Proto-Indo-Iranian or Proto-Indo-Iranic[1] is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Iranian/Indo-Iranic branch of Indo-European. Its speakers, the hypothetical Proto-Indo-Iranians, are assumed to have lived in the late 3rd millennium BC, and are often connected with the Sintashta culture of the Eurasian Steppe and the early Andronovo archaeological horizon.
Proto-Indo-Iranian was a satem language, likely removed less than a millennium from its ancestor, the late Proto-Indo-European language, and in turn removed less than a millennium from the Vedic Sanskrit of the Rigveda, its descendant.
Proto-Indo-Iranian has been considered to form a subgroup along with Greek, Armenian and Phrygian on the basis of many striking similarities in the morphological structure. However, this issue remains unsettled.[2]
It is the ancestor of the Indo-Aryan languages, the Iranian languages, and the Nuristani languages.
Contents
1 Descriptive phonology
1.1 Two palatal series
1.2 Laryngeal
1.3 Accent
2 Historical phonology
3 Subsequent sound changes
4 Morphology
5 See also
6 References
7 Bibliography
8 External links
Descriptive phonology[edit]
Proto-Indo-Iranian consonant segments
Labial
Coronal
Palatal
Velar
Laryngeal
dental/alveolar
post-alveolar
first
second
Plosive
voiceless
*p
*t
*ć
*č
*k
voiced
*b
*d
*ȷ́
*ǰ
*g
aspirated
*bʰ
*dʰ
*ȷ́ʰ
*ǰʰ
*gʰ
Fricative
voiceless
*s
*š
*H
voiced
(*z)
(*ž)
Nasal
*m
*n
Liquid
(*l)
*r *r̥
Semivowel
*y
*w
PII vowel segments
High
*i *ī
*u *ū
Low
*a *ā
In addition to the vowels, *H, and *r̥ could function as the syllabic core.
Two palatal series[edit]
Proto-Indo-Iranian is hypothesized to have contained two series of stops or affricates in the palatal to postalveolar region.[3] The phonetic nature of this contrast is not clear, and hence they are usually referred to as the primary or first series (*ć *ȷ́ *ȷ́ʰ, continuing Proto-Indo-European palatovelar *ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ) and the second or secondary series (*č *ǰ *ǰʰ, continuing Proto-Indo-European plain and labialized velars, *k, *g, *gʰ and *kʷ, *gʷ, *gʷʰ, in palatalizing contexts).
The following table shows the most common reflexes of the two series (Proto-Iranian is the hypothetical ancestor to the Iranian languages, including Avestan and Old Persian):[4][5]
PII
Sanskrit
Proto-Iranian
Avestan
Old Persian
Nuristani
*ć
ś ([ɕ])
*ts
s
θ
ċ ([ts]) / š
*ȷ́
j ([ɟ])
*dz
z
d
j ([dz]) / z
*ȷ́ʰ
h ([ɦ])
*č
c ([c])
*č
č
č
č
*ǰ
j ([ɟ])
*ǰ
ǰ
ǰ
ǰ / ž
*ǰʰ
h ([ɦ])
Laryngeal[edit]
Proto-Indo-European is usually hypothesized to have had three to four laryngeal consonants, each of which could occur in either syllabic or non-syllabic positions. In Proto-Indo-Iranian, the laryngeals merged as one phoneme /*H/. Beekes suggests that some instances of this /*H/ survived into Rigvedic Sanskrit and Avestan as unwritten glottal stops as evidenced by metrics.[6]
Accent[edit]
Like Proto-Indo-European and Vedic Sanskrit (and also Avestan, though it was not written down[7]), Proto-Indo-Iranian had a pitch accent system similar to present-day Japanese, conventionally indicated by an acute accent over the accented vowel.
Historical phonology[edit]
The most distinctive phonological change separating Proto-Indo-Iranian from Proto-Indo-European is the collapse of the ablauting vowels *e, *o, *a into a single vowel, Proto-Indo-Iranian *a (but see Brugmann's law). Grassmann's law, Bartholomae's law, and the Ruki sound law were also complete in Proto-Indo-Iranian.
A fuller list of some of the hypothesized sound changes from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Indo-Iranian follows:
The Satem shift, consisting of two sets of related changes. The PIE palatals *ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ are fronted or affricated, eventually resulting in PII *ć, *ȷ́, *ȷ́ʰ, while the PIE labiovelars *kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ merge with the velars *k *g *gʰ.[8]
PIE
PII
Sanskrit
Avestan
Latin
English
Glossary
*ḱm̥tóm
*ćatám
śatám
satəm
centum
hund(red)
id
*ǵónu
*ȷ́ā́nu
jā́nu
zānu
genū
'knee'
id
*ǵʰimós
*ȷ́ʰimás
himá
ziiā̊
hiems
'winter' / 'snow'
*kʷós
*kás
kás
ka
quis
who
id
*gʷṓws
*gā́wš
gaus
gao
bōs
'cow'
id
*gʷʰormós
*gʰarmás
gharmás
garəma
formus
warm
'warmth, heat'
The PIE liquids *l*r*l̥*r̥ merge as *r*r̥.[9]
PIE
PII
Sanskrit
Avestan
Latin
English
Glossary
*ḱléwos
*ćráwas
śrávas
srauua
clueō
'fame, honour, word'
*wĺ̥kʷos
*wŕ̥kas
vŕ̥kas
vəhrka
lupus
'wolf'
id
The PIE syllabic nasals *m̥*n̥ merge with *a.[9]
PIE
pre-PII
PII
Sanskrit
Avestan
Latin
English
Glossary
*déḱm̥
*dáĉm̥
*dáća
dáśa
dasā
decem
ten
id
*gʷm̥tós
*gm̥tás
*gatás
gatá
gata
ventus
come
'come, gone'
*n̥bʰrós
*n̥bʰrás
*abʰrás
abhrá
aβra
imber
'rain, cloud'
Bartholomae's law: an aspirate immediately followed by a voiceless consonant becomes voiced stop + voiced aspirate. In addition, dʰ + t > dᶻdʰ.[10]
PIE
PII
Sanskrit
Avestan
English
Glossary
*ubʰtós
*ubdʰás
sámubdha
ubdaēna
(web, weave)
'woven' / 'made of woven material'
*wr̥dʰtós
*wr̥dᶻdʰás
vr̥ddʰá
vərəzda
'grown, mature'
*dʰéwgʰti
*dáwgdʰi
dógdhi
*daogdi
(daugh·ter)
'to milk'
The Ruki rule: *s is retracted to *š when immediately following a liquid (*r *r̥ *l *l̥), a high vowel (*i *u), a PIE velar (*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ *k *g *gʰ *kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ) or the syllabic laryngeal *H̥.[11] Its allophone *z likewise becomes *ž.[9]
PIE
PII
Sanskrit
Avestan
Latin
English
Glossary
*wisós
*wišás
víṣas
viša
vīrus
'poison, venom'
*ḱeHs-
*ćH̥šam
aśiṣam
sīšā
'teach!'
*ǵéwseti
*ȷ́áwšati
jóṣati
zaošō
gustus
'to like, taste'
*kʷsép-
*kšáp-
kṣáp-
xšap-
'darkness'
*plúsis
*plúšiš
plúṣi
*fruši
pūlex
'flea, noxious insect'
*nisdós
*niždás
nīḷá/nīḍá
*nižda
nīdus
nest
'nest'
Before a dental occlusive, *ĉ becomes *š and *ĵ becomes *ž. *ĵʰ also becomes *ž, with aspiration of the occlusive.[12]
PIE
pre-PII
PII
Sanskrit
Avestan
Latin
English
Glossary
*h₁oḱtṓ
*Haĉtā́
*Haštā́
aṣṭá
ašta
octō
eight
'eight'
*dr̥ḱtós
*dr̥ĉtás
*dr̥štás
dr̥ṣṭá
dərəšta
'seen, visible, apparent'
*mr̥ǵt-
*mr̥ĵd-
*mr̥žd-
mr̥ḷ-/mr̥ḍ-
mərəžd-
'to forgive, pardon'
*uǵʰtós
*uĵdʰás
*uždʰás
ūḍhá
*užda
vector
weight
'carried'
The sequence *ĉš was simplified to *šš.[13]
PIE
pre-PII
PII
Sanskrit
Avestan
Latin
English
Glossary
*h₂éḱs-
*Háĉšas
*Háššas
ákṣa
aša
axis
axle
'axle, shoulder'
The "second palatalization" or "law of palatals": *k *g *gʰ develop palatal allophones *č *ǰ *ǰʰ before the front vowels *i, *e.[10] through an intermediate *kʲ *gʲ *gʲʰ.
PIE
pre-PII
PII
Sanskrit
Avestan
Latin
English
Glossary
*-kʷe
*-kʲa
*-ča
-ca
-ča
-que
'and'
*gʷih₃wós
*gʲiHwás
*ǰiHwás
jīvás
juuō
vīvus
quick
'alive, living'
*gʷʰénti
*gʲʰánti
*ǰʰánti
hánti
jaiṇti
-fendit
'slays'
Brugmann's law: *o in an open syllable lengthens to *ō.[14]
PIE
pre-PII
PII
Sanskrit
Avestan
Latin
Glossary
*deh₃tórm̥
*daHtā́rm̥
*daHtā́ram
dātā́ram
dātārəm
datōrem
'giver' (accusative singular)
The vowels *e *o merge with *a. Similarly, *ē, *ō merge with *ā. This has the effect of giving full phonemic status to the second palatal series *č *ǰ *ǰʰ.
PIE
PII
Sanskrit
Avestan
Latin
English
Glossary
*dédeh₃ti
*dádaHti
dádāti
dadāiti
dat
'to give'
*h₃dónts
*Hdánts
dant
dantan
dēns
tooth
'tooth'
*bʰréh₂tēr
*bʰráHtā
bhrā́tr̥
brātar
frāter
brother
'brother'
*wṓkʷs
*wā́kš
vā́k
vāxš
vōx
'voice'
In certain positions, laryngeals were vocalized to *i. This preceded the second palatalization.[15][16]
Following a consonant, and preceding a consonant cluster
PIE
PII
Sanskrit
Avestan
Latin
English/Glossary
*ph₂tréy
*pitráy
pitré
piθrē
patrī
'father' (dative singular)
Following a consonant and word-final
PIE
PII
Sanskrit
Avestan
Glossary
*-medʰh₂
*-madʰHi
-mahi
-maidī/-maiδi
(1st person plural middle ending)
The Indo-European laryngeals all merged into one phoneme *H, which may have been a glottal stop. This was probably contemporary with the merging of *e and *o with *a.[17]
PIE
PII
Sanskrit
Avestan
Latin
English
*ph₂tḗr
*pHtā́
pitā́
ptā
pater
'father'
According to Lubotsky's Law, *H disappeared when followed by a voiced nonaspirated stop and another consonant:[18]
PIE
PII
Sanskrit
Avestan
Glossary
*bʰéh₂geti
*bʰáǰati
bhájati
bažat̰
'to divide, distribute'
Subsequent sound changes[edit]
Among the sound changes from Proto-Indo-Iranian to Indo-Aryan is the loss of the voiced sibilant *z; among those to Proto-Iranian is the de-aspiration of the PIE voiced aspirates.
Proto-Indo-European and Indo-Iranian Phonological Correspondences[19]
PIE
O.Indc/VS
Av
PIE
OInd/VS
Av
*p
>
p
p
*ph̥₂tḗr "father"
pitā́ "father"
pitar- "father"
*b
>
b
b
*bél- "strong"
bálam "strength"
—
*bʰ
>
bh
b
*bʰréh₂tēr "brother"
bhrā́tār- "brother"
brātar- "brother
*t
>
t
t
*tuHóm "thou"
tuvám "thou"
tvəm "thou"
*d
>
d
d
*dóru "wood"
dā́ru "wood"
dāru- "wood"
*dʰ
>
dh
d
*dʰoHnéh₂- "grain"
dhānā́- "grain"
dāna- "grain"
*ḱ
>
ś
s
*déḱm̥ "ten"
dáśa "ten"
dasa "ten"
*ǵ
>
j
z
*ǵónu "knee"
jā́nu "knee"
zānu- "knee"
*ǵʰ
>
h
z
*ǵʰimós "cold"
himá- "cold, frost"
zəmaka- "winterstorm"
*k
>
k ~ c
x ~ č
*kruh₂rós "bloody"
krūrá- "bloody"
xrūra- "bloody"
*téket "may he run"
—
tačat̰ "may he run"
*g
>
g ~ j
g ~ ǰ
*h₂éuges- "strength"
ójas- "strength"
aoǰah "strength"
*h₂ugrós "strong"
ugrá- "strong"
ugra- "strong"
*gʰ
>
gh ~ h
g ~ ǰ
*dl̥Hgʰós "long"
dīrghá- "long"
darəga- "long"
*dleHgʰistos "longest"
drā́ghiṣṭha
draǰišta- "longest"
*kʷ
>
k ~ c
k ~ č
*kʷós "who"
káḥ "who"
kō "who"
*kʷe "and"
ca "and"
́ča "and"
*gʷ
>
g ~ j
g ~ ǰ
*gʷou- "cow"
gav- "cow"
gau- "cow"
*gʷih₃wós "alive"
jīvá- "alive"
OPer: ǰīva- "living"
*gʷʰ
>
gh ~ h
g ~ ǰ
*gʷʰnénti "strike" (pl.)
ghnánti "strike" (pl.)
—
*gʷʰénti "strikes"
hánti "strikes"
ǰainti "strikes"
*s
>
s
s ~ h
*septm̥ "seven"
saptá "seven"
hapta "seven"
*h₁ésti "is"
ásti "is"
asti "is"
*y
>
y
y
*yugóm "yoke"
yugam "yoke"
yuga- "yoke"
*w
>
v
v
*wéǵʰeti "drives, rides"
váhati "drives"
vazaiti "travels"
*m
>
m
m
*méh₂tēr "mother"
mātár- "mother"
mātar- "mother"
*n
>
n
n
*nós "us"
nas "us"
nō "us"
*l
>
l ~ r
r
*kʷeleti "moves"
carati "moves"
caraiti "moves"
*r
>
r
r
*bʰréh₂tēr "brother"
bhrā́tār- "brother"
brātar- "brother
*n̥
>
a
a
*n̥- "un-"
a- "un-"
a- "un-"
*m̥
>
a
a
*ḱm̥tóm "hundred"
śatám "hundred"
satəm "hundred"
*l̥
>
r̥
ərər
*wĺ̥kʷos "wolf"
vŕ̥ka- "wolf"
vəhrka- "wolf"
*r̥
>
r̥
ərər
*ḱŕ̥d- "heart"
hŕ̥d- "heart"
zərəd- "heart"
*i
>
i
i
*linékʷti "leaves"
riṇákti "leaves"
irinaxti "releases"
*e
>
a
a
*déḱm̥ "ten"
dáśa "ten"
dasa "ten"
*ē
>
ā
ā
*h₂nḗr "man"
nā "man"
nā "man"
*a
>
a
a
*h₂éǵeti "drives"
ájati "drives"
azaiti "drives"
*ā
>
ā
ā
*méh₂tēr "mother"
mātā́ "mother"
mātar- "mother"
*o
>
a ~ ā
a ~ ā
*ǵómbʰos "tooth, peg"
jā́mbha- "tooth, tusk"
—
*ǵónu "knee"
jānu "knee"
zānu- "knee"
*ō
>
ā
ā
*dʰoHnéh₂- "grain"
dhānā́- "grain"
dāna- "grain"
*u
>
u
u
*yugóm "yoke"
yugám "yoke"
yuga- "yoke"
*ū
>
ū
ū
*mū́s "mouse"
mū́ṣ- "mouse"
NPer mūs "mouse"
*h₁
>
∅
∅
*h₁ésti "is"
ásti "is"
asti "is"
*h₂
>
∅
∅
*h₂ŕ̥tḱos "bear"
ŕ̥kṣa- "bear"
arəša- "bear"
*h₃
>
∅
∅
*h₃ókʷs(i) "eye"
ákṣi "eye"
aši "eye"
*h₄
>
∅
∅
*h₄órǵʰis "testicle"
—
ərəzi- "testicle"
Proto-Indo-Iranian
Old Iranian (Av, OP)
Vedic Sanskrit
*Háćwas "horse"
Av aspa, OP asa
áśva
*bʰaHgás "portion, share"
Av bāga
bhāgá
*bʰráHtā "brother"
Av, OP brātar
bhrā́tr̥
*bʰúHmiš "earth, land"
OP būmiš
bhū́mi-
*mártyas "mortal, man"
Av maṣ̌iia, OP martiya
mártya
*mā́Has "moon"
Av mā̊, OP māha
mā́s
*wásr̥ "spring"
Av vaŋhar
vásara "morning"
*Hr̥tás "truth"
Av aṣ̌a, OP arta
r̥tá
*dʰráwgʰas "lie"
Av draoγa, OP drauga
drógha "using malicious words"
*sáwmas "pressed (juice)"
Av haoma
sóma-
Morphology[edit]
Proto-Indo-Iranian has preserved much of the morphology of Proto-Indo-European: thematic and athematic inflection in both nouns and verbs, all three numbers of singular, dual and plural, all the tense, mood and voice categories in the verb, and the cases in the noun.
An important innovation in the noun is the creation of a genitive plural ending *-nām used with vowel stems. In verbs, the chief innovation is the creation of a passive conjugation with the suffix *-yá, with middle inflection.[20]
See also[edit]
Substratum in the Vedic language
References[edit]
^Peter Bellwood; Immanuel Ness (10 November 2014). The Global Prehistory of Human Migration. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-97059-1.
^Fortson, p. 203
^Burrow, pp. 78-79
^Ramat, Anna Giacalone (1998). The Indo-European Languages (illustrated ed.). London ; New York: Routledge. p. 134. ISBN 0-415-06449-X.
^Cardona, George; Dhanesh Jain (2003). The Indo-Aryan Languages. London ; New York: Routledge. p. 24. ISBN 0-7007-1130-9.
^Beekes (1988), p. 50
^Beekes, p. 55
^Burrow, pp. 74-75
^ a b cFortson, p. 182
^ a bFortson, p. 181
^F. B. J. Kuiper. 1976. "Old East Iranian dialects." Indo-Iranian Journal18, p. 242.
^Burrow, p. 91
^Burrow, pp. 92-94
^Fortson, p. 183
^Beekes, pp. 85-86
^Lubotsky, p. 53
^get ref
^Beekes, pp. 88-89
^"Indo-Iranian Languages." Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Ed. J.P. Mallory and D.Q. Adams. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997. pp. 305.
^Fortson p. 205
Bibliography[edit]
Beekes, Robert Stephen Paul (1988). A Grammar of Gatha-Avestan. Leiden; New York: Brill. ISBN 90-04-08332-4.
Burrow, T. (1973). The Sanskrit Language (third ed.). London: Faber & Faber. ISBN 0-571-04819-6.
Fortson, Benjamin W. (2004). Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction (illustrated ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-4051-0316-7.
Lubotsky, A. M. (1988). The System of Nominal Accentuation in Sanskrit and Proto-Indo-European. Leiden; New York: Brill. ISBN 90-04-08835-0.
Alexander Lubotsky, "The Indo-Iranian substratum" in Early Contacts between Uralic and Indo-European, ed. Carpelan et al., Helsinki (2001).
Asko Parpola, 'The formation of the Aryan branch of Indo-European', in Blench and Spriggs (eds), Archaeology and Language III, London and New York (1999).
External links[edit]
"Early Indo-Iranic loans in Uralic: Sounds and strata" (PDF). Martin Joachim Kümmel, University of Jena. Seminar for Indo-European Studies.
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Northern
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Northwestern
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Mewati
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Shekhawati
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Bhilori
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Palya Bareli
Pauri Bareli
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Pardhi
Gamit
Kalto
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Vaagri Booli
Others
Khandeshi
Lambadi
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Domari
Romani
list of languages
Central
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Bengali
dialects
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Unclassified
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Pidgins and creoles
Andaman Creole Hindi
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Haflong Hindi
Nagamese
Nefamese
Vedda
See also: Old and Middle Indo-Aryan; Indo-Iranian languages; Nuristani languages; Iranian languages
vtePersian language
History
Proto-Indo-European (c. 3000 BCE)
Proto-Indo-Iranian (c. 2000 BCE)
Proto-Iranian (c. 1500 BCE)
Old Persian (c. 525 – 300 BCE)
Middle Persian (c. 300 BCE – 800 CE)
New Persian (from 800)
Language families
Indo-Iranian languages
Iranian languages
Western Iranian languages
Dialects and varieties
Iranian (Western)
Dari (Afghanistan)
Tajik
Hazaragi
Aimaq
Kuwaiti Persian
Tat
Judeo-Persian
Judeo-Tat (Juhuri)
Bukhori
Sistani
Dehwari
Standard Persian
Language features
Vocabulary
Nouns
Verbs
Phonology
Grammar
Persian grammar
Ezāfe
Tajik grammar
Writing system
Old Persian cuneiform
Pahlavi scripts
Persian alphabet
Persian calligraphy
Tajik alphabet
Romanized Persian alphabet
Persian Braille
Literature
Persian literature
Middle Persian literature
Tajik literature
Other topics
List of English words of Persian origin
List of French loanwords in Persian
List of countries and territories where Persian is an official language