Император Сёва (昭和, 29 апреля 1901 - 7 января 1989) , более известный на английском языке под своим личным именем Хирохито [а] (裕仁) , был 124-м императором Японии в соответствии с традиционным порядком наследования , правившим Японской империей. [b] с 25 декабря 1926 г. по 2 мая 1947 г., после чего он был императором государства Япония [c] до своей смерти. Ему наследовали его пятый ребенок и старший сын Акихито . У Хирохито и его жены, императрицы Кодзюн , было семеро детей, два сына и пять дочерей. К 1979 году Хирохито был единственныммонарх в мире с титулом « император ». Хирохито был самым долгоживущим и самым долгоживущим историческим японским императором и одним из самых долгоживущих монархов в мире.
Император Сёва昭和 天皇 | ||||
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Император Японии | ||||
Царствовать | 25 декабря 1926 г. - 7 января 1989 г. | |||
Интронизация | 10 ноября 1928 г. | |||
Предшественник | Тайсё | |||
Преемник | Акихито | |||
Премьер-министры | Посмотреть список
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Принц-регент Японии | ||||
Владение | 29 ноября 1921 г. - 25 декабря 1926 г. | |||
Монарх | Тайсё | |||
Премьер-министры | Посмотреть список
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Родившийся | Митиномия Хирохито 29 апреля 1901 года Дворец Тогу , Аояма, Минато, Токио , Японская империя | |||
Умер | 7 января 1989 г. Дворец Фукиагэ , Япония | (87 лет) |||
Захоронение | 24 февраля 1989 г. Императорское кладбище Мусаси | |||
Супруг | Принцесса Нагако Куни ( м. 1924 г.) | |||
Проблема |
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жилой дом | Императорский Дом Японии | |||
Отец | Император Тайсё | |||
Мама | Императрица Теймей | |||
Подпись |
В начале его правления Япония уже была одной из великих держав - девятой по величине экономикой в мире , третьей по величине военно-морской державой и одним из четырех постоянных членов совета Лиги Наций . [3] Он был главой государства в соответствии с Конституцией Японской империи во время имперской экспансии Японии , милитаризации и участия во Второй мировой войне . После капитуляции Японии он не был привлечен к ответственности за военные преступления, как многие другие ведущие государственные деятели. Его степень участия в решениях военного времени остается спорной. [4] В послевоенный период он стал символом государства Япония в соответствии с послевоенной конституцией и восстановлением Японии . К концу его правления Япония стала второй по величине экономикой мира . [5]
В Японии правящие императоры известны только как «Императоры». В настоящее время он упоминается в первую очередь по посмертному имени Сёва, которое является названием эпохи, совпадающей с его правлением .
Ранний период жизни
Хирохито родился в токийском дворце Аояма (во время правления его деда, императора Мэйдзи ) 29 апреля 1901 года [6], он был первым сыном 21-летнего наследного принца Ёсихито (будущего императора Тайсё ) и 17-летнего сына. Кронпринцесса Садако (будущая императрица Тэймэй ). [7] Он был внуком императора Мэйдзи и Янагихара Наруко . Его детским титулом был принц Мичи. Через десять недель после рождения Хирохито был отстранен от двора и передан на попечение графу Кавамура Сумиёси , который вырастил его как своего внука. Когда Кавамура умер, в возрасте 3 лет Хирохито и его брат Ясухито были возвращены в суд - сначала в императорский особняк в Нумадзу, Сидзуока , а затем обратно во дворец Аояма. [8] В 1908 году он начал начальное обучение в Гакушуин (Школа сверстников). [ необходима цитата ]
Эпоха наследного принца
Когда его дед, император Мэйдзи , умер 30 июля 1912 года, отец Хирохито, Ёсихито, вступил на престол. Хирохито стал наследником, и он был официально назначен вторым лейтенантом в армии и прапорщиком военно-морского флота. Он также был награжден Большим Кордоном Ордена Хризантемы . В 1914 году он получил звание лейтенанта армии и младшего лейтенанта флота. В 1916 году он получил звание капитана и лейтенанта армии и флота. 2 ноября 1916 года Хирохито был официально провозглашен наследным принцем и престолонаследником. Для подтверждения этого статуса не требовалось церемонии вступления в должность. [9]
Хирохито посещал школу пэров Гакусюин с 1908 по 1914 год, а затем специальный институт наследного принца (Тогу-гогакумонсё) с 1914 по 1921 год. В 1920 году Хирохито был повышен до звания майора армии и капитан-лейтенанта военно-морского флота.
Экскурсия
С 3 марта по 3 сентября 1921 года (Тайсё 10) наследный принц совершил официальные визиты в Великобританию , Францию , Нидерланды , Бельгию , Италию и Ватикан . Это был первый визит наследного принца в Западную Европу. [d] Несмотря на сильную оппозицию в Японии, это было реализовано усилиями старших японских государственных деятелей ( Генро ), таких как Ямагата Аритомо и Сайонджи Кинмоти .
Об уходе принца Хирохито широко сообщалось в газетах. Японский линкор Katori был использован и ушел из Иокогамы , плавал в Нах , Гонконг , Сингапур , Коломбо , Суэц , Каир , и Гибралтар . Два месяца спустя, 9 мая, он прибыл в Портсмут , и в тот же день они достигли столицы Великобритании Лондона . Его приветствовали в Великобритании как партнера Англо-японского альянса, и он встретился с королем Георгом V и премьер-министром Дэвидом Ллойд Джорджем . В тот вечер в Букингемском дворце состоялся банкет и встреча с Георгом V и принцем Артуром Коннахтским . Георг V сказал, что он относился к своему отцу как к Хирохито, который нервничал в незнакомой иностранной стране, и это сняло его напряжение. На следующий день он встретил принца Эдуарда (будущего Эдуарда VIII) в Виндзорском замке , и после этого каждый день проводился банкет. В Лондоне он посетил Британский музей , Лондонский Тауэр , Банк Англии , Морское страхование Ллойда, Оксфордский университет , Армейский университет и Военно-морской колледж. Ему также нравились театры в Нью-Оксфордском театре и Дели. [10] В Кембриджском университете он слушал лекцию профессора Таннера «Взаимоотношения между британской королевской семьей и ее народом» и был удостоен почетной докторской степени. [11] Он посетил Эдинбург , Шотландия , с 19 по 20 числа, а также был удостоен звания почетного доктора права Эдинбургского университета . Он пробыл в резиденции Джона Стюарта-Мюррея, седьмого герцога Атолла , в течение трех дней. «Подъем большевиков не произойдет, если вы будете жить простой жизнью, как герцог Атоль». [11]
В Италии он встретился с королем Витторио Эмануэле III и другими, посетил официальные банкеты в разных странах и посетил такие места, как поля ожесточенных сражений Первой мировой войны .
Регентство
Вернувшись в Японию, Хирохито стал регентом Японии ( Сэссё ) 29 ноября 1921 года вместо своего больного отца, страдавшего психическим заболеванием. В 1923 году ему присвоено звание подполковника армии и командующего флотом, а в 1925 году - полковника и капитана флота.
Во время регентства Хирохито произошло много важных событий:
В Договоре четырех держав об островных владениях, подписанном 13 декабря 1921 года, Япония, США, Великобритания и Франция согласились признать статус-кво в Тихом океане. Япония и Великобритания договорились о прекращении англо-японского союза . Вашингтонский договор Naval был подписан 6 февраля 1922 года Япония отозвала войска из сибирской интервенции на 28 августа 1922 года Великий Канто землетрясения опустошили Токио 1 сентября 1923 года 27 декабря 1923, Daisuke Namba попытался убить Хирохито в Тораномон инцидента , но его попытка не удалась. Во время допроса он утверждал, что был коммунистом, и был казнен, но некоторые предположили, что он был в контакте с фракцией Нагачо в армии. [ необходима цитата ]
Брак
Принц Хирохито женился на своей дальней двоюродной сестре принцессе Нагако Куни , старшей дочери принца Куниёси Куни , 26 января 1924 года. У них было два сына и пять дочерей [12] (см. Выпуск ).
Дожившие до совершеннолетия дочери покинули императорскую семью в результате американских реформ японского императорского дома в октябре 1947 года (в случае принцессы Сигеко) или в соответствии с положениями Закона об императорском дворе в момент их последующих браков ( в случаях с принцессами Казуко, Ацуко и Такако).
Вознесение
25 декабря 1926 года Хирохито вступил на престол после смерти своего отца Ёсихито . Наследный принц получил наследство ( сэнсо ). [13] Тайшо Era 'конец с и Era Сева были объявлены в сегодня начало (Просвещенный мир). Умерший Император был посмертно переименован в Императора Тайсё в течение нескольких дней. Согласно японскому обычаю, нового императора никогда не называли по имени, а называли просто «Его Величество Император», что может быть сокращено до «Его Величество». В письменной форме Император также формально упоминался как «Правящий Император».
В ноябре 1928 года восхождение Императора было подтверждено в церемониях ( сокуй ) [13], которые условно называются «возведение на престол» и «коронация» ( Сёва но тайрей-сики ); но это официальное мероприятие было бы более точно охарактеризовать как общественное подтверждение того, что его императорское величество обладает японскими регалиями , [14] также называют Сокровища Три Sacred , которые передавались через век. [15]
Раннее правление
Первая часть правления Хирохито проходила на фоне финансового кризиса и увеличения военной мощи правительства как легальными, так и внелегальными способами. Японская императорская армия и Императорский флот Японии провели вето власти над формированием шкафов с 1900 годом между 1921 и 1944 годами , не было не меньше , чем 64 случаев политического насилия.
Хирохито чудом избежал убийства с помощью ручной гранаты, брошенной активистом за независимость Кореи Ли Бонг Чангом в Токио 9 января 1932 года во время инцидента в Сакурадамон .
Другим примечательным случаем стало убийство умеренного премьер-министра Инукая Цуёси в 1932 году, положившее конец гражданскому контролю над вооруженными силами . 26 февраля инцидент , попытка военного переворота , а затем в феврале 1936 г. Оно проводилось младшими офицерами армии в Kōdōha фракции , которые имели симпатии многих высокопоставленных офицеров , включая князь Титиб (Yasuhito), один из братий императора. Это восстание было вызвано потерей политической поддержки милитаристской фракцией на выборах в парламент . В результате переворота было убито несколько высокопоставленных правительственных и армейских чиновников.
Когда главный адъютант Сигеру Хондзё сообщил ему о восстании, Император немедленно приказал подавить его и назвал офицеров «мятежниками» ( бото ). Вскоре после этого он приказал министру армии Ёсиюки Кавасиму подавить восстание в течение часа. Он запрашивал отчеты у Хондзё каждые 30 минут. На следующий день, когда Хондзё сказал, что верховное командование не добилось больших успехов в подавлении мятежников, Император сказал ему: «Я сам возглавлю дивизию Коноэ и подчиню их». По его приказу 29 февраля восстание было подавлено . [16]
Вторая китайско-японская война
Начиная с Мукденского инцидента в 1931 году, когда Япония устроила мнимое «китайское нападение» в качестве предлога для вторжения в Маньчжурию, Япония оккупировала китайские территории и установила марионеточные правительства . Такая «агрессия» была рекомендована Хирохито его начальниками штабов и премьер-министром Фумимаро Коноэ , и Хирохито никогда лично не возражал против какого-либо вторжения в Китай. [17] Его больше всего беспокоила возможность нападения Советского Союза на север. Его вопросы к своему начальнику штаба принцу Каньину Котохито и министру армии Хадзимэ Сугияме в основном касались времени, которое может потребоваться, чтобы подавить сопротивление Китая.
По словам Акиры Фудзивары, Хирохито одобрял политику квалификации вторжения в Китай как «инцидента», а не «войны»; поэтому он не направил никакого уведомления о соблюдении международного права в этом конфликте (в отличие от того, что делали его предшественники в предыдущих конфликтах, официально признанных Японией войнами), а заместитель министра японской армии поручил начальнику штаба японско-китайской гарнизонной армии 5 августа не использовать термин «военнопленные» для китайских пленных. Эта инструкция привела к снятию ограничений международного права на обращение с китайскими заключенными. [18] Работы Ёсиаки Ёсими и Сейя Мацуно показывают, что Император также санкционировал специальными приказами ( ринсанмэй ) применение химического оружия против китайцев. [19] Во время вторжения в Ухань , с августа по октябрь 1938 года, Император санкционировал использование токсичного газа в 375 случаях, [20] несмотря на резолюцию, принятую Лигой Наций 14 мая, осуждающую использование ядовитого газа Японией.
Вторая Мировая Война
Препараты
В июле 1939 года император поссорился со своим братом принцем Чичибу из- за того, поддерживать ли Антикоминтерновский пакт , и сделал выговор военному министру Сейширо Итагаки . [21] Но после успеха вермахта в Европе император согласился на союз. [ какой? ] 27 сентября 1940 года, якобы под руководством Хирохито, Япония стала договаривающимся партнером Тройственного пакта с Германией и Италией, образующими державы оси .
4 сентября 1941 года японский кабинет собрался для рассмотрения военных планов, подготовленных Императорским генеральным штабом, и решил, что:
Наша Империя в целях самообороны и самосохранения завершит подготовку к войне ... [и] ... решила начать войну с Соединенными Штатами , Великобританией и Францией, если это необходимо. Наша Империя одновременно примет все возможные дипломатические меры по отношению к Соединенным Штатам и Великобритании и, таким образом, будет стремиться достичь наших целей ... В случае, если нет никаких перспектив выполнения наших требований в течение первых десяти дней В октябре, посредством дипломатических переговоров, упомянутых выше, мы немедленно примем решение начать боевые действия против Соединенных Штатов, Великобритании и Франции. [ необходима цитата ]
Цели, которые должны были быть достигнуты, были четко определены: свобода действий для продолжения завоевания Китая и Юго-Восточной Азии, отсутствие увеличения американских или британских вооруженных сил в регионе и сотрудничество Запада «в приобретении товаров, необходимых нашей Империи. . " [ необходима цитата ]
5 сентября премьер-министр Коноэ неофициально представил проект решения Императору, всего за день до Имперской конференции, на которой оно должно было быть официально реализовано. В этот вечер у Императора была встреча с начальником штаба армии Сугиямой, начальником штаба военно-морского флота Осами Нагано и премьер-министром Коноэ. Император спросил Сугияму о шансах на успех открытой войны с Западом . Когда Сугияма ответил положительно, Император отругал его:
- Во время китайского инцидента армия сказала мне, что мы можем достичь мира сразу после нанесения им одного удара тремя дивизиями ... но вы все еще не можете победить Чан Кайши даже сегодня! Сугияма, в то время вы были военным министром.
- Китай - огромная территория, в которой есть много входов и выходов, и мы столкнулись с неожиданно большими трудностями ... -
Вы говорите, что внутренняя часть Китая огромна; разве Тихий океан не больше Китая? ... Разве я не предупреждал вас каждый раз об этих вещах? Сугияма, ты мне лжешь? [22]
Начальник военно-морского генерального штаба адмирал Нагано, бывший министр флота и обладающий огромным опытом, позже сказал своему доверенному коллеге: «Я никогда не видел, чтобы Император делал нам такой выговор, его лицо покраснело и он повысил голос». [ необходима цитата ] [23] [24]
Тем не менее, все выступавшие на Имперской конференции были едины в пользу войны, а не дипломатии. [25] Барон Ёсимичи Хара , президент Имперского совета и представитель Императора, затем подробно расспросил их, дав ответы о том, что война будет рассматриваться только как последнее средство для одних и молчание для других.
В этот момент Император удивил всех присутствующих, лично выступив на конференции. Нарушив традицию имперского молчания, он оставил своих советников «пораженными трепетом» ( описание этого события премьер-министром Фумимаро Коноэ ). Хирохито подчеркнул необходимость мирного решения международных проблем, выразил сожаление по поводу того, что его министры не ответили на запросы барона Хары, и прочитал стихотворение, написанное его дедом, императором Мэйдзи , которое, по его словам, он читал «снова и снова. ":
Моря четырех направлений -
все рождены из одной утробы:
почему же тогда ветер и волны поднимаются в разладе? [26]
Оправившись от шока, министры поспешили выразить свое глубокое желание изучить все возможные мирные пути. Презентация Императора соответствовала его практической роли лидера государственной религии синто . [ необходима цитата ]
В это время Императорский Штаб армии постоянно связывался с Императорским домом и подробно рассказывал о военной ситуации. 8 октября Сугияма подписал 47-страничный отчет императору (содзёану), в котором подробно излагались планы продвижения в Юго-Восточную Азию. В течение третьей недели октября Сугияма передал императору 51-страничный документ «Материалы в ответ на трон», в котором описывались оперативные перспективы войны. [27]
По мере продолжения подготовки к войне премьер-министр Фумимаро Коноэ оказался во все большей изоляции и 16 октября подал в отставку. Он оправдался перед своим главным секретарем кабинета Кенджи Томита, заявив:
Конечно, Его Величество пацифист, и нет сомнений в том, что он хотел избежать войны. Когда я сказал ему, что начинать войну было ошибкой, он согласился. Но на следующий день он сказал мне: «Ты волновался об этом вчера, но тебе не о чем беспокоиться так сильно». Таким образом, постепенно он начал склоняться к войне. И в следующий раз, когда я встретил его, он склонился еще больше. Короче говоря, я чувствовал, что Император говорил мне: мой премьер-министр не разбирается в военных вопросах, я знаю гораздо больше. Короче говоря, Император впитал в себя взгляд высшего командования армии и флота. [28]
Армия и флот рекомендовали кандидатуру [ разъяснения необходимости ] о Принц Нарухико~d , один из дядь Императора. Согласно «Монологу» Сёва, написанному после войны, Император затем сказал, что если бы война началась, когда член императорского дома был премьер-министром, императорский дом должен был бы нести ответственность, и он был против этого. . [29]
Вместо этого Император выбрал бескомпромиссного генерала Хидеки Тодзё , который был известен своей преданностью имперскому институту, и попросил его провести политический обзор того, что было санкционировано Имперскими конференциями. [ необходима цитата ] 2 ноября Тодзио, Сугияма и Нагано сообщили Императору, что проверка одиннадцати пунктов была напрасной. Император Хирохито дал свое согласие на войну, а затем спросил: «Вы собираетесь предоставить оправдание войне?» [30] было представлено решение для войны против Соединенных Штатов на утверждение Хирохито генерала Тодзио, морского министра адмирала Сигэтаро Симада и министром иностранных дел Японии Сигэнори ToGo . [31]
3 ноября Нагано подробно объяснил Императору план нападения на Перл-Харбор . [32] 5 ноября император Хирохито одобрил на имперской конференции план операций по войне против Запада и провел много встреч с военными и Тодзё до конца месяца. [33] 25 ноября Генри Л. Стимсон , военный министр США, отметил в своем дневнике, что он обсуждал с президентом США Франклином Д. Рузвельтом серьезную вероятность того, что Япония собирается начать внезапное нападение, и что вопрос был в следующем. «как мы должны вывести их [японцев] на позицию для первого выстрела, не допуская слишком большой опасности для себя».
На следующий день, 26 ноября 1941 года, госсекретарь США Корделл Халл вручил японскому послу ноту Халла , которая в качестве одного из условий требовала полного вывода всех японских войск из французского Индокитая и Китая. Премьер-министр Японии Хидэки Тодзё сказал своему кабинету: «Это ультиматум». 1 декабря Имперская конференция санкционировала «войну против Соединенных Штатов, Соединенного Королевства и Королевства Нидерландов». [34]
War: advance and retreat
On 8 December (7 December in Hawaii), 1941, in simultaneous attacks, Japanese forces struck at the Hong Kong Garrison, the US Fleet in Pearl Harbor and in the Philippines, and began the invasion of Malaya.
With the nation fully committed to the war, the Emperor took a keen interest in military progress and sought to boost morale. According to Akira Yamada and Akira Fujiwara, the Emperor made major interventions in some military operations. For example, he pressed Sugiyama four times, on 13 and 21 January and 9 and 26 February, to increase troop strength and launch an attack on Bataan. On 9 February 19 March, and 29 May, the Emperor ordered the Army Chief of staff to examine the possibilities for an attack on Chungking in China, which led to Operation Gogo.[35]
As the tide of war began to turn against Japan (around late 1942 and early 1943), the flow of information to the palace gradually began to bear less and less relation to reality, while others suggest that the Emperor worked closely with Prime Minister Hideki Tojo, continued to be well and accurately briefed by the military, and knew Japan's military position precisely right up to the point of surrender. The chief of staff of the General Affairs section of the Prime Minister's office, Shuichi Inada, remarked to Tōjō's private secretary, Sadao Akamatsu:
There has never been a cabinet in which the prime minister, and all the ministers, reported so often to the throne. In order to effect the essence of genuine direct imperial rule and to relieve the concerns of the Emperor, the ministers reported to the throne matters within the scope of their responsibilities as per the prime minister's directives ... In times of intense activities, typed drafts were presented to the Emperor with corrections in red. First draft, second draft, final draft and so forth, came as deliberations progressed one after the other and were sanctioned accordingly by the Emperor.[36]
In the first six months of war, all the major engagements had been victories. Japanese advances were stopped in the summer of 1942 with the battle of Midway and the landing of the American forces on Guadalcanal and Tulagi in August. The emperor played an increasingly influential role in the war; in eleven major episodes he was deeply involved in supervising the actual conduct of war operations. Hirohito pressured the High Command to order an early attack on the Philippines in 1941–42, including the fortified Bataan peninsula. He secured the deployment of army air power in the Guadalcanal campaign. Following Japan's withdrawal from Guadalcanal he demanded a new offensive in New Guinea, which was duly carried out but failed badly. Unhappy with the navy's conduct of the war, he criticized its withdrawal from the central Solomon Islands and demanded naval battles against the Americans for the losses they had inflicted in the Aleutians. The battles were disasters. Finally, it was at his insistence that plans were drafted for the recapture of Saipan and, later, for an offensive in the Battle of Okinawa.[37] With the Army and Navy bitterly feuding, he settled disputes over the allocation of resources. He helped plan military offenses.[38]
The media, under tight government control, repeatedly portrayed him as lifting the popular morale even as the Japanese cities came under heavy air attack in 1944-45 and food and housing shortages mounted. Japanese retreats and defeats were celebrated by the media as successes that portended "Certain Victory."[39] Only gradually did it become apparent to the Japanese people that the situation was very grim due to growing shortages of food, medicine, and fuel as U.S submarines began wiping out Japanese shipping. Starting in mid 1944, American raids on the major cities of Japan made a mockery of the unending tales of victory. Later that year, with the downfall of Tojo's government, two other prime ministers were appointed to continue the war effort, Kuniaki Koiso and Kantarō Suzuki—each with the formal approval of the Emperor. Both were unsuccessful and Japan was nearing disaster.[40]
Surrender
In early 1945, in the wake of the losses in the Battle of Leyte, Emperor Hirohito began a series of individual meetings with senior government officials to consider the progress of the war. All but ex-Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe advised continuing the war. Konoe feared a communist revolution even more than defeat in war and urged a negotiated surrender. In February 1945, during the first private audience with the Emperor he had been allowed in three years,[41] Konoe advised Hirohito to begin negotiations to end the war. According to Grand Chamberlain Hisanori Fujita, the Emperor, still looking for a tennozan (a great victory) in order to provide a stronger bargaining position, firmly rejected Konoe's recommendation.[42]
With each passing week victory became less likely. In April, the Soviet Union issued notice that it would not renew its neutrality agreement. Japan's ally Germany surrendered in early May 1945. In June, the cabinet reassessed the war strategy, only to decide more firmly than ever on a fight to the last man. This strategy was officially affirmed at a brief Imperial Council meeting, at which, as was normal, the Emperor did not speak.
The following day, Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal Kōichi Kido prepared a draft document which summarized the hopeless military situation and proposed a negotiated settlement. Extremists in Japan were also calling for a death-before-dishonor mass suicide, modeled on the "47 Ronin" incident. By mid-June 1945, the cabinet had agreed to approach the Soviet Union to act as a mediator for a negotiated surrender but not before Japan's bargaining position had been improved by repulse of the anticipated Allied invasion of mainland Japan.
On 22 June, the Emperor met with his ministers saying, "I desire that concrete plans to end the war, unhampered by existing policy, be speedily studied and that efforts be made to implement them." The attempt to negotiate a peace via the Soviet Union came to nothing. There was always the threat that extremists would carry out a coup or foment other violence. On 26 July 1945, the Allies issued the Potsdam Declaration demanding unconditional surrender. The Japanese government council, the Big Six, considered that option and recommended to the Emperor that it be accepted only if one to four conditions were agreed upon, including a guarantee of the Emperor's continued position in Japanese society. The Emperor decided not to surrender.
That changed after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the Soviet declaration of war. On 9 August, Emperor Hirohito told Kōichi Kido: "The Soviet Union has declared war and today began hostilities against us."[43] On 10 August, the cabinet drafted an "Imperial Rescript ending the War" following the Emperor's indications that the declaration did not compromise any demand which prejudiced his prerogatives as a sovereign ruler.
On 12 August 1945, the Emperor informed the imperial family of his decision to surrender. One of his uncles, Prince Yasuhiko Asaka, asked whether the war would be continued if the kokutai (national polity) could not be preserved. The Emperor simply replied "Of course."[44] On 14 August the Suzuki government notified the Allies that it had accepted the Potsdam Declaration.
On 15 August, a recording of the Emperor's surrender speech ("Gyokuon-hōsō", literally "Jewel Voice Broadcast") was broadcast over the radio (the first time the Emperor was heard on the radio by the Japanese people) announcing Japan's acceptance of the Potsdam Declaration. During the historic broadcast the Emperor stated: "Moreover, the enemy has begun to employ a new and most cruel bomb, the power of which to do damage is, indeed, incalculable, taking the toll of many innocent lives. Should we continue to fight, not only would it result in an ultimate collapse and obliteration of the Japanese nation, but also it would lead to the total extinction of human civilization." The speech also noted that "the war situation has developed not necessarily to Japan's advantage" and ordered the Japanese to "endure the unendurable." The speech, using formal, archaic Japanese, was not readily understood by many commoners. According to historian Richard Storry in A History of Modern Japan, the Emperor typically used "a form of language familiar only to the well-educated" and to the more traditional samurai families.[45]
A faction of the army opposed to the surrender attempted a coup d'état on the evening of 14 August, prior to the broadcast. They seized the Imperial Palace (the Kyūjō incident), but the physical recording of the emperor's speech was hidden and preserved overnight. The coup was crushed by the next morning, and the speech was broadcast.[46]
In his first ever press conference given in Tokyo in 1975, when he was asked what he thought of the bombing of Hiroshima, the Emperor answered: "It's very regrettable that nuclear bombs were dropped and I feel sorry for the citizens of Hiroshima but it couldn't be helped because that happened in wartime" (shikata ga nai, meaning "it cannot be helped").[47]
Accountability for Japanese war crimes
The issue of Emperor Hirohito's war responsibility is a controversial matter.[4] There is no consensus among scholars. During wartime the allies frequently depicted Hirohito to equate with Hitler and Mussolini as the three Axis dictators.[48] The apologist thesis, which argues that Hirohito had been a "powerless figurehead" without any implication in wartime policies, was the dominant postwar narrative until 1989.[49][50] After Hirohito's death, critical historians[51] say that Hirohito wielded more power than previously believed,[48][51][52] and he was actively involved in the decision to launch the war as well as in other political and military decisions before.[53] Moderates argue that Hirohito had some involvement, but his power was limited by cabinet members, ministers and other people of the military oligarchy.[54]
The critical thesis
Historians who follow this thesis believe Emperor Hirohito was directly responsible for the atrocities committed by the imperial forces in the Second Sino-Japanese War and in World War II. They feel that he, and some members of the imperial family such as his brother Prince Chichibu, his cousins the princes Takeda and Fushimi, and his uncles the princes Kan'in, Asaka, and Higashikuni, should have been tried for war crimes.[55][56]
The debate over Hirohito's responsibility for war crimes concerns how much real control the Emperor had over the Japanese military during the two wars. Officially, the imperial constitution, adopted under Emperor Meiji, gave full power to the Emperor. Article 4 prescribed that, "The Emperor is the head of the Empire, combining in Himself the rights of sovereignty, and exercises them, according to the provisions of the present Constitution," while according to article 6, "The Emperor gives sanction to laws and orders them to be promulgated and executed," and article 11, "The Emperor has the supreme command of the Army and the Navy." The Emperor was thus the leader of the Imperial General Headquarters.[57]
Poison gas weapons, such as phosgene, were produced by Unit 731 and authorized by specific orders given by Hirohito himself, transmitted by the chief of staff of the army. For example, Hirohito authorised the use of toxic gas 375 times during the Battle of Wuhan from August to October 1938.[4]
Historians such as Herbert Bix, Akira Fujiwara, Peter Wetzler, and Akira Yamada assert that the post-war view focusing on imperial conferences misses the importance of numerous "behind the chrysanthemum curtain" meetings where the real decisions were made between the Emperor, his chiefs of staff, and the cabinet. Historians such as Fujiwara[58] and Wetzler,[59] based on the primary sources and the monumental work of Shirō Hara,[e] have produced evidence suggesting that the Emperor worked through intermediaries to exercise a great deal of control over the military and was neither bellicose nor a pacifist but an opportunist who governed in a pluralistic decision-making process. American historian Herbert P. Bix argues that Emperor Hirohito might have been the prime mover of most of the events of the two wars.[56]
The view promoted by both the Japanese Imperial Palace and the American occupation forces immediately after World War II portrayed Emperor Hirohito as a powerless figurehead behaving strictly according to protocol while remaining at a distance from the decision-making processes. This view was endorsed by Prime Minister Noboru Takeshita in a speech on the day of Hirohito's death in which Takeshita asserted that the war "had broken out against [Hirohito's] wishes." Takeshita's statement provoked outrage in nations in East Asia and Commonwealth nations such as the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.[60] According to historian Fujiwara, "The thesis that the Emperor, as an organ of responsibility, could not reverse cabinet decision is a myth fabricated after the war."[61] Historian Yinan He agrees with Fujiwara, stating that the exoneration of the Emperor was embodied on a myth used to whitewash the complicity of many wartime political actors, including Hirohito.[50]
In Japan, debate over the Emperor's responsibility was taboo while he was still alive. After his death, however, debate began to surface over the extent of his involvement and thus his culpability.[60]
In the years immediately after Hirohito's death, the debate in Japan was fierce. Susan Chira reported, "Scholars who have spoken out against the late Emperor have received threatening phone calls from Japan's extremist right wing."[60] One example of actual violence occurred in 1990 when the mayor of Nagasaki, Hitoshi Motoshima, was shot and critically wounded by a member of the ultranationalist group, Seikijuku. A year before, in 1989, Motoshima had broken what was characterized as "one of [Japan's] most sensitive taboos" by asserting that Emperor Hirohito bore responsibility for World War II.[62]
Kentarō Awaya argues that post-war Japanese public opinion supporting protection of the Emperor was influenced by U.S. propaganda promoting the view that the Emperor together with the Japanese people had been fooled by the military.[63]
Regarding Hirohito's exemption from trial before the International Military Tribunal of the Far East, opinions were not unanimous. Sir William Webb, the president of the tribunal, declared: "This immunity of the Emperor is contrasted with the part he played in launching the war in the Pacific, is, I think, a matter which the tribunal should take into consideration in imposing the sentences."[64]
An account from the Vice Interior Minister in 1941, Michio Yuzawa, asserts that Hirohito was "at ease" with the attack on Pearl Harbor "once he had made a decision."[65]
Vice Interior Minister Yuzawa's account on Hirohito's role in Pearl Harbor raid
In late July 2018, the bookseller Takeo Hatano, an acquaintance of the descendants of Michio Yuzawa (Japanese Vice Interior Minister in 1941), released to Japan's Yomiuri Shimbun newspaper a memo by Yuzawa that Hatano had kept for nine years since he received it from Yuzawa's family. The bookseller said: "It took me nine years to come forward, as I was afraid of a backlash. But now I hope the memo would help us figure out what really happened during the war, in which 3.1 million people were killed."[65]
Takahisa Furukawa, expert on wartime history from Nihon University, confirmed the authenticity of the memo, calling it "the first look at the thinking of Emperor Hirohito and Prime Minister Hideki Tojo on the eve of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor."[65]
In this document, Yuzawa details a conversation he had with Tojo a few hours before the attack. The Vice Minister quotes Tojo saying:
"The Emperor seemed at ease and unshakable once he had made a decision."[65]
"If His Majesty had any regret over negotiations with Britain and the U.S., he would have looked somewhat grim. There was no such indication, which must be a result of his determination. I'm completely relieved. Given the current conditions, I could say we have practically won already."[65]
Historian Furukawa concluded from Yuzawa's memo:
"Tojo is a bureaucrat who was incapable of making own decisions, so he turned to the Emperor as his supervisor. That's why he had to report everything for the Emperor to decide. If the Emperor didn't say no, then he would proceed."[65]
Shinobu Kobayashi's diary
In August 2018, the diary of Shinobu Kobayashi, the Emperor's chamberlain between 1974 and 2000, was released.[66] This diary contains numerous quotes from Hirohito (see below).
Jennifer Lind, associate professor of government at Darthmouth College and specialist in Japanese war memory, concluded from these quotes:
"Over the years, these different pieces of evidence have trickled out and historians have amassed this picture of culpability and how he was reflecting on that."[67]
"This is another piece of the puzzle that very much confirms that the picture that was taking place before, which is that he was extremely culpable, and after the war he was devastated about this."[67]
Similarly, historian Takahisa Furukawa concluded:
"(The Emperor) has long assumed responsibility for the war; as he got older, that feeling became stronger."[68]
The moderate thesis
After the death of Emperor Shōwa, on 14 February 1989 (Heisei 1), the Cabinet Committee of the House of Councilors at the time (Prime Minister Noboru Takeshita, Cabinet of Takeshita), Secretary-General of the Cabinet Legislation Bureau, Mimura Osamu (味村治) said, "There are no responsibilities for war under domestic law or international law due to the two points of no response and no prosecution in the International Military Tribunal for the Far East according to Article 3 of the Constitution of the Empire of Japan."
It is also argued that the Emperor did not defy the military oligarchy that got Japan into World War II until the first atomic bomb fell on Hiroshima. This is supported by Hirohito's personal statements during interviews. It is also pointed out that the Emperors had for millennia been a great symbolic authority, but had little political power. Thus Hirohito had little reason to defy the military oligarchy. The Emperor could not defy cabinet's decision to start World War II and he was not trained or accustomed to do so. Hirohito said he only received reports about military operations after the military commanders made detailed decisions. Hirohito stated that he only made his own decisions twice: for the February 26 Incident and the end of World War II.
The declassified January 1989 British government assessment of Hirohito describes him as "too weak to alter the course of events" and Hirohito was "powerless" and comparisons with Hitler are "ridiculously wide off the mark." Hirohito's power was limited by ministers and the military and if he asserted his views too much he would have been replaced by another member of the royal family.[54]
There are scholars who support that Hirohito was exempted from the International Military Tribunal for the Far East. For example Indian jurist Radhabinod Pal opposed the International Military Tribunal and made a 1,235-page judgment.[69] He found the entire prosecution case to be weak regarding the conspiracy to commit an act of aggressive war with brutalization and subjugation of conquered nations. Pal said there is "no evidence, testimonial or circumstantial, concomitant, prospectant, restrospectant, that would in any way lead to the inference that the government in any way permitted the commission of such offenses,".[70] He added that conspiracy to wage aggressive war was not illegal in 1937, or at any point since.[70] Pal supported the acquittal of all of the defendants. He considered the Japanese military operations as justified, because Chiang Kai-shek supported the boycott of trade operations by the Western Powers, particularly the United States boycott of oil exports to Japan. Pal argued the attacks on neighboring territories were justified to protect the Japanese Empire from an aggressive environment, especially the Soviet Union. He considered that to be self-defense operations which are not criminal. Pal said "the real culprits are not before us" and concluded that "only a lost war is an international crime".
The Emperor's own statements
- 8 September 1975 TV interview with NBC, USA [71]
- Reporter: "How far has your Majesty been involved in Japan's decision to end the war in 1945? What was the motivation for your launch?"
- Emperor: "Originally, this should be done by the Cabinet. I heard the results, but at the last meeting I asked for a decision. I decided to end the war on my own. (...) I thought that the continuation of the war would only bring more misery to the people."
- Interview with Newsweek, USA, 20 September 1975 [72]
- Reporter: "(Abbreviation) How do you answer those who claim that your Majesty was also involved in the decision-making process that led Japan to start the war?"
- Emperor: "(Omission) At the start of the war, a cabinet decision was made, and I could not reverse that decision. We believe this is consistent with the provisions of the Imperial Constitution."
- 22 September 1975-Press conference with Foreign Correspondents [73]
- Reporter: "How long before the attack on Pearl Harbor did your Majesty know about the attack plan? And did you approve the plan?"
- Emperor: "It is true that I had received information on military operations in advance. However, I only received those reports after the military commanders made detailed decisions. Regarding issues of political character and military command, I believe that I acted in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution."
- On 31 October 1975, a press conference was held immediately after returning to the United States after visiting Japan. [74][75]
- Question: "Your majesty, at your White House banquet you said, 'I deeply deplore that unfortunate war.' (See also Emperor Shōwa's Theory of War Responsibility.) Does your majesty feel responsibility for the war itself, including the opening of hostilities? Also, what does your majesty think about so-called war responsibility?" ( The Times reporter)
- Emperor: "I can't answer that kind of question because I haven't thoroughly studied the literature in this field, and so don't really appreciate the nuances of your words."
- Question: "How did you understand that the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima at the end of the war?" ( RCC Broadcasting Reporter)
- Emperor: "I am sorry that the atomic bomb was dropped, but because of this war, I feel sorry for the citizens of Hiroshima, but I think it is unavoidable."
- 17 April 1981 Press conference with the presidents of the press [76]
- Reporter: "What was the most enjoyable of your memories of eighty years?"
- Emperor: "Since I saw the constitutional politics of Britain as the Crown Prince, I felt strongly that I must adhere to the constitutional politics. But I was too particular about it to prevent the war. I made my own decisions twice ( February 26 Incident and the end of World War II)."
British government assessment of Hirohito
A January 1989 declassified British government assessment of Hirohito said the Emperor was "uneasy with Japan's drift to war in the 1930s and 1940s but was too weak to alter the course of events." The dispatch by John Whitehead, former ambassador of the United Kingdom to Japan, to Foreign Secretary Geoffrey Howe was declassified on Thursday 20 July 2017 at the National Archives in London. Britain's ambassador to Japan John Whitehead stated in 1989:[54]
"By personality and temperament, Hirohito was ill-suited to the role assigned to him by destiny. The successors of the men who had led the Meiji Restoration yearned for a charismatic warrior king. Instead, they were given an introspective prince who grew up to be more at home in the science laboratory than on the military parade ground. But in his early years, every effort was made to cast him in a different mould."[54]
"A man of stronger personality than Hirohito might have tried more strenuously to check the growing influence of the military in Japanese politics and the drift of Japan toward war with the western powers." "The contemporary diary evidence suggests that Hirohito was uncomfortable with the direction of Japanese policy." "The consensus of those who have studied the documents of the period is that Hirohito was consistent in attempting to use his personal influence to induce caution and to moderate and even obstruct the growing impetus toward war."[54]
Whitehead concludes that ultimately Hirohito was "powerless" and comparisons with Hitler are "ridiculously wide off the mark." If Hirohito acted too insistently with his views he could have been isolated or replaced with a more pliant member of the royal family. The pre-war Meiji Constitution defined the emperor as "sacred" and all-powerful, but according to Whitehead, Hirohito's power was limited by ministers and the military. Whitehead explained after World War II that Hirohito's humility was fundamental for the Japanese people to accept the new 1947 constitution and allied occupation.[54]
Hirohito's quotes in chamberlain Kobayashi's diary
Shinobu Kobayashi was the Emperor's chamberlain from April 1974 until June 2000, when Empress Kōjun died. Kobayashi kept a diary with near-daily remarks of Hirohito for 26 years. It was made public on Wednesday 22 August 2018. The rare diary was borrowed from Kobayashi's family by Kyodo News and analyzed by Kyodo News with writer and history expert of the Shōwa era Kazutoshi Hando and nonfiction writer Masayasu Hosaka.[66] Here are some quotes from the diary:
On 27 May 1980, the Emperor wanted to express his regret about the Sino-Japanese war to former Chinese Premier Hua Guofeng who visited at the time, but was stopped by senior members of the Imperial Household Agency due to fear of backlash from far right groups.[66]
On 7 April 1987, two years before his death, this diary entry shows the Emperor was haunted by perceived discussions about World War 2 responsibility and lost the will to live.[66] Prince Takamatsu died in February 1987.
There is no point in living a longer life by reducing my workload. It would only increase my chances of seeing or hearing things that are agonizing,[66]
I have experienced the deaths of my brother and relatives and have been told about my war responsibility,[66]
Kobayashi tried to soothe the Emperor by saying:
"Only a few people talk about (your) war responsibility." "Given how the country has developed today from postwar rebuilding, it is only a page in history. You do not have to worry,"[66]
Senior chamberlain, Ryogo Urabe's diary entry of the same day supports the remarks stating that Kobayashi "tried to soothe" the Emperor, when he said "there is nothing good in living long".[66]
Послевоенное царствование
As the Emperor chose his uncle Prince Higashikuni as prime minister to assist the American occupation, there were attempts by numerous leaders to have him put on trial for alleged war crimes. Many members of the imperial family, such as Princes Chichibu, Takamatsu, and Higashikuni, pressured the Emperor to abdicate so that one of the Princes could serve as regent until Crown Prince Akihito came of age.[77] On 27 February 1946, the Emperor's youngest brother, Prince Mikasa, even stood up in the privy council and indirectly urged the Emperor to step down and accept responsibility for Japan's defeat. According to Minister of Welfare Ashida's diary, "Everyone seemed to ponder Mikasa's words. Never have I seen His Majesty's face so pale."[78]
U.S. General Douglas MacArthur insisted that Emperor Hirohito retain the throne. MacArthur saw the Emperor as a symbol of the continuity and cohesion of the Japanese people. Some historians criticize the decision to exonerate the Emperor and all members of the imperial family who were implicated in the war, such as Prince Chichibu, Prince Asaka, Prince Higashikuni, and Prince Hiroyasu Fushimi, from criminal prosecutions.[79]
Before the war crime trials actually convened, the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, its International Prosecution Section (IPS) and Japanese officials worked behind the scenes not only to prevent the Imperial family from being indicted, but also to influence the testimony of the defendants to ensure that no one implicated the Emperor. High officials in court circles and the Japanese government collaborated with Allied General Headquarters in compiling lists of prospective war criminals, while the individuals arrested as Class A suspects and incarcerated solemnly vowed to protect their sovereign against any possible taint of war responsibility.[80] Thus, "months before the Tokyo tribunal commenced, MacArthur's highest subordinates were working to attribute ultimate responsibility for Pearl Harbor to Hideki Tōjō"[81] by allowing "the major criminal suspects to coordinate their stories so that the Emperor would be spared from indictment."[82] According to John W. Dower, "This successful campaign to absolve the Emperor of war responsibility knew no bounds. Hirohito was not merely presented as being innocent of any formal acts that might make him culpable to indictment as a war criminal, he was turned into an almost saintly figure who did not even bear moral responsibility for the war."[83] According to Bix, "MacArthur's truly extraordinary measures to save Hirohito from trial as a war criminal had a lasting and profoundly distorting impact on Japanese understanding of the lost war."[84]
Imperial status
Hirohito was not put on trial, but he was forced[85] to explicitly reject the quasi-official claim that the Emperor of Japan was an arahitogami, i.e., an incarnate divinity. This was motivated by the fact that, according to the Japanese constitution of 1889, the Emperor had a divine power over his country which was derived from the Shinto belief that the Japanese Imperial Family were the descendants of the sun goddess Amaterasu. Hirohito was however persistent in the idea that the Emperor of Japan should be considered a descendant of the gods. In December 1945, he told his vice-grand-chamberlain Michio Kinoshita: "It is permissible to say that the idea that the Japanese are descendants of the gods is a false conception; but it is absolutely impermissible to call chimerical the idea that the Emperor is a descendant of the gods."[86] In any case, the "renunciation of divinity" was noted more by foreigners than by Japanese, and seems to have been intended for the consumption of the former.[f] The theory of a constitutional monarchy had already had some proponents in Japan. In 1935, when Tatsukichi Minobe advocated the theory that sovereignty resides in the state, of which the Emperor is just an organ (the tennō kikan setsu), it caused a furor. He was forced to resign from the House of Peers and his post at the Tokyo Imperial University, his books were banned, and an attempt was made on his life.[87] Not until 1946 was the tremendous step made to alter the Emperor's title from "imperial sovereign" to "constitutional monarch."
Although the Emperor had supposedly repudiated claims to divinity, his public position was deliberately left vague, partly because General MacArthur thought him probable to be a useful partner to get the Japanese to accept the occupation and partly due to behind-the-scenes maneuvering by Shigeru Yoshida to thwart attempts to cast him as a European-style monarch.
Nevertheless, Hirohito's status as a limited constitutional monarch was formalized with the enactment of the 1947 Constitution–officially, an amendment to the Meiji Constitution. It defined the Emperor as "the symbol of the state and the unity of the people," and stripped him of even nominal power in government matters. His role was limited to matters of state as delineated in the Constitution, and in most cases his actions in that realm were carried out in accordance with the binding instructions of the Cabinet.
Following the Iranian Revolution and the end of the short-lived Central African Empire, both in 1979, Hirohito found himself the last monarch in the world to bear any variation of the highest royal title "emperor."
Public figure
For the rest of his life, Hirohito was an active figure in Japanese life and performed many of the duties commonly associated with a constitutional head of state. He and his family maintained a strong public presence, often holding public walkabouts and making public appearances on special events and ceremonies. For example, in 1947, the Emperor made a public visit to Hiroshima and held a speech in front of a massive crowd encouraging the city's citizens. He also played an important role in rebuilding Japan's diplomatic image, traveling abroad to meet with many foreign leaders, including Queen Elizabeth II (1971) and President Gerald Ford (1975). He was not only the first reigning emperor to travel beyond Japan, but also the first to meet a President of the United States.[88] His status and image became strongly positive in the United States.[89]
Year | Departure | Return | Visited | Accompany | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1971 (Shōwa 46) | 27 September | 14 October | Belgium, United Kingdom, Germany, ( United States), Denmark, France, Netherlands, Switzerland | Empress Kōjun | International friendship |
1975 (Shōwa 50) | 30 September | 14 October | United States | Empress Kōjun | International friendship |
Visit to Europe
In 1971 (Shōwa 46), the Emperor visited seven European countries, including the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Switzerland again, for 17 days from 27 September to 14 October. In this case, a special aircraft Douglas DC-8 of Japan Airlines was used unlike the previous visit by ship. Although not counted as a visit, at that time, the Emperor stopped by Anchorage, Alaska as a stopover, and met with United States President Richard Nixon from Washington, DC, at the Alaska District Army Command House at Elmendorf Air Force Base.
The talks between Emperor Shōwa and President Nixon were not planned at the outset, because initially the stop in the United States was only for refueling to visit Europe. However, the meeting was decided in a hurry at the request of the United States. Although the Japanese side accepted the request, Minister for Foreign Affairs Takeo Fukuda made a public telephone call to the Japanese ambassador to the United States Nobuhiko Ushiba, who promoted talks, saying, "that will cause me a great deal of trouble. We want to correct the perceptions of the other party." At that time, Foreign Minister Fukuda was worried that President Nixon's talks with the Emperor would be used to repair the deteriorating Japan-U.S. Relations, and he was concerned that the premise of the symbolic emperor system could fluctuate.[91][92]
There was an early visit, with deep royal exchanges in Denmark and Belgium, and in France they were warmly welcomed. In France, Hirohito reunited with Edward VIII, who had abdicated in 1936 and was virtually in exile, and they chatted for a while. However, protests were held in Britain and the Netherlands by veterans who had served in the South-East Asian theatre and civilian victims of the brutal occupation there. In the Netherlands, raw eggs and vacuum flasks were thrown. The protest was so severe that Empress Kōjun, who accompanied the Emperor, was exhausted. In the United Kingdom, protestors stood in silence and turned their backs when the Emperor's carriage passed them while others wore red gloves to symbolize the dead.[93] The satirical magazine Private Eye used a racist double entendre to refer to the emperor's visit ("nasty Nip in the air").[94]
Regarding these protests and opposition, Emperor Shōwa was not surprised to have received a report in advance at a press conference on 12 November after returning to Japan and said that "I do not think that welcome can be ignored" from each country.[95] Also, at a press conference following their golden wedding anniversary three years later, along with the Empress, he mentioned this visit to Europe as his most enjoyable memory in 50 years.[95]
Visit to the United States
In 1975, the Emperor was invited to visit the United States for 14 days from 30 September to 14 October, at the invitation of President Gerald Ford. The visit was the first such event in US–Japanese history.[g] The United States Army, Navy and Air Force, as well as the Marine Corps and the Coast Guard honored the state visit. Before and after the visit, a series of terrorist attacks in Japan were caused by anti-American left-wing organizations such as the East Asia Anti-Japan Armed Front.
After arriving in Williamsburg, Emperor Shōwa stayed in the United States for two weeks, overturning prior expectations[citation needed] and was greatly welcomed in places he visited, including Washington, D.C. and Los Angeles. The official meeting with President Ford was on 2 October, the offering of flowers to the graves of unknown soldiers at Arlington National Cemetery occurred on 3 October, visiting Rockefeller House in New York was on 4 October with US media. Then, the front page of newspapers[citation needed] had a photograph of Emperor Shōwa. When visiting New York, the Pearl Harbor Survivors Association, which consists of survivors of the Attack on Pearl Harbor, adopted the Emperor's Welcome Resolution[citation needed]. During his visit, he seemed to be a scholar[citation needed], with many occasions at botanical gardens.
In a speech at the White House state dinner, Hirohito read, "Thanks to the United States for helping to rebuild Japan after the war." During his stay in Los Angeles, he visited Disneyland, and a smiling photo next to Mickey Mouse adorned the newspapers[citation needed], and there was talk about the purchase of a Mickey Mouse watch. Two types of commemorative stamps and stamp sheets were issued on the day of their return to Japan[citation needed] which demonstrated that the visit had been a significant undertaking. This was the last visit of Emperor Shōwa to the United States. The official press conference held by the Emperor and Empress before and after their visit also marked a breakthrough.[citation needed]
Marine biology
The Emperor was deeply interested in and well-informed about marine biology, and the Imperial Palace contained a laboratory from which the Emperor published several papers in the field under his personal name "Hirohito."[96] His contributions included the description of several dozen species of Hydrozoa new to science.[97]
Yasukuni Shrine
The Emperor maintained an official boycott of the Yasukuni Shrine after it was revealed to him that Class-A war criminals had secretly been enshrined after its post-war rededication. This boycott lasted from 1978 until his death. The boycott was continued by his son, Akihito.
On 20 July 2006, Nihon Keizai Shimbun published a front-page article about the discovery of a memorandum[citation needed] detailing the reason that the Emperor stopped visiting Yasukuni. The memorandum, kept by former chief of Imperial Household Agency Tomohiko Tomita, confirms for the first time that the enshrinement of 14 Class-A war criminals in Yasukuni was the reason for the boycott. Tomita recorded in detail the contents of his conversations with the Emperor in his diaries and notebooks[citation needed]. According to the memorandum, in 1988, the Emperor expressed his strong displeasure at the decision made by Yasukuni Shrine to include Class-A war criminals in the list of war dead honored there by saying, "At some point, Class-A criminals became enshrined, including Matsuoka and Shiratori. I heard Tsukuba acted cautiously." Tsukuba is believed to refer to Fujimaro Tsukuba, the former chief Yasukuni priest at the time, who decided not to enshrine the war criminals despite having received in 1966 the list of war dead compiled by the government. "What's on the mind of Matsudaira's son, who is the current head priest?" "Matsudaira had a strong wish for peace, but the child didn't know the parent's heart. That's why I have not visited the shrine since. This is my heart." Matsudaira is believed to refer to Yoshitami Matsudaira, who was the grand steward of the Imperial Household immediately after the end of World War II. His son, Nagayoshi, succeeded Fujimaro Tsukuba as the chief priest of Yasukuni and decided to enshrine the war criminals in 1978.[98] Nagayoshi Matsudaira died in 2006, which some commentators[citation needed] have speculated is the reason for release of the memo.
Смерть и государственные похороны
On 22 September 1987, the Emperor underwent surgery on his pancreas after having digestive problems for several months. The doctors discovered that he had duodenal cancer. The Emperor appeared to be making a full recovery for several months after the surgery. About a year later, however, on 19 September 1988, he collapsed in his palace, and his health worsened over the next several months as he suffered from continuous internal bleeding. The Emperor died at 6:33 AM on 7 January 1989 at the age of 87. The announcement from the grand steward of Japan's Imperial Household Agency, Shoichi Fujimori, revealed details about his cancer for the first time. Hirohito was survived by his wife, his five surviving children, ten grandchildren, and one great-grandchild.[12]
At the time of his death he was both the longest-lived and longest-reigning historical Japanese emperor, as well as the longest-reigning monarch in the world at that time. The latter distinction passed to king Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand when he surpassed him in July 2008 until his own death on 13 October 2016.[99]
The Emperor was succeeded by his son, Akihito, whose enthronement ceremony was held on 12 November 1990.
The Emperor's death ended the Shōwa era. On the same day a new era began: the Heisei era, effective at midnight the following day. From 7 January until 31 January, the Emperor's formal appellation was "Departed Emperor." His definitive posthumous name, Shōwa Tennō, was determined on 13 January and formally released on 31 January by Toshiki Kaifu, the prime minister.
On 24 February, the Emperor's state funeral was held, and unlike that of his predecessor, it was formal but not conducted in a strictly Shinto manner. A large number of world leaders attended the funeral. Hirohito is buried in the Musashi Imperial Graveyard in Hachiōji, alongside his father, Emperor Taishō.
Титулы, стили, почести и оружие
Styles ofHirohito | |
---|---|
Reference style | His Majesty |
Spoken style | Your Majesty |
Military appointments
- Second Lieutenant, IJA and Second Sub-Lieutenant, IJN (9 September 1912)
- Lieutenant, IJA and Sub-Lieutenant, IJN (31 October 1914)
- Captain, IJA and Lieutenant, IJN (31 October 1916)
- Major, IJA and Lieutenant-Commander, IJN (31 October 1920)
- Lieutenant-Colonel, IJA and Commander, IJN (31 October 1923)
- Colonel, IJA and Captain, IJN (31 October 1924)
- Grand Marshal and Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Empire of Japan (25 December 1926; upon ascending the throne)[100]
Foreign military appointments
- United Kingdom: Honorary General in the British Army; appointed in May 1921[101][102]
- United Kingdom: Field-Marshal of Regular Army in the British Army; appointed in June 1930[103]
National honours
- Collar and Grand Cordon of the Supreme Order of the Chrysanthemum
- Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Blossoms
- Grand Cordon of the Order of the Golden Kite (abolished in 1947)
- Grand Cordon of the Order of the Sacred Treasure
Foreign honours
- Germany: Grand Cross Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
- Finland: Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of the White Rose of Finland; conferred in 1942[104] (Finland and Japan were, for a time, on the same side in World War II 1941–1944), the swastika collar was replaced by fir cross collar[citation needed] within the state visit[clarification needed] of the president of Finland Mauno Koivisto in 1986
- Norway: Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of St. Olav
- Sweden: Knight with Collar of the Royal Order of the Seraphim (8 May 1919)[105]
- Denmark: Knight of the Order of the Elephant (24 January 1923)[106]
- Poland: Knight of the Order of the White Eagle (1922)[107]
- Thailand: Knight of the Order of the Rajamitrabhorn (27 May 1963)[108]
- Thailand: Knight of the Order of the Royal House of Chakri (30 January 1925)[109]
- Nepal: Member of the Order of Ojaswi Rajanya (19 April 1960)[110]
- Philippines: Grand Collar of the Order of Sikatuna (28 September 1966)[111]
- Brazil: Grand Cross of the Order of the Southern Cross (1955)[112]
- Italian Royal Family: Knight of the Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation (31 October 1916)[113]
- Italy: Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (9 March 1982)[114]
- Belgium: Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold
- Tonga: Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Royal Order of Pouono[115]
- United Kingdom: Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO) – conferred in May 1921
- United Kingdom: Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (civil division) (GCB) – conferred in May 1921[116]
- United Kingdom: Stranger Knight of the Order of the Garter (KG); conferred in 1929, revoked in 1941, restored in 1971[117]
- United Kingdom: Elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1971[118]
- Brunei: 1st Class of the Order of the Crown of Brunei
- Spain: Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece (6 October 1928)[119][120]
- Spain: Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Charles III (4 June 1923)[121]
- Greek Royal Family: Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer
- Greek Royal Family: Collar of the Order of Saints George and Constantine
- Czechoslovakia: Collar of the Order of the White Lion (1928)[122]
- Ethiopian Imperial Family: Collar of the Order of Solomon[123]
Проблема
Emperor Shōwa and Empress Kōjun had seven children, two sons and five daughters.
Name | Birth | Death | Marriage | Issue | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Shigeko, Princess Teru | 9 December 1925 | 23 July 1961 | 10 October 1943 | Prince Morihiro Higashikuni | Prince Nobuhiko Higashikuni Princess Fumiko Higashikuni Naohiko Higashikuni Hidehiko Higashikuni Yūko Higashikuni |
Sachiko, Princess Hisa | 10 September 1927 | 8 March 1928 | |||
Kazuko, Princess Taka | 30 September 1929 | 26 May 1989 | 20 May 1950 | Toshimichi Takatsukasa | Naotake Takatsukasa (adopted) |
Atsuko, Princess Yori | 7 March 1931 | 10 October 1952 | Takamasa Ikeda | ||
Akihito, Emperor Emeritus of Japan | 23 December 1933 | 10 April 1959 | Michiko Shōda | Naruhito, Emperor of Japan Fumihito, Prince Akishino Sayako Kuroda | |
Masahito, Prince Hitachi | 28 November 1935 | 30 September 1964 | Hanako Tsugaru | ||
Takako, Princess Suga | 2 March 1939 | 10 March 1960 | Hisanaga Shimazu | Yoshihisa Shimazu |
Родословная
[124][better source needed]
8. Osahito, Emperor Kōmei (1831–1867) | |||||||||||||||
4. Mutsuhito, Emperor Meiji (1852–1912) | |||||||||||||||
9. Lady Nakayama Yoshiko (1836–1907) | |||||||||||||||
2. Yoshihito, Emperor Taishō (1879–1926) | |||||||||||||||
10. Yanagihara Mitsunaru (1818–1885) | |||||||||||||||
5. Lady Yanagihara Naruko (1859–1943) | |||||||||||||||
11. Utano Hasegawa (1832–1891) | |||||||||||||||
1. Hirohito, Emperor Shōwa | |||||||||||||||
12. Kujō Hisatada (1798–1871) | |||||||||||||||
6. Prince Kujō Michitaka (1839–1906) | |||||||||||||||
13. Lady Karahashi Meiko (1796–1881) | |||||||||||||||
3. Sadako, Empress Teimei (1884–1951) | |||||||||||||||
14. Noma Yorioki | |||||||||||||||
7. Noma Ikuko | |||||||||||||||
15. Yamokushi Kairi | |||||||||||||||
Научные публикации
- (1967) A review of the hydroids of the family Clathrozonidae with description of a new genus and species from Japan.[125]
- (1969) Some hydroids from the Amakusa Islands.[126]
- (1971) Additional notes on Clathrozoon wilsoni Spencer.[127]
- (1974) Some hydrozoans of the Bonin Islands.[128]
- (1977) Five hydroid species from the Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea.[129]
- (1983) Hydroids from Izu Oshima and Nijima.[130]
- (1984) A new hydroid Hydractinia bayeri n. sp. (family Hydractiniidae) from the Bay of Panama.[131]
- (1988) The hydroids of Sagami Bay collected by His Majesty the Emperor of Japan.[132]
- (1995) The hydroids of Sagami Bay II. (posthumous)[133]
Смотрите также
- Japanese nationalism
- Otoya Yamaguchi
- The Sun – a biographical film about the Emperor
Заметки
- ^ /ˌhɪəroʊˈhiːtoʊ, ˌhɪrəˈ-/,[1][2] Japanese: [çiɾoꜜçi̥to]
- ^ 大日本帝国 Dai Nippon Teikoku
- ^ 日本国 Nippon-koku
- ^ The first foreign trip made by the Crown Prince was made in 1907 by the Crown Prince Yoshihito to the then Korean Empire. During that time, while it was considered a foreign country, it had become a colonial protectorate of Japan and would be eventually be annexed.
- ^ Former member of section 20 of War operations of the Army high command, Hara has made a detailed study of the way military decisions were made, including the Emperor's involvement published in five volumes in 1973–74 under the title Daihon'ei senshi; Daitōa Sensō kaisen gaishi; Kaisen ni itaru seisentyaku shidō (Imperial Headquarters war history; General history of beginning hostilities in the Greater East Asia War; Leadership and political strategy with respect to the beginning of hostilities).
- ^ Many foreigners, including those from the occupying power, were from Western countries steeped in monotheistic Abrahamic traditions.
- ^ The reason a visit had not occurred prior to this was, in part, due to the fact that the Act for Extraordinary Vicarious Execution of State Affairs had not yet been put into law. Despite this, visits to the United States had been planned in 1973 and 1974, but never occurred due to lack of coordination.
Рекомендации
Citations
- ^ "Hirohito". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins.
- ^ "Hirohito" (US) and "Hirohito". Oxford Dictionaries UK Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 30 April 2019.
- ^ Northedge, Frederick S. (1986). The League of Nations: Its Life and Times, 1920–1946. New York: Holmes & Meier. pp. 42–48. ISBN 978-0841910652.
- ^ a b c Yoshimi, Yoshiaki; Matsuno, Seiya (1997). Dokugasusen Kankei Shiryō II (毒ガス戦関係資料. II), Kaisetsu. Jugonen Sensō Gokuhi Shiryoshu (十五年戦争極秘資料集). Tōkyō: Fuji Shuppan. pp. 27–29.
- ^ Maddison, Angus, Contours of the World Economy, 1–2030 AD. 2007, p. 379, table A.4.
- ^ "BBC - History - Historic Figures: Emperor Hirohito (1901-1989)". www.bbc.co.uk.
- ^ Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan, p. 337.
- ^ Bix, Herbert P. (2001). Hirohito and the making of modern Japan (Book) (1st Perennial ed.). New York: Perennial. pp. 22–23. ISBN 978-0060931308.
- ^ Ponsonby-Fane, p. 338; see File:Crowd awaiting Crown Prince Tokyo Dec1916.jpg, New York Times. 3 December 1916.
- ^ 小田部雄次 『天皇・皇室を知る事典』211頁(東京堂出版・2007年)
- ^ a b 早野透 (September 2001). "(97)昭和天皇". In 朝日新聞社 編 (ed.). 100人の20世紀. 朝日文庫. 下. 朝日新聞社. p. 445. ISBN 4022613513.
- ^ a b "Hirohito's survivors". Los Angeles Times. 7 January 1989. Retrieved 3 December 2016.
- ^ a b Varley, H. Paul, ed. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley), p. 44. [A distinct act of senso is unrecognized prior to Emperor Tenji; and all sovereigns except Jitō, Yōzei, Go-Toba, and Fushimi have senso and sokui in the same year until the reign of Go-Murakami;] Ponsonby-Fane, p. 350.
- ^ Ponsonby-Fane, p. 349.
- ^ Ponsonby-Fane, pp. 136–137.
- ^ Mikiso Hane, Emperor Hirohito and His Chief Aide-de-camp, The Honjō Diary, 1983; Honjō Nikki, Hara Shobō, 1975.
- ^ Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi (1991). "Emperor Hirohito on Localized Aggression in China" (PDF). Sino-Japanese Studies. 4 (1): 4–27. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 3 February 2008.
- ^ Fujiwara, Nitchū Sensō ni Okeru Horyo Gyakusatsu, Kikan Sensō Sekinin Kenkyū 9, 1995, pp. 20-21.
- ^ Dokugasusen Kankei Shiryō II, Kaisetsu, 1997, pp. 25–29.
- ^ Dokugasusen Kankei Shiryō II, Kaisetsu, 1997, p. 28.
- ^ Hidenari, pp. 106–108, Wetzler, pp. 25, 231.
- ^ Bix, Herbert P. (2001). Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan. Harper Collins. pp. 411, 745. ISBN 9780060931308.
- ^ Prange, G. W., Dillon, K. V., Goldstein, D. M. (1991). At Dawn We Slept: The Untold Story of Pearl Harbor; Revised Edition. United Kingdom: Penguin Publishing Group.
- ^ Pike, F. (2016). Hirohito's War: The Pacific War, 1941-1945. United Kingdom: Bloomsbury Publishing.
- ^ MacArthur. "Chapter III: Politico-Military Evolution Toward War". www.history.army.mil. Retrieved 17 September 2016.
- ^ "Historical Events Today: 1867 – Prince Mutsuhito, 14, becomes Emperor Meiji of Japan (1867–1912)". This-is-japan.com. 22 July 2002. Archived from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved 3 December 2016.
- ^ Wetzler, pp. 52–54.
- ^ Fujiwara, Shōwa tennō no jūgo-nen sensō, 1991, p. 126, citing Kenji Tomita's diary.
- ^ Hidenari, p. 118.
- ^ Bix, p. 421; Wetzler, pp. 47–50.
- ^ Day of Deceit, Robert B. Stinnett, New York, 2000, p. 143.
- ^ Wetzler, pp. 29, 35.
- ^ Bix, pp. 424, 430-31
- ^ Bartsch, William H. (2003). December 8, 1941: MacArthur's Pearl Harbor. p.187.
- ^ Yamada, pp. 180, 181, 185; Fujiwara, pp. 135–138.
- ^ Akamatsu's diary, in Wetzler, p. 50.
- ^ Herbert Bix, "Emperor Hirohito's war," History Today, (Dec 1991), 41#12
- ^ Herbert P. Bix "Japan's Delayed Surrender: a Reinterpretation." Diplomatic History 1995 19(2): 197-225. online.
- ^ David C. Earhart, Certain Victory: Images of World War II in the Japanese Media (2015).
- ^ Robert A. Pape (2014). Bombing to Win: Air Power and Coercion in War. pp. 117–118. ISBN 9780801471513.
- ^ Bix, p. 756.
- ^ Fujita Hisanori, Jijûchô no kaisô, Chûô Kôronsha, 1987, pp. 66–67, Bix, p. 489.
- ^ Kido Kōichi Nikki, p. 1223.
- ^ Hidenari, p. 129.
- ^ Storry, Richard (1991). A History of Modern Japan. Penguin.
- ^ "Hirohito's "Jewel Voice Broadcast"". The Air Force Association. August 2012. Archived from the original on 10 September 2013. Retrieved 14 August 2013.
- ^ Bix, p. 676; Dower, p. 606.
- ^ a b Divine, Dr. Robert A. (2005). Warriors and Scholars: A Modern War reader., edited by Peter B. Lane and Ronald E. Marcello, pp. 94-96
- ^ Dian, Matteo (2017). Contested Memories in Chinese and Japanese Foreign Policy., p.82
- ^ a b He, Yinan (2009). The Search for Reconciliation:Sino-Japanese and German-Polish Relations since World War II., pp. 125 and 126
- ^ a b "Emperor Hirohito". Atomic Heritage Foundation.
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Sources
External video | |
---|---|
Presentation by Herbert Bix on Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, 15 September 2000 | |
Booknotes interview with Herbert Bix on Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, 2 September 2001, C-SPAN | |
Presentation by John Dower on Embracing Defeat, 1 April 1999, C-SPAN | |
Booknotes interview with John Dower on Embracing Defeat, 26 March 2000, C-SPAN |
- Behr, Edward (1989). Hirohito: Behind the Myth. New York: Villard. ISBN 9780394580722. A controversial book that posited Hirohito as a more active protagonist of World War II than publicly portrayed; it contributed to the re-appraisal of his role.
- Herbert P. Bix (2000). Hirohito And The Making Of Modern Japan. Harper. ISBN 978-0-06-019314-0. Winner of the 2001 Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction and the 2000 National Book Critics Circle Award for Biography.
- Dower, John W. (1999). Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-32027-5. awarded Pulitzer Prize and National Book Award.
- Drea, Edward J. (1998). "Chasing a Decisive Victory: Emperor Hirohito and Japan's War with the West (1941–1945)". In the Service of the Emperor: Essays on the Imperial Japanese Army. Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-1708-9. online at Questia
- Fujiwara, Akira, Shōwa Tennō no Jū-go Nen Sensō (Shōwa Emperor's Fifteen-year War), Aoki Shoten, 1991. ISBN 4-250-91043-1 (Based on the primary sources)
- Hidenari, Terasaki Shōwa tennō dokuhakuroku, Bungei Shūnjusha, 1991
- Edwin Palmer Hoyt (1992). Hirohito: The Emperor and the Man. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0-275-94069-0.
- Toshiaki Kawahara (1990). Hirohito and His Times: A Japanese Perspective. Kodansha America. ISBN 978-0-87011-979-8.
- Laquerre, Paul-Yanic Showa: Chronicles of a Fallen God, ISBN 978-1729431597 ASIN: B00H6W4TYI
- Mosley, Leonard Hirohito, Emperor of Japan, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1966. ISBN 1-111-75539-6ISBN 1-199-99760-9, The first full-length biography, it gives his basic story.
- Pike, Francis. Hirohito's War: The Pacific War, 1941-1945 (2016) 1208pp.
- Richard Arthur Brabazon Ponsonby-Fane (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Ponsonby Memorial Society.
- Wetzler, Peter (1998). Hirohito and War: Imperial Tradition and Military Decision Making in Prewar Japan. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1925-5.
дальнейшее чтение
- Brands, Hal. "The Emperor's New Clothes: American Views of Hirohito after World War II." Historian 68#1 pp. 1–28. online
- Macartney, Alex F. "Hirohitler on the Rhine: Transnational Protest Against the Japanese Emperor's 1971 West German State Visit." Journal of Contemporary History (2020) 55#3 pp 622–644. doi:10.1177/0022009420907666
- Wilson, Sandra. "Enthroning Hirohito: Culture and Nation in 1920s Japan" Journal of Japanese Studies 37#2 (2011), pp. 289–323. online
Внешние ссылки
- Quotations related to Hirohito at Wikiquote
- Media related to Shōwa Emperor at Wikimedia Commons
- Emperor Shōwa and Empress Kōjun at the Imperial Household Agency website
- Reflections on Emperor Hirohito's death
- Hirohito at IMDb
- Newspaper clippings about Hirohito in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
Hirohito Imperial House of Japan Born: 29 April 1901 Died: 7 January 1989 | ||
Regnal titles | ||
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Preceded by Emperor Taishō(Yoshihito) | Emperor of Japan 25 December 1926 – 7 January 1989 | Succeeded by Emperor Akihito |