Субдукция является геологическим процессом , в котором океаническая литосфера является переработана в мантию Земли на конвергентных границах . Там, где океаническая литосфера тектонической плиты сходится с менее плотной литосферой второй плиты, более тяжелая плита погружается под вторую плиту и погружается в мантию. Область, в которой происходит этот процесс, известна как зона субдукции , а ее поверхностное выражение известно как комплекс дуга-траншея . Процесс субдукции создал большую часть континентальной коры Земли. [1]Скорость субдукции обычно измеряется в сантиметрах в год, при этом средняя скорость конвергенции составляет примерно от двух до восьми сантиметров в год вдоль большинства границ плит. [2]
Субдукция возможна, потому что холодная океаническая литосфера немного более плотная, чем нижележащая астеносфера , горячий и пластичный слой в верхней мантии, лежащий под холодной жесткой литосферой. Однажды начавшаяся стабильная субдукция в основном обусловлена отрицательной плавучестью плотной субдуцирующей литосферы. Плита погружается в мантию в основном под своим весом. [3]
Землетрясения являются обычным явлением в зоне субдукции, а флюиды, высвобождаемые погружающейся плитой, вызывают вулканизм в доминирующей плите. Если погружающейся раковины пластины под углом мелкой, корректирующая пластина развивает ремень из деформации , характеризующийся утолщением земной коры, горообразования и метаморфизма. Субдукция под более крутым углом характеризуется образованием задуговых бассейнов . [4]
Субдукция и тектоника плит
Согласно теории тектоники плит , литосфера Земли , ее жесткая внешняя оболочка, разбита на шестнадцать больших тектонических плит и несколько меньших плит. Они находятся в замедленном движении из-за конвекции в подстилающей пластичной мантии . Этот процесс конвекции позволяет теплу, генерируемому радиоактивным распадом, уходить из недр Земли. [5]
Литосфера состоит из самой внешней легкой коры и самой верхней твердой части мантии . Толщина океанической литосферы колеблется от нескольких километров для молодой литосферы, созданной в срединно-океанических хребтах, до примерно 100 км (62 миль) для самой старой океанической литосферы. [6] Континентальная литосфера имеет толщину до 200 км (120 миль). [7] Литосфера относительно холодная и жесткая по сравнению с подстилающей астеносферой , поэтому тектонические плиты движутся как твердые тела на вершине астеносферы. Отдельные плиты часто включают как области океанической литосферы, так и континентальную литосферу.
Зоны субдукции - это места, где холодная океаническая литосфера погружается обратно в мантию и перерабатывается. [4] [8] Они находятся на границах сходящихся плит, где океаническая литосфера одной плиты сходится с менее плотной литосферой другой плиты. Более тяжелая океаническая литосфера перекрывается передней кромкой другой плиты. [6] Перекрытая плита ( плита ) опускается под углом примерно от двадцати пяти до семидесяти пяти градусов к поверхности Земли. [9] Это опускание вызвано разницей температур между пластом и окружающей астеносферой, поскольку более холодная океаническая литосфера в среднем имеет большую плотность. [6] Осадки и некоторое количество захваченной воды уносятся пластом вниз и возвращаются в глубокую мантию. [10]
Земля пока является единственной планетой, на которой, как известно, происходит субдукция, и зоны субдукции являются ее наиболее важной тектонической особенностью. Субдукция является движущей силой тектоники плит , и без нее тектоника плит не могла бы возникнуть. [11] Зоны океанической субдукции расположены вдоль 55 000 км (34 000 миль) конвергентных краев плит [12], что почти равно совокупным 60 000 км (37 000 миль) срединно-океанических хребтов. [13]
Структура зон субдукции
Дуго-траншейный комплекс
Поверхностное выражение зон субдукции - дугово-желобные комплексы. На океанской стороне комплекса, где погружающая плита сначала приближается к зоне субдукции, часто есть внешняя канавка или выступ внешней траншеи . Здесь пластина слегка опускается перед погружением вниз, что является следствием ее жесткости. [14] Точка, где плита начинает падать вниз, отмечена океаническим желобом . Океанические желоба - самые глубокие части дна океана.
За траншеей находится преддуговая часть перекрывающей пластины. В зависимости от скорости седиментации, передняя дуга может включать в себя аккреционный клин отложений, соскобленных с погружающейся плиты и сросшийся с вышележащей плитой. Однако не все комплексы дуго-желоба имеют аккреционный клин. Аккреционные дуги имеют хорошо развитый бассейн преддуги за аккреционным клином, в то время как преддуговый бассейн развит слабо в неаккреционных дугах. [15]
За пределами бассейна преддуги вулканы образуют длинные цепи, называемые вулканическими дугами . Субдуцирующие базальты и осадки обычно богаты водными минералами и глинами. Кроме того, большое количество воды попадает в трещины и трещины, возникающие при изгибе погружающейся плиты вниз. [16] Во время перехода от базальта к эклогиту эти водные материалы разрушаются, производя обильное количество воды, которая при таком большом давлении и температуре существует как сверхкритическая жидкость . [17] Сверхкритическая вода, которая горячее и более плавучая, чем окружающая порода, поднимается в вышележащую мантию, где она понижает температуру плавления мантийной породы, генерируя магму посредством плавления флюса . [18] Магмы, в свою очередь, поднимаются в виде диапиров, потому что они менее плотны, чем породы мантии. [19] Магмы мантийного происхождения (изначально базальтовые по составу) могут в конечном итоге достичь поверхности Земли, что приведет к извержениям вулканов. Химический состав извергающейся лавы зависит от степени, в которой базальт, полученный из мантии, взаимодействует (плавит) с земной корой или подвергается фракционной кристаллизации . Дуговые вулканы, как правило, вызывают опасные извержения, потому что они богаты водой (из плиты и отложений) и имеют тенденцию быть чрезвычайно взрывоопасными. [20] Кракатау , Невадо-дель-Руис и Везувий - все это примеры дуговых вулканов. Дуги также связаны с большинством рудных месторождений. [19]
За вулканической дугой находится задуговая область , характер которой сильно зависит от угла субдукции субдугирующей плиты. Там, где этот угол небольшой, погружающаяся плита увлекает вышележащую континентальную кору, создавая зону сжатия, в которой могут быть обширные складчатые и надвиговые разломы . Если угол субдукции большой, вместо этого будет происходить растяжение корки , часто образуя заднюю дугу . [21]
Глубокая структура
Комплекс «дуга-траншея» - это поверхностное выражение гораздо более глубокой структуры. Хотя к ним нет прямого доступа, более глубокие участки могут быть изучены с помощью геофизики и геохимии . Зоны субдукции определяются наклонной зоной землетрясений , зоной Вадати-Бениофф , которая опускается от желоба и простирается до 660-километрового разрыва . Землетрясения в зоне субдукции происходят на большей глубине (до 600 км (370 миль)), чем где-либо на Земле (обычно глубина менее 20 км (12 миль)); такие глубокие землетрясения могут быть вызваны глубокими фазовыми превращениями , тепловым разгоном или охрупчиванием при дегидратации . [22] [23] Сейсмическая томография показывает, что некоторые плиты могут проникать в нижнюю мантию [24] [25] и опускаться до границы ядро-мантия . [26] Здесь остатки плит могут в конечном итоге достаточно нагреться, чтобы подняться обратно на поверхность в виде мантийных шлейфов . [27] [28]
Угол субдукции
Субдукция обычно происходит под умеренно крутым углом прямо в точке границы сходящейся плиты. Однако известно, что существуют аномальные более мелкие углы субдукции, а также некоторые очень крутые. [29]
- Субдукция плоской плиты (угол погружения менее 30 °) происходит, когда плита погружается почти горизонтально. Относительно плоская плита может простираться на сотни километров. Это ненормально, поскольку плотная плита обычно опускается под гораздо более крутым углом. Поскольку субдукция плит на глубину необходима для возбуждения вулканизма в зоне субдукции, субдукция плоских плит может быть вызвана для объяснения вулканических промежутков .
Под частью Анд продолжается субдукция плоских плит , что приводит к сегментации Андского вулканического пояса на четыре зоны. Плоский горбыль субдукционный на севере Перу , а Норт Чико область Чили , как полагают, являются результатом субдукции двух плавучих асейсмичных гребней, в Наска хребет и Juan Fernández хребет , соответственно. Субдукция плоских плит вокруг полуострова Таитао приписывается субдукции Чилийского поднятия , расширяющегося хребта . [30] [31]
Ларамийский орогенез в Скалистых гор в Соединенных Штатах объясняется плоским сляба субдукцией. [32] Во время этого горообразования на юго-западной окраине Северной Америки образовалась широкая вулканическая пропасть, а деформация произошла гораздо дальше вглубь суши; Именно в это время возникли горные хребты с подвалом в Колорадо, Юте, Вайоминге, Южной Дакоте и Нью-Мексико. Наиболее сильные землетрясения в зоне субдукции, так называемые «мегатрясения», были обнаружены в зонах субдукции плоских плит. [33]
- Steep-angle subduction (subducting angle greater than 70°) occurs in subduction zones where Earth's oceanic crust and lithosphere are old and thick and have, therefore, lost buoyancy. The steepest dipping subduction zone lies in the Mariana Trench, which is also where the oceanic crust, of Jurassic age, is the oldest on Earth exempting ophiolites. Steep-angle subduction is, in contrast to flat-slab subduction, associated with back-arc extension[34] of crust, creating volcanic arcs and pulling fragments of continental crust away from continents to leave behind a marginal sea.
Жизненный цикл зон субдукции
Initiation of subduction
Although stable subduction is fairly well understood, the process by which subduction is initiated remains a matter of discussion and continuing study. Subduction can begin spontaneously if the denser oceanic lithosphere can founder and sink beneath the adjacent oceanic or continental lithosphere through vertical forcing only; alternatively, existing plate motions can induce new subduction zones by horizontally forcing the oceanic lithosphere to rupture and sink into the asthenosphere.[35][36] Both models can eventually yield self-sustaining subduction zones, as the oceanic crust is metamorphosed at great depth and becomes denser than the surrounding mantle rocks. The compilation of subduction zone initiation events back to 100 Ma suggests horizontally-forced subduction zone initiation for most modern subduction zones,[36] which is supported by results from numerical models[37][38] and geologic studies.[39][40] Some analogue modeling shows, however, the possibility of spontaneous subduction from inherent density differences between two plates at specific locations like passive margins.[41][42] There is evidence this has taken place in the Izu-Bonin-Mariana subduction system.[43][44] Earlier in Earth's history, subduction is likely to have initiated without horizontal forcing due to the lack of relative plate motion, though an unorthodox proposal by A. Yin suggests that meteorite impacts may have contributed to subduction initiation on early Earth.[45]
End of subduction
Subduction can continue as long as the oceanic lithosphere moves into the subduction zone. However, the arrival of buoyant crust at a subduction zone can result in its failure, by disrupting downwelling. The arrival of continental crust results in a collision or terrane accretion that disrupts subduction.[46] Continental crust can subduct to depths of 100 km (62 mi) or more but then resurfaces.[47][28] Sections of crustal or intraoceanic arc crust greater than 15 km (9.3 mi) in thickness or oceanic plateau greater than 30 km (19 mi) in thickness can disrupt subduction. However, island arcs subducted end-on may cause only local disruption, while an arc arriving parallel to the zone can shut it down.[46] This has happened with the Ontong Java Plateau and the Vitiaz Trench.[48]
Эффекты
Metamorphism
Subduction zones host a unique variety of rock types created by the high-pressure, low-temperature conditions a subducting slab encounters during its descent.[49] The metamorphic conditions the slab passes through in this process creates and destroys water bearing (hydrous) mineral phases, releasing water into the mantle. This water lowers the melting point of mantle rock, initiating melting.[50] Understanding the timing and conditions in which these dehydration reactions occur, is key to interpreting mantle melting, volcanic arc magmatism, and the formation of continental crust.[51]
A metamorphic facies is characterized by a stable mineral assemblage specific to a pressure-temperature range and specific starting material. Subduction zone metamorphism is characterized by a low temperature, high-ultrahigh pressure metamorphic path through the zeolite, prehnite-pumpellyite, blueschist, and eclogite facies stability zones of subducted oceanic crust.[52] Zeolite and prehnite-pumpellyite facies assemblages may or may not be present, thus the onset of metamorphism may only be marked by blueschist facies conditions.[53] Subducting slabs are composed of basaltic crust topped with pelagic sediments;[54] however, the pelagic sediments may be accreted onto the forearc-hanging wall and not subducted.[55] Most metamorphic phase transitions that occur within the subducting slab are prompted by the dehydration of hydrous mineral phases. The breakdown of hydrous mineral phases typically occurs at depths greater than 10 km.[56] Each of these metamorphic facies is marked by the presence of a specific stable mineral assemblage, recording the metamorphic conditions undergone but the subducting slab. Transitions between facies causes hydrous minerals to dehydrate at certain pressure-temperature conditions and can therefore be tracked to melting events in the mantle beneath a volcanic arc.
Volcanic activity
Volcanoes that occur above subduction zones, such as Mount St. Helens, Mount Etna, and Mount Fuji, lie approximately one hundred kilometers from the trench in arcuate chains called volcanic arcs. Two kinds of arcs are generally observed on Earth: island arcs that form on the oceanic lithosphere (for example, the Mariana and the Tonga island arcs), and continental arcs such as the Cascade Volcanic Arc, that form along the coast of continents. Island arcs (intraoceanic or primitive arcs) are produced by the subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath another oceanic lithosphere (ocean-ocean subduction) while continental arcs (Andean arcs) form during the subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath a continental lithosphere (ocean-continent subduction).[57] An example of a volcanic arc having both island and continental arc sections is found behind the Aleutian Trench subduction zone in Alaska.[58]
The arc magmatism occurs one hundred to two hundred kilometers from the trench and approximately one hundred kilometers above the subducting slab. This depth of arc magma generation is the consequence of the interaction between hydrous fluids, released from the subducting slab, and the arc mantle wedge that is hot enough to melt with the addition of water.[59] It has also been suggested that the mixing of fluids from a subducted tectonic plate and melted sediment is already occurring at the top of the slab before any mixing with the mantle takes place.[60]
Arcs produce about 10% of the total volume of magma produced each year on Earth (approximately 0.75 cubic kilometers), much less than the volume produced at mid-ocean ridges,[61] but they have formed most continental crust.[4] Arc volcanism has the greatest impact on humans because many arc volcanoes lie above sea level and erupt violently. Aerosols injected into the stratosphere during violent eruptions can cause rapid cooling of Earth's climate and affect air travel.[59]
Earthquakes and tsunamis
The strains caused by plate convergence in subduction zones cause at least three types of earthquakes. These are deep earthquakes, megathrust earthquakes, and outer rise earthquakes.
Anomalously deep events are a characteristic of subduction zones, which produce the deepest quakes on the planet. Earthquakes are generally restricted to the shallow, brittle parts of the crust, generally at depths of less than twenty kilometers. However, in subduction zones, quakes occur at depths as great as 700 km (430 mi). These quakes define inclined zones of seismicity known as Wadati–Benioff zones which trace the descending slab.[62]
Nine of the ten largest earthquakes of the last 100 years were subduction zone megathrust earthquakes, which included the 1960 Great Chilean earthquake, which, at M 9.5, was the largest earthquake ever recorded; the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami; and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. The subduction of cold oceanic crust into the mantle depresses the local geothermal gradient and causes a larger portion of Earth to deform in a more brittle fashion than it would in a normal geothermal gradient setting. Because earthquakes can occur only when a rock is deforming in a brittle fashion, subduction zones can cause large earthquakes. If such a quake causes rapid deformation of the sea floor, there is potential for tsunamis, such as the earthquake caused by subduction of the Indo-Australian Plate under the Euro-Asian Plate on December 26, 2004, that devastated the areas around the Indian Ocean. Small tremors which cause small, nondamaging tsunamis, also occur frequently.[62]
A study published in 2016 suggested a new parameter to determine a subduction zone's ability to generate mega-earthquakes.[63] By examining subduction zone geometry and comparing the degree of curvature of the subducting plates in great historical earthquakes such as the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake, it was determined that the magnitude of earthquakes in subduction zones is inversely proportional to the degree of the fault's curvature, meaning that "the flatter the contact between the two plates, the more likely it is that mega-earthquakes will occur."[64]
Outer rise earthquakes occur when normal faults oceanward of the subduction zone are activated by flexure of the plate as it bends into the subduction zone.[65] The 2009 Samoa earthquake is an example of this type of event. Displacement of the sea floor caused by this event generated a six-meter tsunami in nearby Samoa.
Seismic tomography has helped detect subducted lithosphere, slabs, deep in the mantle where there are no earthquakes. About one hundred slabs have been described in terms of depth and their timing and location of subduction.[66] The great seismic discontinuities in the mantle, at 410 km (250 mi) depth and 670 km (420 mi), are disrupted by the descent of cold slabs in deep subduction zones. Some subducted slabs seem to have difficulty penetrating the major discontinuity that marks the boundary between the upper mantle and lower mantle at a depth of about 670 kilometers. Other subducted oceanic plates have sunk to the core-mantle boundary at 2890 km depth. Generally, slabs decelerate during their descent into the mantle, from typically several cm/yr (up to ~10 cm/yr in some cases) at the subduction zone and in the uppermost mantle, to ~1 cm/yr in the lower mantle.[66] This leads to either folding or stacking of slabs at those depths, visible as thickened slabs in Seismic tomography. Below ~1700 km, there might be a limited acceleration of slabs due to lower viscosity as a result of inferred mineral phase changes until they approach and finally stall at the core-mantle boundary.[66] Here the slabs are heated up by the ambient heat and are not detected anymore ~300 Myr after subduction.[66]
Orogeny
Orogeny is the process of mountain building. Subducting plates can lead to orogeny by bringing oceanic islands, oceanic plateaus, and sediments to convergent margins. The material often does not subduct with the rest of the plate but instead is accreted (scraped off) to the continent, resulting in exotic terranes. The collision of this oceanic material causes crustal thickening and mountain-building. The accreted material is often referred to as an accretionary wedge or prism. These accretionary wedges can be identified by ophiolites (uplifted ocean crust consisting of sediments, pillow basalts, sheeted dykes, gabbro, and peridotite).[67]
Subduction may also cause orogeny without bringing in oceanic material that collides with the overriding continent. When the subducting plate subducts at a shallow angle underneath a continent (something called "flat-slab subduction"), the subducting plate may have enough traction on the bottom of the continental plate to cause the upper plate to contract to lead to folding, faulting, crustal thickening, and mountain building. Flat-slab subduction causes mountain building and volcanism moving into the continent, away from the trench, and has been described in North America (i.e. Laramide orogeny), South America, and East Asia.[66]
The processes described above allow subduction to continue while mountain building happens progressively, which is in contrast to continent-continent collision orogeny, which often leads to the termination of subduction.
Начало субдукции на Земле
Modern-style subduction is characterized by low geothermal gradients and the associated formation of high-pressure low-temperature rocks such as eclogite and blueschist.[68][69] Likewise, rock assemblages called ophiolites, associated with modern-style subduction, also indicate such conditions.[68] Eclogite xenoliths found in the North China Craton provide evidence that modern-style subduction occurred at least as early as 1.8 Ga ago in the Paleoproterozoic Era.[68] Nevertheless, the eclogite itself was produced by oceanic subduction during the assembly of supercontinents at about 1.9–2.0 Ga.
Blueschist is a rock typical for present-day subduction settings. The absence of blueschist older than Neoproterozoic reflects more magnesium-rich compositions of Earth's oceanic crust during that period.[70] These more magnesium-rich rocks metamorphose into greenschist at conditions when modern oceanic crust rocks metamorphose into blueschist.[70] The ancient magnesium-rich rocks mean that Earth's mantle was once hotter, but not that subduction conditions were hotter. Previously, the lack of pre-Neoproterozoic blueschist was thought to indicate a different type of subduction.[70] Both lines of evidence refute previous conceptions of modern-style subduction having been initiated in the Neoproterozoic Era 1.0 Ga ago.[68][70]
История расследования
Harry Hammond Hess, who during World War II served in the United States Navy Reserve and became fascinated in the ocean floor, studied the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and proposed that hot molten rock was added to the crust at the ridge and expanded the seafloor outward. This theory was to become known as seafloor spreading. Since the Earth's circumference has not changed over geologic time, Hess concluded that older seafloor has to be consumed somewhere else, and suggested that this process takes place at oceanic trenches, where the crust would be melted and recycled in the Earth's mantle.[71]
In 1964, George Plafker researched the Good Friday earthquake in Alaska. He concluded that the cause of the earthquake was a megathrust reaction in the Aleutian Trench, a result of the Alaskan continental crust overlapping the Pacific oceanic crust. This meant that the Pacific crust was being forced downward, or subducted, beneath the Alaskan crust. The concept of subduction would play a role in the development of the plate tectonics theory.[72]
First geologic attestations of the "subduct" words date to 1970,[73] In ordinary English to subduct, or to subduce (from Latin subducere, “to lead away”)[74] are transitive verbs requiring a subject to perform an action on an object not itself, here the lower plate, which has then been subducted (“removed”). The geological term is "consumed," which happens the geological moment the lower plate slips under, even though it may persist for some time until its remelting and dissipation. In this conceptual model, plate is continually being used up.[75] The identity of the subject, the consumer, or agent of consumption, is left unstated. Some sources accept this subject-object construct.
Geology makes to subduct into an intransitive verb and a reflexive verb. The lower plate itself is the subject. It subducts, in the sense of retreat, or removes itself, and while doing so, is the "subducting plate." Moreover, the word slab is specifically attached to the "subducting plate," even though in English the upper plate is just as much of a slab.[76] The upper plate is left hanging, so to speak. To express it geology must switch to a different verb, typically to override. The upper plate, the subject, performs the action of overriding the object, the lower plate, which is overridden.[77]
Важность
Subduction zones are important for several reasons:
- Subduction zone physics: Sinking of the oceanic lithosphere (sediments, crust, mantle), by the contrast of density between the cold and old lithosphere and the hot asthenospheric mantle wedge, is the strongest force (but not the only one) needed to drive plate motion and is the dominant mode of mantle convection.
- Subduction zone chemistry: The subducted sediments and crust dehydrate and release water-rich (aqueous) fluids into the overlying mantle, causing mantle melting and fractionation of elements between the surface and deep mantle reservoirs, producing island arcs and continental crust. Hot fluids in subduction zones also alter the mineral compositions of the subducting sediments and potentially the habitability of the sediments for microorganisms.[78]
- Subduction zones drag down subducted oceanic sediments, oceanic crust, and mantle lithosphere that interact with the hot asthenospheric mantle from the over-riding plate to produce calc-alkaline series melts, ore deposits, and continental crust.
- Subduction zones pose significant threats to lives, property, economic vitality, cultural and natural resources, and quality of life. The tremendous magnitudes of earthquakes or volcanic eruptions can also have knock-on effects with global impact.[79]
Subduction zones have also been considered as possible disposal sites for nuclear waste in which the action of subduction itself would carry the material into the planetary mantle, safely away from any possible influence on humanity or the surface environment. However, that method of disposal is currently banned by international agreement.[80][81][82][83] Furthermore, plate subduction zones are associated with very large megathrust earthquakes, making the effects of using any specific site for disposal unpredictable and possibly adverse to the safety of long-term disposal.[81]
Смотрите также
- Divergent boundary – Linear feature that exists between two tectonic plates that are moving away from each other
- Divergent double subduction – Two parallel subduction zones with different directions are developed on the same oceanic plate
- List of tectonic plate interactions – Definitions and examples of the interactions between the relatively mobile sections of the lithosphere
- Obduction – The overthrusting of oceanic lithosphere onto continental lithosphere at a convergent plate boundary
- Paired metamorphic belts – Sets of juxtaposed linear rock units that display contrasting metamorphic mineral assemblages
- Ring of Fire – Area of high earthquake and volcanic activity, also the circum-Pacific belt
- Slab window – A gap that forms in a subducted oceanic plate when a mid-ocean ridge meets with a subduction zone and the ridge is subducted
- Wilson Cycle – Geophysical model of the opening and closing of rifts
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|volume=
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Additional reading
- Stern, R.J. (1998). "A Subduction Primer for Instructors of Introductory Geology Courses and Authors of Introductory Geology Textbooks". Journal of Geoscience Education. 46 (3): 221–228. Bibcode:1998JGeEd..46..221S. doi:10.5408/1089-9995-46.3.221.
- Tatsumi, Y. (2005). "The Subduction Factory: How it operates on Earth". GSA Today. 15 (7): 4–10. doi:10.1130/1052-5173(2005)015[4:TSFHIO]2.0.CO;2.
External links
- The Subduction Zone Initiation Database: The latest knowledge about the formation of subduction zones
- Animation of a subduction zone.
- From the Seafloor to the Volcano's Top Video about the work of the Collaborative Research Center (SFB) 574 Volatiles and Fluids in Subduction Zones in Chile by GEOMAR I Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel.
- Plate Tectonics Basics 1 - Creation and Destruction of Oceanic Lithosphere, University of Texas at Dallas (~ 9 minutes long).
- Atlas of the Underworld – mapping of subducted plates in the Earth’s mantle and their geological interpretation