individual he was asked about], you must make a distinction between the fact of a person being gay from the fact of being a lobby, because lobbies, all are not good. That is bad. If a person is gay and seeks the Lord and has good will, well who am I to judge them?[412]

This remark and others made in the same interview were seen as a change in the tone, but not in the substance of the teaching of the church,[413] which includes opposition to same-sex marriage.[414] Certain dissenting Catholic groups oppose the position of the Catholic Church and seek to change it.[415]

Holy orders and women

Women and men religious engage in a variety of occupations, from contemplative prayer, to teaching, to providing health care, to working as missionaries.[382][416] While Holy Orders are reserved for men, Catholic women have played diverse roles in the life of the church, with religious institutes providing a formal space for their participation and convents providing spaces for their self-government, prayer and influence through many centuries. Religious sisters and nuns have been extensively involved in developing and running the church's worldwide health and education service networks.[417]

Efforts in support of the ordination of women to the priesthood led to several rulings by the Roman Curia or popes against the proposal, as in Declaration on the Question of the Admission of Women to the Ministerial Priesthood (1976), Mulieris Dignitatem (1988) and Ordinatio sacerdotalis (1994). According to the latest ruling, found in Ordinatio sacerdotalis, Pope John Paul II affirmed that the Catholic Church "does not consider herself authorized to admit women to priestly ordination".[418] In defiance of these rulings, opposition groups such as Roman Catholic Womenpriests have performed ceremonies they affirm as sacramental ordinations (with, reputedly, an ordaining male Catholic bishop in the first few instances) which, according to canon law, are both illicit and invalid and considered mere simulations[419] of the sacrament of ordination.[420][note 16] The Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith responded by issuing a statement clarifying that any Catholic bishops involved in ordination ceremonies for women, as well as the women themselves if they were Catholic, would automatically receive the penalty of excommunication (latae sententiae, literally "with the sentence already applied", i.e. automatically), citing canon 1378 of canon law and other church laws.[421]

Sexual abuse cases

From the 1990s, the issue of sexual abuse of minors by Catholic clergy and other church members has become the subject of civil litigation, criminal prosecution, media coverage and public debate in countries around the world. The Catholic Church has been criticized for its handling of abuse complaints when it became known that some bishops had shielded accused priests, transferring them to other pastoral assignments where some continued to commit sexual offences.

In response to the scandal, formal procedures have been established to help prevent abuse, encourage the reporting of any abuse that occurs and to handle such reports promptly, although groups representing victims have disputed their effectiveness.[422] In 2014, Pope Francis instituted the Pontifical Commission for the Protection of Minors for the safeguarding of minors.[423]

See also

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  • Anti-Catholicism
  • Catechism of the Catholic Church
  • Catholic Church by country
  • Catholic spirituality
  • Glossary of the Catholic Church
  • List of Catholic religious institutes
  • Lists of Catholics
  • Role of Christianity in civilization

Notes

  1. ^ While the Catholic Church considers itself to be the authentic continuation of the Christian community founded by Jesus Christ, it teaches that other Christian churches and communities can be in an imperfect communion with the Catholic Church.[12][13]
  2. ^ Quote of St Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans (c. 110 AD): "Wheresoever the bishop shall appear, there let the people be, even as where Jesus may be, there is the universal [katholike] Church."[24]
  3. ^ Examples uses of "Roman Catholic" by the Holy See: the encyclicals Divini Illius Magistri Archived 23 September 2010 at the Wayback Machine of Pope Pius XI and Humani generis Archived 19 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine of Pope Pius XII; joint declarations signed by Pope Benedict XVI with Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams on 23 November 2006 Archived 2 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine and Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople on 30 November 2006.
  4. ^ Example use of "Roman" Catholic by a bishop's conference: The Baltimore Catechism, an official catechism authorised by the Catholic bishops of the United States, states: "That is why we are called Roman Catholics; to show that we are united to the real successor of St Peter" (Question 118) and refers to the church as the "Roman Catholic Church" under Questions 114 and 131 (Baltimore Catechism).
  5. ^ Joyce, George (1913). "The Pope" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
    Regarding Peter as the first Bishop of Rome, "It is not, however, difficult to show that the fact of his [Peter's] bishopric is so well attested as to be historically certain. In considering this point, it will be well to begin with the third century, when references to it become frequent and work backwards from this point. In the middle of the third century St. Cyprian expressly terms the Roman See the Chair of St. Peter, saying that Cornelius has succeeded to "the place of Fabian which is the place of Peter" (Ep 55:8; cf. 59:14). Firmilian of Caesarea notices that Stephen claimed to decide the controversy regarding rebaptism on the ground that he held the succession from Peter (Cyprian, Ep. 75:17). He does not deny the claim: yet certainly, had he been able, he would have done so. Thus in 250, the Roman episcopate of Peter was admitted by those best able to know the truth, not merely at Rome but in the churches of Africa and of Asia Minor. In the first quarter of the century (about 220) Tertullian (De Pud. 21) mentions Callistus's claim that Peter's power to forgive sins had descended in a special manner to him. Had the Roman Church been merely founded by Peter and not reckoned him as its first bishop, there could have been no ground for such a contention. Tertullian, like Firmilian, had every motive to deny the claim. Moreover, he had himself resided at Rome, and would have been well aware if the idea of a Roman episcopate of Peter had been, as is contended by its opponents, a novelty dating from the first years of the third century, supplanting the older tradition according to which Peter and Paul were co-founders and Linus first bishop. About the same period, Hippolytus (for Lightfoot is surely right in holding him to be the author of the first part of the "Liberian Catalogue" – "Clement of Rome", 1:259) reckons Peter in the list of Roman bishops...."[46]
  6. ^ While ruling contraception to be prohibited, Pope Paul VI did, however, consider natural family planning methods to be morally permissible if used with just cause.
  7. ^ According to Catholic teaching, Jesus Christ is the 'invisible Head' of the Church[179][180][181] while the pope is the 'visible Head'.[182][183]
  8. ^ The last resignation occurred on 28 February 2013, when Pope Benedict XVI retired, citing ill health in his advanced age. The next most recent resignation occurred in 1415, as part of the Council of Constance's resolution of the Avignon Papacy.[191]
  9. ^ In 1992, the Vatican clarified the 1983 Code of Canon Law removed the requirement that altar servers be male; permission to use female altar servers within a diocese is at the discretion of the bishop.[228]
  10. ^ Other councils that addressed the sacraments include the Second Council of Lyon (1274); Council of Florence (1439); as well as the Council of Trent (1547)[296]
  11. ^ For an outline of the Eucharistic liturgy in the Roman Rite, see the side bar in the "Worship and liturgy".
  12. ^ Marriages involving unbaptised individuals are considered valid, but not sacramental. While sacramental marriages are insoluble, non-sacramental marriages may be dissolved under certain situations, such as a desire to marry a Catholic, under Pauline or Petrine privilege.[349][350]
  13. ^ The Divine Worship variant of the Roman Rite differs from the "Anglican Use" variant, which was introduced in 1980 for the few United States parishes established in accordance with a pastoral provision for former members of the Episcopal Church (the American branch of the Anglican Communion). Both uses adapted Anglican liturgical traditions for use within the Catholic Church.
  14. ^ With regard to divorce in the United States, according to the Barna Group, among all who have been married, 33% have been divorced at least once; among American Catholics, 28% (the study did not track religious annulments).[398]
  15. ^ Regarding use of natural family planning, in 2002, 24% of the U.S. population identified as Catholic,[404] but according to a 2002 study by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, of sexually active Americans avoiding pregnancy, only 1.5% were using NFP.[405]
  16. ^ According to Roman Catholic Womanpriests: "The principal consecrating Roman Catholic male bishop who ordained our first women bishops is a bishop with apostolic succession within the Roman Catholic Church in full communion with the pope."[420]

References

  • NOTE: CCC stands for Catechism of the Catholic Church. The number following CCC is the paragraph number, of which there are 2865. The numbers cited in the Compendium of the CCC are question numbers, of which there are 598. Canon law citations from the 1990 Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches are labelled "CCEO, Canon xxx", to distinguish from canons of the 1983 Code of Canon Law, which are labelled "Canon xxx".
  1. ^ Marshall, Thomas William (1844). Notes of the Episcopal Polity of the Holy Catholic Church. London: Levey, Rossen and Franklin. ASIN 1163912190 .
  2. ^ Stanford, Peter. "Roman Catholic Church". BBC Religions. BBC. Retrieved 1 February 2017.
  3. ^ Bokenkotter, 2004, p. 18
  4. ^ a b c d e "Pubblicazione dell'Annuario Pontificio e dell'Annuario Statistico della Chiesa, 25.03.2020" (in Italian). Holy See Press Office. 25 March 2020. Archived from the original on 12 May 2020. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
  5. ^ Calderisi, Robert. Earthly Mission - The Catholic Church and World Development; TJ International Ltd; 2013; p.40
  6. ^ "Laudato Si". Vermont Catholic. 8 (4, 2016–2017, Winter): 73. Retrieved 19 December 2016.
  7. ^ Mark A. Noll. The New Shape of World Christianity (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2009), 191.
  8. ^ a b O'Collins, p. v (preface).
  9. ^ "Lumen gentium". www.vatican.va. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
  10. ^ a b c "Vatican congregation reaffirms truth, oneness of Catholic Church". Catholic News Service. Archived from the original on 10 July 2007. Retrieved 17 March 2012.
  11. ^ Bokenkotter, Thomas (2004). A Concise History of the Catholic Church. New York: Doubleday. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-307-42348-1.
  12. ^ "Responses to Some Questions regarding Certain Aspects of the Doctrine of the Church". Vatican.va. Archived from the original on 13 August 2013. It is possible, according to Catholic doctrine, to affirm correctly that the Church of Christ is present and operative in the churches and ecclesial Communities not yet fully in communion with the Catholic Church, on account of the elements of sanctification and truth that are present in them.
  13. ^ "Declaration on the Unicity and Salvific Universality of Jesus Christ and the Church Dominus Iesus § 17". Vatican.va. Therefore, there exists a single Church of Christ, which subsists in the Catholic Church, governed by the Successor of Peter and by the Bishops in communion with him. The Churches which, while not existing in perfect Koinonia with the Catholic Church, remain united to her by means of the closest bonds, that is, by apostolic succession and a valid Eucharist, are true particular Churches. Therefore, the Church of Christ is present and operative also in these Churches, even though they lack full communion with the Catholic Church since they do not accept the Catholic doctrine of the Primacy, which, according to the will of God, the Bishop of Rome objectively has and exercises over the entire Church. ... 'The Christian faithful are therefore not permitted to imagine that the Church of Christ is nothing more than a collection—divided, yet in some way one—of Churches and ecclesial communities; nor are they free to hold that today the Church of Christ nowhere really exists, and must be considered only as a goal which all Churches and ecclesial communities must strive to reach.'
  14. ^ Holy Bible: Matthew 16:19
  15. ^ "CCC, 890". Vatican.va.
  16. ^ "CCC, 835". Vatican.va. The rich variety of ... theological and spiritual heritages proper to the local churches 'unified in a common effort shows all the more resplendently the catholicity of the undivided Church'.(cf. Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Constitution on the Church Lumen gentium, 23)
  17. ^ Colin Gunton. "Christianity among the Religions in the Encyclopedia of Religion", Religious Studies, Vol. 24, number 1, page 14. In a review of an article from the Encyclopedia of Religion, Gunton writes: "[T]he article [on Catholicism in the encyclopedia] rightly suggests caution, suggesting at the outset that Roman Catholicism is marked by several different doctrinal, theological and liturgical emphases."
  18. ^ CCC, 1322–1327, Vatican.va: "the Eucharist is the sum and summary of our faith"
  19. ^ "The Four Marian Dogmas". Catholic News Agency. Retrieved 25 March 2017.
  20. ^ a b c Agnew, John (12 February 2010). "Deus Vult: The Geopolitics of Catholic Church". Geopolitics. 15 (1): 39–61. doi:10.1080/14650040903420388. S2CID 144793259.
  21. ^ John Meyendorff, Catholicity and the Church, St Vladimirs Seminary Press, 1997, ISBN 0-88141-006-3, p. 7
  22. ^ Elwell, Walter; Comfort, Philip Wesley (2001), Tyndale Bible Dictionary, Tyndale House Publishers, pp. 266, 828, ISBN 0-8423-7089-7
  23. ^ MacCulloch, Christianity, p. 127.
  24. ^ a b Thurston, Herbert (1908). "Catholic". In Knight, Kevin (ed.). The Catholic Encyclopedia. 3. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
  25. ^ "Cyril of Jerusalem, Lecture XVIII, 26". Tertullian.org. 6 August 2004. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
  26. ^ Edictum de fide catholica
  27. ^ "Eastern Orthodoxy", Encyclopædia Britannica online.
  28. ^ "catholic, adj. and n." Oxford English Dictionary Online. Oxford University Press, June 2014. Web. 7 August 2014. Excerpt: "After the separation of East and West 'Catholic' was assumed as its descriptive epithet by the Western or Latin Church, as 'Orthodox' was by the Eastern or Greek. At the Reformation, the term 'Catholic' was claimed as its exclusive right by the body remaining under the Roman obedience, in opposition to the 'Protestant' or 'Reformed' National Churches. These, however, also retained the term, giving it, for the most part, a wider and more ideal or absolute sense, as the attribute of no single community, but only of the whole communion of the saved and saintly in all churches and ages. In England, it was claimed that the Church, even as Reformed, was the national branch of the 'Catholic Church' in its proper historical sense." Note: The full text of the OED definition of "catholic" can be consulted here.
  29. ^ McBrien, Richard (2008). The Church. Harper Collins. p. xvii. Online version available Browseinside.harpercollins.com Archived 27 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Quote: "[T]he use of the adjective 'Catholic' as a modifier of 'Church' became divisive only after the East–West Schism... and the Protestant Reformation. ... In the former case, the Western Church claimed for itself the title Catholic Church, while the East appropriated the name Orthodox Church. In the latter case, those in communion with the Bishop of Rome retained the adjective "Catholic", while the churches that broke with the Papacy were called Protestant."
  30. ^ "Roman Catholic, n. and adj". Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved 24 October 2017.
  31. ^ The Vatican. Documents of the II Vatican Council Archived 5 June 2004 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 4 May 2009. Note: The pope's signature appears in the Latin version.
  32. ^ "Decrees of the First Vatican Council – Papal Encyclicals". 29 June 1868.
  33. ^ "The Bull of Indiction of the Sacred Oecumenical and General Council of Trent under the Sovereign Pontiff, Paul III." The Council of Trent: The Canons and Decrees of the Sacred and Oecumenical Council of Trent. Ed. and trans. J. Waterworth. London: Dolman, 1848. Retrieved from History.Hanover.edu, 12 September 2018.
  34. ^ "Catholic Encyclopedia: Roman Catholic". www.newadvent.org.
  35. ^ "Kenneth D. Whitehead". www.ewtn.com.
  36. ^ a b Bokenkotter, p. 30.
  37. ^ Kreeft, p. 980.
  38. ^ Burkett, p. 263
  39. ^ a b Barry, p. 46.
  40. ^ "CCC, 1076". Vatican.va. Retrieved 8 November 2014. § 1076: The Church was made manifest to the world on the day of Pentecost by the outpouring of the Holy Spirit....
  41. ^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Holy Ghost" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
    "He [the Holy Spirit] is essentially the Spirit of truth (John 14:16–17; 15:26), Whose office it is to ...to teach the Apostles the full meaning of it [of the truth] (John 14:26; 16:13). With these Apostles, He will abide forever (John 14:16). Having descended on them at Pentecost, He will guide them in their work (Acts 8:29)...
  42. ^ "CCC, 880, 883". Vatican.va. Retrieved 1 November 2014."
  43. ^ Christian Bible, Matthew 16:13–20
  44. ^ "Saint Peter the Apostle: Incidents important in interpretations of Peter". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 November 2014.
  45. ^ "CCC, 880–881". Vatican.va. Retrieved 1 November 2014.
  46. ^ a b Joyce, George (1913). "The Pope" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  47. ^ "Was Peter in Rome?". Catholic Answers. 10 August 2004. Archived from the original on 12 December 2016. Retrieved 9 November 2014. if Peter never made it to the capital, he still could have been the first pope, since one of his successors could have been the first holder of that office to settle in Rome. After all, if the papacy exists, it was established by Christ during his lifetime, long before Peter is said to have reached Rome. There must have been a period of some years in which the papacy did not yet have its connection to Rome.
  48. ^ a b c Raymond E. Brown, 101 Questions and Answers on the Bible (Paulist Press 2003 ISBN 978-0-8091-4251-4), pp. 132–134
  49. ^ Oscar Cullmann (1962), Peter: Disciple, Apostle, Martyr (2 ed.), Westminster Press p. 234
  50. ^ Henry Chadwick (1993), The Early Church, Penguin Books p. 18
  51. ^ Ehrman, Bart D (2006). Peter, Paul, and Mary Magdalene: The Followers of Jesus in History and Legend. US: Oxford University Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-19-530013-0. Peter, in short, could not have been the first bishop of Rome, because the Roman church did not have anyone as its bishop until about a hundred years after Peter's death.
  52. ^ Bokenkotter, p. 24.
  53. ^ MacCulloch, Christianity, pp. 155–159, 164.
  54. ^ Paul Valliere, Conciliarism (Cambridge University Press 2012 ISBN 978-1-107-01574-6), p. 92
  55. ^ Patriarch Bartholomew, Encountering the Mystery (Random House 2008 ISBN 978-0-385-52561-9), p. 3
  56. ^ George C. Michalopulos,"Canon 28 and Eastern Papalism: Cause or Effect?" Archived 10 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  57. ^ Noble, p. 214.
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  60. ^ Ayer, p. 553
  61. ^ Baumgartner, Frederic J. (2003). Behind Locked Doors: A History of the Papal Elections. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 10–12. ISBN 978-0-312-29463-2.
  62. ^ Duffy, Eamon. 1997. Saints & Sinners: A History of the Popes. Yale University Press. pp. 66–67
  63. ^ Le Goff, p. 14: "The face of the barbarian invaders had been transformed by another crucial fact. Although some of them had remained pagan, another part of them, not the least, had become Christian. But, by a curious chance, which was to leave serious consequences, these converted barbarians—the Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Burgundians, Vandals, and later the Lombards—had been converted to Arianism, which had become a heresy after the council of Nicaea. They had in fact been converted by followers of the 'apostle of the Goths', Wulfilas."
  64. ^ Le Goff, p. 14: "Thus what should have been a religious bond was, on the contrary, a subject of discord and sparked off bitter conflicts between Arian barbarians and Catholic Romans."
  65. ^ Le Goff, p. 21: "Clovis' master-stroke was to convert himself and his people not to Arianism, like the other barbarian kings, but to Catholicism."
  66. ^ Le Goff, p. 21
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  70. ^ Woods, pp. 115–27
  71. ^ Duffy, p. 133.
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  77. ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 78, quote: "By contrast, Paschal's successor Eugenius II (824–7), elected with imperial influence, gave away most of these papal gains. He acknowledged the Emperor's sovereignty in the papal state, and he accepted a constitution imposed by Lothair which established imperial supervision of the administration of Rome, imposed an oath to the Emperor on all citizens, and required the pope–elect to swear fealty before he could be consecrated. Under Sergius II (844–7) it was even agreed that the pope could not be consecrated without an imperial mandate and that the ceremony must be in the presence of his representative, a revival of some of the more galling restrictions of Byzantine rule."
  78. ^ Riley-Smith, p. 8
  79. ^ Bokenkotter, pp. 140–141
  80. ^ Phillips, Jonathan (2005). The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-1-101-12772-8.
  81. ^ Woods, pp. 44–48
  82. ^ Bokenkotter, pp. 158–159
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  85. ^ McManners, p. 240
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External links

  • Holy See  – official website
  • The Vatican  – official YouTube channel