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Передача суверенитета над Гонконгом
The Monument in Commemoration of the Return of Hong Kong to China.jpg
Памятник в честь возвращения Гонконга в Китай в 2009 году
Дата1 июля 1997 г.
Время00:00 HKT
Место расположенияГонконг
Также известен какПередача Гонконга
УчастниковChina Китай Соединенное Королевство
United Kingdom
Передача суверенитета над Гонконгом
Традиционный китайский香港 主權 移交
Упрощенный китайский香港 主权 移交
Транскрипции
Стандартный мандарин
Ханю ПиньиньXiānggǎng zhǔquán yíjiāo
Передача Гонконга
Традиционный китайский香港回歸
Упрощенный китайский香港回归
Транскрипции
Стандартный мандарин
Ханю ПиньиньXiānggǎng huíguī

Передача суверенитета над Гонконгом , [1] [2] [3] широко известный как передачи Гонконга (укорачивается до РЕКЛЮЧЕНИЯ и возвращения в материковой части Китая), был формальный переход ответственности за территории Гонконга из Соединенного Королевства в Китайскую Народную Республику в полночь 1 июля 1997 года. Это событие положило конец 156-летнему правлению Великобритании в бывшей колонии. Гонконг был восстановлен как особый административный регион Китая и в значительной степени продолжает сохранять существующие экономические и управленческие системы, отличные от систем материкового Китая..

С населением около 6,5 миллионов человек в 1997 году Гонконг составлял 97 процентов от общей численности населения всех британских зависимых территорий в то время и был одной из последних значительных колониальных территорий Великобритании. Этот переход часто считается окончательным концом Британской империи .

Фон [ править ]

Смотрите также: История Гонконга и британского Гонконга
Великобритания приобрела остров Гонконг в 1842 году, полуостров Коулун в 1860 году и арендовал Новые территории в 1898 году.

К 1820-м и 1830-м годам британцы завоевали некоторые части Индии и намеревались выращивать хлопок на этих землях, чтобы компенсировать количество хлопка, которое они покупали в Америке. [ необходима цитата ] Когда эта попытка провалилась, британцы поняли, что они могут выращивать мак с невероятной скоростью. Эти маки затем можно было превратить в опиум, чего очень хотели китайцы, но их законы запрещали. Итак, британский план состоял в том, чтобы выращивать мак в Индии, превращать его в опиум, контрабандой переправлять опиум в Китай и продавать его на чай, а затем продавать чай обратно в Великобританию. Незаконная торговля опиумом была очень успешной, и наркотик очень выгодно ввозился контрабандой в Китай в чрезвычайно больших объемах. [4]

Соединенное Королевство получило контроль над частью территории Гонконга посредством трех договоров, заключенных с Цинским Китаем после опиумных войн :

  • Нанкинский договор 1842 года : остров Гонконг передан бессрочно
  • Пекинская конвенция 1860 года : дополнительно уступлены полуостров Коулун и остров Камнереза.
  • Конвенция 1898 г. о расширении территории Гонконга : новые территории и отдаленные острова арендуются на 99 лет до 1997 г.

Несмотря на ограниченный характер аренды Новых территорий, эта часть колонии развивалась так же быстро, как и остальная часть Гонконга, и сильно интегрировалась с ней. По мере приближения окончания срока аренды и серьезных переговоров о будущем статусе Гонконга в 1980-х годах было сочтено непрактичным отделять уступленные территории и возвращать Китаю только Новые территории. Кроме того, с нехваткой земельных и природных ресурсов в острове Гонконг и Коулун, крупномасштабные инфраструктурные инвестиции были сделаны на новых территориях, с поломкой эвенов лежал далеко за 30 июня 1997 года [5]

Когда Китайская Народная Республика получила свое место в Организации Объединенных Наций в результате Резолюции 2758 Генеральной Ассамблеи ООН в 1971 году, она начала действовать дипломатически в отношении ранее утраченного суверенитета над Гонконгом и Макао . В марте 1972 года представитель Китая в ООН Хуан Хуа написал в Комитет ООН по деколонизации письмо, в котором изложил позицию китайского правительства:

<< Вопросы Гонконга и Макао относятся к категории вопросов, вытекающих из серии неравноправных договоров, навязанных империалистами Китаю. Гонконг и Макао являются частью территории Китая, оккупированной британскими и португальскими властями. Урегулирование вопросов Гонконга и Макао полностью находятся в пределах суверенного права Китая и никоим образом не подпадают под обычную категорию колониальных территорий. Следовательно, они не должны включаться в список колониальных территорий, на которые распространяется декларация о предоставлении независимости колониальным территориям. Что касается вопросов Гонконга и Макао, китайское правительство неизменно придерживалось мнения, что они должны решаться надлежащим образом, когда созреют условия ». [6]

В том же году, 8 ноября, Генеральная Ассамблея ООН приняла резолюцию об исключении Гонконга и Макао из официального списка колоний. [6]

В марте 1979 года губернатор Гонконга , Мюррей MacLehose совершил свой первый официальный визит в Китайскую Народную Республику (КНР), взяв на себя инициативу , чтобы поднять вопрос о суверенитете Гонконга с Дэн Сяопином . [7] Без разъяснения и определения официальной позиции правительства КНР заключение договоров аренды недвижимости и займов в Гонконге в течение следующих 18 лет станет затруднительным. [5]

В ответ на озабоченность по поводу аренды земли на Новых территориях МакЛехоз предложил разрешить британской администрации всего Гонконга, в отличие от суверенитета, продолжить работу после 1997 года. [8] Он также предложил включить в контракты фразу «для этого». пока корона управляет территорией ". [9]

Фактически, уже в середине 1970-х годов Гонконг столкнулся с дополнительными рисками, связанными с привлечением ссуд для крупномасштабных инфраструктурных проектов, таких как система массовой транзитной железной дороги (MTR) и новый аэропорт. Оказавшись неподготовленным, Дэн заявил о необходимости возвращения Гонконга в Китай, после чего правительство КНР предоставит Гонконгу особый статус.

Визит МакЛехоза в КНР поднял занавес в вопросе суверенитета Гонконга: Британия была проинформирована о намерении КНР восстановить суверенитет над Гонконгом и начала принимать соответствующие меры, чтобы обеспечить сохранение своих интересов на территории. как инициирование создания плана вывода средств в случае возникновения чрезвычайной ситуации.

Три года спустя Дэн принял бывшего премьер-министра Великобритании Эдварда Хита , который был направлен в качестве специального посланника премьер-министра Маргарет Тэтчер для установления понимания планов КНР в отношении ретроцессии Гонконга; во время их встречи Дэн изложил свои планы по превращению территории в особую экономическую зону, которая сохранит свою капиталистическую систему под суверенитетом Китая. [10]

В том же году Эдвард Юде , сменивший МакЛехоза на посту 26-го губернатора Гонконга, возглавил делегацию из пяти членов Исполнительного совета в Лондон, включая Чунг Сзе-юэн , Лидию Данн и Роджера Лобо . [11] Чанг представила Тэтчер свою позицию по суверенитету Гонконга, призвав ее принять во внимание интересы коренного населения Гонконга во время ее предстоящего визита в Китай. [11]

В свете растущей открытости правительства КНР и экономических реформ на материке тогдашний премьер-министр Великобритании Маргарет Тэтчер добивалась согласия КНР на продолжение британского присутствия на территории. [12]

Однако КНР заняла противоположную позицию: КНР не только хотела, чтобы Новые территории, взятые в аренду до 1997 года, были переданы под юрисдикцию КНР, но и отказалась признать обременительные « несправедливые и неравноправные договоры », по которым Гонконг Остров и Коулун были навсегда переданы Великобритании после Опиумных войн . Следовательно, КНР признала только британскую администрацию в Гонконге, но не британский суверенитет. [13]

Беседы [ править ]

Основные события 1979–1997 годов
* 24 марта 1979 г. Губернатор Гонконга сэр Мюррей МакЛехоз был приглашен посетить Гуанчжоу и Пекин, чтобы выяснить позицию китайского правительства по вопросу Гонконга.
  • 29 марта 1979 г .: сэр Мюррей МакЛехоз встретился с верховным лидером Дэн Сяопином и впервые поднял вопрос о Гонконге. Дэн заметил, что инвесторы могут успокоить свои умы.
  • 4 апреля 1979 года: после 30 лет простоя были восстановлены прямые поезда Коулун – Кантон.
  • 3 мая 1979 г .: Консервативная партия победила на выборах в Великобритании .
  • 29 октября 1979 г. Премьер-министр Хуа Гофэн посетил Великобританию и встретился с премьер-министром Великобритании Маргарет Тэтчер . Оба они выразили озабоченность по поводу сохранения стабильности и процветания Гонконга.
  • 12 мая 1980 г .: Консервативная партия внесла предложение в правительство Великобритании и ввела новый статус « гражданин заморских территорий Великобритании ». Это предложение статуса вызвало широкое сопротивление жителей Гонконга.
  • 3 апреля 1981 года. Министр иностранных дел лорд Каррингтон встретился с Дэн Сяопином во время его визита в Пекин.
  • 30 сентября 1981 г .: Председатель ВСНП Е Цзяньин издал девять руководящих принципов, касающихся мирного воссоединения Тайваня и материкового Китая.
  • 30 октября 1981: Палата общин приняла новый Закон о британском гражданстве.
  • Ноябрь 1981 г .: Правительство Пекина пригласило некоторых граждан Гонконга помочь организовать единый фронт в решении гонконгской проблемы.
  • 6 января 1982 года. Премьер-министр Китая Чжао Цзыян принял лорда-хранителя печати Хамфри Аткинса . Чжао настаивал на том, что КНР сохранит свой суверенитет над Гонконгом.
  • 10 марта 1982 г .: Вице-премьер Гу Му принял сэра Джона Бремриджа , пообещав сохранить стабильность и процветание Гонконга.
  • 6 апреля 1982 г .: Дэн Сяопин заявил о своем желании иметь официальный контакт с британским правительством.
  • 8 мая 1982 года: сэр Эдвард Юде прибыл в качестве 26-го губернатора Гонконга.
  • Май 1982: Дэн Сяопин и Чжао Цзыян получали советы от известных людей Гонконга, таких как Ли Кашинг и Анн Цзэ-кей .
  • 15 июня 1982 г .: Дэн Сяопин официально объявил позицию правительства Китая в контексте проблемы Гонконга 97, что стало первым публичным заявлением со стороны КНР по этому вопросу.

Перед переговорами [ править ]

После визита губернатора МакЛехоза Великобритания и КНР установили первоначальный дипломатический контакт для дальнейшего обсуждения гонконгского вопроса, что подготовило почву для первого визита Тэтчер в КНР в сентябре 1982 года [14].

Маргарет Тэтчер в беседе с Дэн Сяопином подтвердила законность продления срока аренды территории Гонконга, особенно в свете имеющих обязательную силу договоров, включая Нанкинский договор 1842 года, Пекинскую конвенцию 1856 года и Конвенцию о правах человека. Расширение территории Гонконга подписано в 1890 году.

В ответ Дэн Сяопин ясно указал на отсутствие возможности для компромисса по вопросу о суверенитете над Гонконгом; КНР, как преемница династии Цин и Китайской Республики на материке , вернет себе все Новые территории, Коулун и остров Гонконг. Китай считал договоры о Гонконге неравноправными и в конечном итоге отказался принять любой исход, который указывал бы на безвозвратную утрату суверенитета над территорией Гонконга, какие бы формулировки ни содержались в прежних договорах. [15]

Во время переговоров с Тэтчер Китай планировал захватить Гонконг, если переговоры вызовут волнения в колонии. Позже Тэтчер сказала, что Дэн прямо сказал ей, что Китай может легко захватить Гонконг силой, заявив, что «я могу войти и захватить все это сегодня днем», на что она ответила, что «я ничего не могу сделать, чтобы остановить вас, но теперь глаза мира узнают, что такое Китай ". [16]

После визита к Дэну в Пекин, Тэтчер была принята в Гонконге как первый британский премьер-министр, ступивший на эту территорию во время пребывания в должности. На пресс-конференции Тэтчер вновь подчеркнула действительность трех договоров, заявив, что страны должны уважать договоры на универсальных условиях: «Существуют три договора; мы придерживаемся наших договоров, если не решим что-то еще. На данный момент мы придерживаемся наших договоров ". [12]

В то же время на 5-й сессии 5-го Всекитайского собрания народных представителей в конституцию были внесены поправки, включившие новую статью 31, в которой говорилось, что страна может создавать особые административные районы (САР), когда это необходимо. [17]

Дополнительная статья будет иметь огромное значение в решении вопроса о Гонконге, а затем и Макао , внося в общественное сознание концепцию « Одна страна, две системы ».

Начало переговоров [ править ]

Через несколько месяцев после визита Тэтчер в Пекин правительство КНР еще не начало переговоры с британским правительством относительно суверенитета Гонконга.

Незадолго до начала переговоров о суверенитете губернатор Юде заявил о своем намерении представлять население Гонконга на переговорах. Это заявление вызвало бурную реакцию со стороны КНР, побудив Дэн Сяопина осудить разговоры о «так называемой« трехногой табуретке »», которые подразумевали, что Гонконг был стороной в переговорах о своем будущем, наряду с Пекином и Лондоном. [18]

На предварительной стадии переговоров британское правительство предложило обмен суверенитета на администрирование и осуществление последующей передачи британской администрации. [12]

Правительство КНР отказалось, заявив, что понятия суверенитета и управления неразделимы, и, хотя оно признало Макао «китайской территорией под португальской администрацией», это было только временно. [19]

Фактически, во время неформального обмена мнениями между 1979 и 1981 годами КНР предложила «решение для Макао» в Гонконге, согласно которому она останется под британской администрацией по усмотрению Китая. [7]

Однако это ранее было отвергнуто после восстаний левых в 1967 году , когда тогдашний губернатор Дэвид Тренч утверждал, что целью левых было оставить Великобританию без эффективного контроля или «нас Макао». [20]

Конфликт, возникший на этом этапе переговоров, исключил возможность дальнейших переговоров. Во время приема бывшего премьер-министра Великобритании Эдварда Хита во время его шестого визита в КНР Дэн Сяопин довольно четко прокомментировал невозможность обмена суверенитета на администрацию, объявив ультиматум: британское правительство должно изменить или отказаться от своей позиции, иначе КНР будет объявить о решении вопроса о суверенитете Гонконга в одностороннем порядке. [21]

В 1983 году тайфун «Эллен» обрушился на Гонконг, причинив огромный ущерб как жизни, так и имуществу. [22] Гонконгский доллар резко упал в Черную субботу , и финансовый секретарь Джон Бремридж публично связал экономическую неопределенность с нестабильностью политического климата. [23] В ответ правительство КНР через прессу осудило Великобританию за «разыгрывание экономической карты» для достижения своих целей: запугать КНР, чтобы она уступила британским требованиям. [24]

Британская концессия [ править ]

Губернатор Юде с девятью членами Исполнительного совета Гонконга отправился в Лондон, чтобы обсудить с премьер-министром Тэтчер кризис доверия - проблему морального духа жителей Гонконга, возникшую в результате провала китайско-британских переговоров. Заседание завершилось написанием Тэтчер письма премьер-министру КНР Чжао Цзыяну .

В письме она выразила готовность Великобритании изучить меры, оптимизирующие будущие перспективы Гонконга, используя предложения КНР в качестве основы. Более того, что, пожалуй, наиболее важно, она выразила уступку Британии в отношении ее позиции продолжения британского присутствия в форме пост-передачи администрации.

В октябре и ноябре прошли два раунда переговоров. На шестом раунде переговоров в ноябре Великобритания официально признала свои намерения либо сохранить британскую администрацию в Гонконге, либо искать какую-либо форму сотрудничества с КНР, и проявила свою искренность при обсуждении предложения КНР по проблеме 1997 года. Препятствия были устранены.

Саймон Кесвик , председатель Jardine Matheson & Co., сказал, что они не уходят из Гонконга, но вместо этого на Бермудских островах будет создана новая холдинговая компания . [25] КНР восприняла это как очередной заговор британцев. Правительство Гонконга пояснило, что оно было проинформировано о переезде всего за несколько дней до объявления. Правительство не могло и не могло остановить компанию от принятия делового решения.

Как только атмосфера переговоров становилась сердечной, члены Законодательного совета Гонконга с нетерпением ждали сохраняющейся секретности в отношении прогресса китайско-британских переговоров по гонконгскому вопросу. Предложение, внесенное законодателем Роджером Лобо , гласило , что «Совет считает важным, чтобы любые предложения относительно будущего Гонконга обсуждались в этом Совете до достижения соглашения», было принято единогласно. [26]

КНР яростно атаковала это движение, назвав его «чьей-то попыткой снова разыграть трехногий стул». [27] Наконец, КНР и Великобритания инициировали Совместную декларацию по вопросу о будущем Гонконга в Пекине. Чжоу Нан , тогдашний заместитель министра иностранных дел КНР и руководитель переговорной группы, и сэр Ричард Эванс , посол Великобритании в Пекине и руководитель группы подписали соответственно от имени двух правительств. [28]

Совместная китайско-британская декларация [ править ]

Основная статья: Китайско-британская совместная декларация

Совместная китайско-британская декларация была подписана премьер-министрами Китайской Народной Республики и правительствами Соединенного Королевства 19 декабря 1984 г. в Пекине. Декларация вступила в силу после обмена ратификационными грамотами 27 мая 1985 г. и была зарегистрирована правительствами Китайской Народной Республики и Соединенного Королевства в Организации Объединенных Наций 12 июня 1985 г.

В Совместной декларации правительство Китайской Народной Республики заявило, что оно приняло решение возобновить осуществление суверенитета над Гонконгом (включая остров Гонконг , Коулун и Новые территории) с 1 июля 1997 года, а правительство Соединенного Королевства объявило что он вернет Гонконг КНР с 1 июля 1997 года. В этом документе правительство Китайской Народной Республики также заявило о своей основной политике в отношении Гонконга.

В соответствии с принципом « Одна страна, две системы », согласованным между Соединенным Королевством и Китайской Народной Республикой, [ цитата необходима ] социалистическая система Китайской Народной Республики не будет применяться в Особом административном районе Гонконг (САРГ). ), а предыдущая капиталистическая система Гонконга и ее образ жизни останутся неизменными в течение 50 лет. Это оставило бы Гонконг неизменным до 2047 года.

Совместная декларация предусматривала, что эти основные правила должны быть закреплены в Основном законе Гонконга . Церемония подписания Совместной китайско-британской декларации состоялась в 18:00 19 декабря 1984 г. в Западной Главной Палате Большого Зала Народов . Управление по делам Гонконга и Макао сначала предложило список из 60–80 человек из Гонконга для участия в церемонии. В конце концов число увеличилось до 101.

The list included Hong Kong government officials, members of the Legislative and Executive Councils, chairmen of the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation and Standard Chartered Bank, prominent businessmen such as Li Ka-shing, Pao Yue-kong and Fok Ying-tung, and also Martin Lee Chu-ming and Szeto Wah.

Universal suffrage[edit]

The Hong Kong Basic Law ensured, among other things, that Hong Kong will retain its legislative system, and people's rights and freedom for fifty years,[citation needed] as a special administrative region (SAR) of China. The central government in Beijing maintains control over Hong Kong's foreign affairs as well as the legal interpretation of the Basic Law. The latter has led democracy advocates and some Hong Kong residents to argue, after the fact, that the territory has yet to achieve universal suffrage as promised by the Basic Law, leading to mass demonstrations in 2014.[29][30][31] In 2019, demonstrations that started as a protest against an extradition law also led to massive demonstrations (1.7 million on 11 and 18 August 2019), again demanding universal suffrage, but also the resignation of Carrie Lam (the current Chief Executive).[32]

Drafting of Basic Law[edit]

Main article: Basic Law of Hong Kong

The Basic Law was drafted by a Drafting Committee composed of members from both Hong Kong and Mainland China. A Basic Law Consultative Committee formed purely by Hong Kong people was established in 1985 to canvas views in Hong Kong on the drafts.

The first draft was published in April 1988, followed by a five-month public consultation exercise. The second draft was published in February 1989, and the subsequent consultation period ended in October 1989.

The Basic Law was formally promulgated on 4 April 1990 by the NPC, together with the designs for the flag and emblem of the HKSAR. Some members of the Basic Law drafting committee were ousted by Beijing following 4 June 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, after voicing views supporting the student protesters.

The Basic Law was said to be a mini-constitution drafted with the participation of Hong Kong people. The political system had been the most controversial issue in the drafting of the Basic Law. The special issue sub-group adopted the political model put forward by Louis Cha. This "mainstream" proposal was criticised for being too conservative.[citation needed]

According to Clauses 158 and 159 of the Basic Law, powers of interpretation and amendment of the Basic Law are vested in the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress and the National People's Congress, respectively. Hong Kong's people have limited influence.

Tide of migration[edit]

After the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, the Executive Councillors and the Legislative Councillors of Hong Kong unexpectedly held an urgent meeting, in which they agreed unanimously that the British Government should give the people of Hong Kong the right of abode in the United Kingdom.[33]

More than 10,000 Hong Kong residents rushed to Central in order to get an application form for residency in the United Kingdom. On the eve of the deadline, over 100,000 lined up overnight for a British National (Overseas) application form. While mass migration began well before 1989, the event led to the peak migration year in 1992 with 66,000 leaving.[34]

Many citizens were pessimistic towards the future of Hong Kong and the transfer of the region's sovereignty. A tide of emigration, which was to last for no less than five years, broke out. At its peak, citizenship of small countries, such as Tonga, was also in great demand.[35]

Singapore, which also had a predominantly Chinese population, was another popular destination, with the country's Commission (now Consulate-General) being besieged by anxious Hong Kong residents.[36] By September 1989, 6000 applications for residency in Singapore had been approved by the commission.[37] Some consul staff were suspended or arrested for their corrupt behaviour in granting immigration visas.

In April 1997, the acting immigration officer at the US Consulate-General, James DeBates, was suspended after his wife was arrested for the smuggling of Chinese migrants into the United States.[38] The previous year, his predecessor, Jerry Stuchiner, had been arrested for smuggling forged Honduran passports into the territory before being sentenced to 40 months in prison.[39]

Canada (Vancouver and Toronto), the United Kingdom (London, Glasgow, and Manchester), Australia (Perth, Sydney and Melbourne), and the United States (San Francisco, New York, and Los Angeles’s San Gabriel Valley) were, by and large, the most popular destinations. The United Kingdom devised the British Nationality Selection Scheme, granting 50,000 families British citizenship under the British Nationality Act (Hong Kong) 1990.[40]

Vancouver was among the most popular destinations, earning the nickname of "Hongcouver".[41] Richmond, a suburb of Vancouver, was nicknamed "Little Hong Kong".[42] All in all, from the start of the settlement of the negotiation in 1984 to 1997, nearly 1 million people emigrated; consequently, Hong Kong suffered serious loss of human and financial capital.[43]

Last governor[edit]

Main article: 1994 Hong Kong electoral reform

Chris Patten became the last governor of Hong Kong. This was regarded as a turning point in Hong Kong's history. Unlike his predecessors, Patten was not a diplomat, but a career politician and former Member of Parliament. He introduced democratic reforms which pushed PRC–British relations to a standstill and affected the negotiations for a smooth handover.

Patten introduced a package of electoral reforms in the Legislative Council. These reforms proposed to enlarge the electorate, thus making voting in the Legislative Council more democratic. This move posed significant changes because Hong Kong citizens would have the power to make decisions regarding their future.

Handover ceremony[edit]

Main article: Hong Kong handover ceremony

The handover ceremony was held at the new wing of the Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre in Wan Chai on the night of 30 June 1997.

The principal British guest was Prince Charles, who read a farewell speech on behalf of the Queen. The newly elected Labour Prime Minister, Tony Blair, the Foreign Secretary Robin Cook, the departing Governor Chris Patten and General Sir Charles Guthrie, Chief of the Defence Staff, also attended.

Representing the People's Republic of China were the President, Jiang Zemin, the Premier, Li Peng, and the first chief executive Tung Chee-hwa. The event was broadcast around the world.[44][45]

Additional effects[edit]

Before and after handover[edit]

Unchanged after 30 June 1997Changed after 30 June 1997
  1. English continued as an official language and is still taught in all schools. However, many schools teach in Cantonese in parallel with Mandarin and English.[46]
  2. The border with the mainland, while now known as the boundary, continued to be patrolled as before, with separate immigration and customs controls.[47]
  3. Hong Kong citizens were still required to apply for a Mainland Travel Permit, in order to visit mainland China.[48]
  4. Citizens of mainland China still did not have the right of abode in Hong Kong.[49] Instead, they had to apply for a permit to visit or settle in Hong Kong from the PRC government.[50]
  5. Hong Kong remained a common law jurisdiction, with a separate legal system from that used in the mainland, with previous laws remaining in force provided that they did not conflict with the Basic Law.[51]
  6. The Hong Kong dollar continued to be used as its sole currency, and the responsibility of the Hong Kong Monetary Authority.[52] The Bank of China had already started issuing banknotes in 1994.[53]
  7. Hong Kong continued to operate as a separate customs territory from mainland China under Article 116 of the Basic Law.[54]
  8. Hong Kong remained an individual member of various international organisations, such as the World Trade Organization and APEC.[55]
  9. Hong Kong, which remained an individual member of the International Olympic Committee, continued to send its own team to international sporting events such as the Olympics.[56]
  10. Hong Kong maintained Hong Kong Economic and Trade Offices overseas, as well as in the Greater China Region. These include the offices in London, Washington D.C., Brussels and Geneva, previously known as Hong Kong Government Offices.[57]
  11. Many countries' consulates-general in Hong Kong remained outside the jurisdiction of their embassies in Beijing, such as the United States Consulate General, which reports directly to the Department of State.[58]
  12. The Chung Hwa Travel Service, which functioned as Taiwan's de facto mission in Hong Kong, continued to function as before, issuing visas to visitors from Hong Kong, mainland China and other countries.[59] In 2011 it was renamed the Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Hong Kong.[60]
  13. Hong Kong continued to negotiate and maintain its own aviation bilateral treaties with foreign countries and territories.[61] Agreements with Taiwan signed in 1996 remained in force after the change of sovereignty, and were replaced by "the air transportation agreement between Taiwan and Hong Kong", which retained international regulations, such as regulations on customs.[62]
  14. Signs (and fonts), labels, and roadway construction standards on Hong Kong roads and expressways continue to follow the European Union roadway standards, particularly those of the UK.[63]
  15. Hong Kong continued to drive on the left, unlike Mainland China, which drives on the right.[64] Vehicle registration plates continued to be modelled on those of the United Kingdom, white on the front and yellow on the back, with the vehicle registration mark in a similar font.[65]
  16. Hong Kong-registered vehicles still required special cross-border plates to travel to and from mainland China, similar to those of Guangdong.[66] Vehicles registered in the mainland can enter Hong Kong under the Hong Kong mainland China driving scheme.[67]
  17. Hong Kong citizens continued to have easier access to many countries, including those in Europe and North America, with Hong Kong SAR passport holders having visa-free access to 154 other countries and territories.[68]
  18. Many former colonial citizens could still use British National (Overseas) and British citizen passports after 1997. (See: British nationality law and Hong Kong)
  19. It continued to have more political freedoms than mainland China, with the holding of demonstrations and the annual memorial to commemorate the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 continuing to be held in Victoria Park.[69]
  20. It continued to have a multi-party political system.[70] This is separate from the Communist-led United Front on the mainland.[71]
  21. It continued to have more freedom of the press than mainland China, under Article 27 of the Basic Law, despite the growing influence of Beijing.[72]
  22. It also continued to have more religious freedoms, with the Roman Catholic Diocese of Hong Kong remaining under the jurisdiction of the Holy See, instead of the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association on the mainland.[73] The Falun Gong spiritual practice also remained legal in Hong Kong, despite encountering opposition from the SAR government.[74]
  23. Many other technical standards from the United Kingdom, such as electrical plugs (BS 1363) are still used in Hong Kong.[75] However, telephone companies changed from installing UK-style BS 6312 telephone sockets to installing US-style RJ11 ones.[76] Hong Kong also adopted the digital TV standard devised in mainland China for TV transmissions, instead of DVB-T, to replace PAL-I.[77] (See: Technical standards in Hong Kong)
  24. Hong Kong retained a separate international dialling code (852) and telephone numbering plan from that of the mainland.[78] Calls between Hong Kong and the mainland still required international dialling.[79]
  25. Hong Kong retained a separate ISO 3166 code, HK.[80] It also retained a top-level domain, .hk.[81] However, the Chinese code CN-91 was also used.[82]
  26. Hong Kong retained its own separate postal services, with Hongkong Post operating separately from China Post. Hong Kong was not made part of the Chinese postcode system, nor did it introduce a postcode system of its own.[83]
  27. The Hong Kong government continued to make a subvention to the English Schools Foundation, responsible for English-medium schools, which would not be phased out until 2016.[84]
  28. The former British military drill, marching and words of command in English continued in all disciplinary services including all civil organisations.[85] The PLA soldiers of the Chinese Garrison in Hong Kong have their own drills and Mandarin words of command.
  29. Statues of British monarchs remained. Queen Victoria's statue remains in Victoria Park.[86] King George VI's statue similarly remained in Hong Kong Zoological and Botanical Gardens.[87]
  30. British-inspired road names remain unchanged.[88]
  1. From 2012, secondary education moved away from the English model of five years secondary schooling plus two years of university matriculation to the Chinese model of three years of junior secondary plus another three years of senior secondary, while university education was extended from three years to four.[89]
  2. The chief executive became the head of government, elected by a Selection Committee, whose members were mainly elected from among professional sectors and business leaders.[90] The Governor was appointed by the United Kingdom.[91]
  3. The Legislative Council, elected in 1995, was dissolved and replaced by a Provisional Legislative Council, before elections were held to a new Council, in which only 20 out of 60 seats were directly elected.[92] The decision to dissolve the Legislative Council and replace it with a Provisional Legislative Council was criticised by representatives of the UK government.[93]
  4. Foreign nationals were not allowed to stand for directly elected seats in the Legislative Council, only for indirectly elected seats.[94]
  5. All public office buildings now flew the flags of the PRC and the Hong Kong SAR. The Union Flag now flew only outside the British Consulate-General and other British premises.
  6. The British national anthem God Save the Queen, was no longer played after closedown on television stations.[95] The Chinese national anthem, March of the Volunteers was now played instead.[96]
  7. At international sporting events such as the Olympics, Hong Kong was now known as Hong Kong, China.[56] Hong Kong athletes and teams compete under the Hong Kong SAR flag instead of the British flag of Hong Kong, and gold medallists were honoured with the Chinese national anthem, instead of the British national anthem.[97]
  8. The Court of Final Appeal replaced the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as the highest court of appeal.[98]
  9. The Supreme Court was replaced by the High Court.[99]
  10. The Attorney General was replaced by the Secretary for Justice.[100]
  11. The Central People's Government was now formally represented in Hong Kong by a Liaison Office, dealing with domestic matters.[101] This had been established under British rule as the Xinhua News Agency Hong Kong Branch, before it adopted its present name in 2000.[102]
  12. The Hong Kong SAR Government was now formally represented in Beijing by the Office of the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.[103]
  13. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China was represented in Hong Kong by a Commissioner.[104]
  14. The People's Liberation Army established a Garrison, taking over responsibility for defence from British Forces Overseas Hong Kong.[105] The Prince of Wales Building was renamed the Chinese People's Liberation Army Forces Hong Kong Building, while the Prince of Wales Barracks was similarly renamed the Central Barracks, with effect from January 2002.[106]
  15. Flags were no longer flown at the Cenotaph to remember the war dead; previously British troops raised flags representing the British Army, Royal Navy and Royal Air Force every morning, lowering them again before sunset.[107]
  16. Government House was not used as the residence of the first chief executive, Tung Chee-hwa.[108] However, his successor, Donald Tsang, moved into the compound in 2006.[109]
  17. Queen Elizabeth II's portrait was removed from public offices.[110] Coins issued since 1993 no longer had the Queen's head, instead having the Bauhinia.[111]
  18. Postage stamps now displayed the words "Hong Kong, China".[112] A set of definitive stamps, bearing the words "Hong Kong" with no connotation of sovereignty, was introduced in January 1997.[113]
  19. The "Royal" title was dropped from almost all organisations that had been granted it, with the exception of the Royal Hong Kong Yacht Club.[110]
  20. The Crown was removed from the crest of the Hong Kong Police Force, and replaced by the Bauhinia.[110]
  21. Legal references to the "Crown" were replaced by references to the "State".[114] Barristers who had been appointed Queen's Counsel would now be known as Senior Counsel.[115]
  22. The British honours system was replaced by a local system, in which the Grand Bauhinia Medal was the highest award.[116]
  23. Public holidays changed, with British-inspired occasions, such as the Queen's Official Birthday, Liberation Day, and Remembrance Day being replaced by PRC National Day and Hong Kong SAR Establishment Day.[88] Double Ten Day, commemorating the establishment of the Republic of China, was abolished as a public holiday in 1950.[117]
  24. Many of the red Royal Mail pillar boxes were removed from the streets of Hong Kong and replaced by green Hongkong Post boxes.[108] All others were re-painted.[118]
  25. British citizens (without right of abode in Hong Kong) were no longer able to work in Hong Kong without a visa; the policy was changed on 1 April 1997.[119][120]
  26. The United Kingdom was now represented by the British Consulate-General, which reports directly to the Foreign and Commonwealth Office.[121] This has responsibility for British citizens, instead of the Hong Kong Immigration Department.[122] Previously, the country's commercial interests were represented by a British Trade Commission.[123] It was headed by a Senior Trade Commissioner, who became the first Consul-General.[124]
  27. Hong Kong was no longer linked to the Commonwealth and no longer participated in related organisations or events.[125] Consular missions of Commonwealth member states in Hong Kong were no longer known as Commissions, but as Consulates-General.[126]
  28. Countries which did not have diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom, but had diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China, such as North Korea and Iran, were allowed to establish or re-open Consulates-General.[127]
  29. Consulates of countries which maintained diplomatic relations with Taiwan were closed.[128] Only South Africa, which was to establish relations with the People's Republic of China from 1998, was allowed to keep its Consulate General open for an interim period.[129]
  30. Hong Kong's aircraft registration prefix changed from VR to B, bringing it into line with mainland China and Taiwan.[130]
  31. Newspapers, such as the South China Morning Post, changed to heading their pages with "National", rather than "Local" and 'China', and began including Chinese names in Chinese characters. However, the online edition still uses "China" and only displays Chinese names in Roman script.[131]
  32. A giant golden statue of a Bauhinia blakeana was erected in a public space outside the Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre, named Golden Bauhinia Square, along with a Reunification Monument.[132]

Rose Garden Project[edit]

Main article: Port and Airport Development Strategy

After the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, the Hong Kong government proposed a grand "Rose Garden Project" to restore faith and solidarity among the residents.[133] As the construction of the new Hong Kong International Airport would extend well after the handover, Governor Wilson met PRC Premier Li Peng in Beijing to ease the mind of the PRC government.[134]

The communist press published stories that the project was an evil plan to bleed Hong Kong dry before the handover, leaving the territory in serious debt.[135] After three years of negotiations, Britain and the PRC finally reached an agreement over the construction of the new airport, and signed a Memorandum of Understanding.[136] Removing hills and reclaiming land, it took only a few years to construct the new airport.

Views of the Kowloon Walled City[edit]

Main article: Kowloon Walled City

The Walled City was originally a single fort built in the mid-19th century on the site of an earlier 17th-century watch post on the Kowloon Peninsula of Hong Kong.[137] After the ceding of Hong Kong Island to Britain in 1842 (Treaty of Nanjing), Manchu Qing Dynasty authorities of China felt it necessary for them to establish a military and administrative post to rule the area and to check further British influence in the area.

The 1898 Convention which handed additional parts of Hong Kong (the New Territories) to Britain for 99 years excluded the Walled City, with a population of roughly 700. It stated that China could continue to keep troops there, so long as they did not interfere with Britain's temporary rule.

Britain quickly went back on this unofficial part of the agreement, attacking Kowloon Walled City in 1899, only to find it deserted. They did nothing with it, or the outpost, and thus posed the question of Kowloon Walled City's ownership squarely up in the air. The outpost consisted of a yamen, as well as buildings which grew into low-lying, densely packed neighbourhoods from the 1890s to 1940s.

The enclave remained part of Chinese territory despite the turbulent events of the early 20th century that saw the fall of the Qing government, the establishment of the Republic of China and, later, a Communist Chinese government (PRC).

Squatters began to occupy the Walled City, resisting several attempts by Britain in 1948 to drive them out. The Walled City became a haven for criminals and drug addicts, as the Hong Kong Police had no right to enter the City and China refused maintainability. The 1949 foundation of the People's Republic of China added thousands of refugees to the population, many from Guangdong; by this time, Britain had had enough, and simply adopted a "hands-off" policy.

A murder that occurred in Kowloon Walled City in 1959 set off a small diplomatic crisis, as the two nations each tried to get the other to accept responsibility for a vast tract of land now virtually ruled by anti-Manchurian Triads.

After the Joint Declaration in 1984, the PRC allowed British authorities to demolish the city and resettle its inhabitants. The mutual decision to tear down the walled city was made in 1987.[138] The government spent up to HK$ 3 billion to resettle the residents and shops.

Some residents were not satisfied with the compensation, and some even obstructed the demolition in every possible way.[139] Ultimately, everything was settled, and the Walled City became a park.[140]

International reaction[edit]

The Republic of China on Taiwan promulgated the Laws and Regulations Regarding Hong Kong & Macao Affairs on 2 April 1997 by Presidential Order, and the Executive Yuan on 19 June 1997 ordered the provisions pertaining to Hong Kong to take effect on 1 July 1997.[141]

The United States–Hong Kong Policy Act or more commonly known as the Hong Kong Policy Act (PL no. 102-383m 106 Stat. 1448) is a 1992 act enacted by the United States Congress. It allows the United States to continue to treat Hong Kong separately from China for matters concerning trade export and economics control after the handover.[142]

The United States was represented by then Secretary of State Madeleine Albright at the Hong Kong handover ceremony.[143] However, she partially boycotted it in protest of China's dissolution of the democratically elected Hong Kong legislature.[144]

End of the British Empire[edit]

See also: Decolonization and List of countries that have gained independence from the United Kingdom
Hong Kong 1 July march with British Hong Kong flag

The handover marked the end of British rule in Hong Kong, which was Britain's last substantial overseas territory. Although in statute law set down by Parliament, British Hong Kong had no status of pre-eminence vis-a-vis the other British Dependent Territories (as they were then classified before the term British Overseas Territory was introduced in 2002), Hong Kong was by far the most populous and economically potent. In 1997 the colony had a population of approximately 6.5 million, which represented roughly 97% of the population of the British Dependent Territories as a whole at that time (the next largest, Bermuda, having a 1997 population of approximately only 62,000). With a gross domestic product of approximately US$180 billion in the last year of British rule,[145] Hong Kong's economy was roughly 11% the size of Britain's.[146] Therefore, although the economies of the United Kingdom and Hong Kong were measured separately, the Handover did mean the British economy in its very broadest sense became substantially smaller (by comparison, the acquisition of Hong Kong boosted the size of the Chinese economy, which was then smaller than the United Kingdom's, by 18.4%).[147] As a comparator to Hong Kong, in 2017 Bermuda (as with population, the economically largest of Britain's remaining territories) had a GDP of only US$4.7 billion.[148]

The cession of Hong Kong meant that Britain's remaining territories (excepting the United Kingdom itself) henceforth consisted either of uninhabited lands (for instance the British Antarctic Territory), small islands or micro land masses (such as Montserrat), territories used as military bases (for example Akrotiri and Dhekelia on the island of Cyprus, itself a former crown colony granted independence in 1960), or a combination of the latter two (like Gibraltar). While many of Britain's remaining territories are significant to the global economy by virtue of being offshore financial centres (Bermuda, the British Virgin Islands, and the Cayman Islands being the most prominent of these), their economies are insubstantial. Demographically, they are also tiny compared to Britain, with a collective population of less than 0.4% of Britain's 2017 population of 66 million.[149] As of 2018, the combined population of Britain's remaining fourteen Overseas Territories is approximately 250,000, which is less than all but three districts of Hong Kong, and roughly equal to that of the City of Westminster.

Consequently, because ceding Hong Kong came at the end of half a century of decolonisation, and because the handover meant that the United Kingdom became without significant overseas territories, dominions, or colonies for the first time in its history (Great Britain, having been bequeathed the incipient domains of its later empire by inheriting the colonial possessions of the Kingdom of England upon the passing of the Acts of Union 1707, always having been an imperial power, ab initio) the handover of Hong Kong to China is regarded by some as marking the conclusion of the British Empire, with 1 July 1997 being its end date and the handover ceremony being its last diplomatic act.

In popular culture[edit]

Scholars have begun to study the complexities of the transfer as shown in the popular media, such as films, television and video and online games. For example, Hong Kong director Fruit Chan made a sci-fi thriller The Midnight After (2014) that stressed the sense of loss and alienation represented by survivors in an apocalyptic Hong Kong. Chan infuses a political agenda in the film by playing on Hong Kongers' collective anxiety towards communist China.[150] Yiman Wang has argued that America has viewed China through the prisms of films from Shanghai and Hong Kong, with a recent emphasis on futuristic disaster films set in Hong Kong after the transfer goes awry.[151]

  • The handover is central to the plot of the 1998 action film Rush Hour.[152][153]
  • It is also mentioned in another 1998 film—Knock Off.[154]
  • The handover is the backdrop for "A Death in Hong Kong", the first episode the tenth series of Murder, She Wrote.[155][153]
  • Hong Kong Cantopop artist Sam Hui has made numerous references to 1997 including the song "Could Not Care Less About 1997" (話知你97).[156]
  • Chinese American rapper Jin Auyeung has a song called "1997" in his Cantonese album ABC, which he makes references to the handover, ten years since Hong Kong's return to China.[157]
  • Zero Minus Ten, a James Bond novel by Raymond Benson, is set largely in Hong Kong during the days leading up to the Handover.[158][153]
  • The 2012 James Bond film Skyfall features a villain who had been an MI6 agent in Hong Kong until the Handover, when he was handed over to the Chinese for his unauthorised hacking of their security networks.[159]
  • The Doctor Who Unbound audio drama Sympathy for the Devil by Jonathan Clements is set on the eve of the Handover and involves an attempted defection by a war criminal, only hours before China takes control.[153]
  • Hong Kong 97, a 1994 American movie starring Robert Patrick, is set in Hong Kong during the 24 hours before the end of British rule.[160]
  • Hong Kong 97, a 1995 Japanese homebrew SNES game, is set in Hong Kong around the time of the transition. The player controls Chin (Jackie Chan), who was called by the Hong Kong government to kill the invading Chinese, including Tong Shau Ping. The game gained a cult following due to its very poor quality and absurd plot.[161]
  • The handover of Hong Kong is referenced multiple times and witnessed in the 1997 film Chinese Box, starring Jeremy Irons and Gong Li. The film itself was filmed leading up to and during the handover.[162]

See also[edit]

  • History of Chinese immigration to Canada
  • Hong Kong people in the United Kingdom
  • Hong Kong Act 1985
  • Monument in Commemoration of the Return of Hong Kong to China
  • Transfer of sovereignty over Macau
  • Hong Kong 1 July marches
  • Hong Kong–Mainland conflict

Bibliography[edit]

  • Collins, Lawrence; Morse, C.G.J.; McClean, David; Briggs, Adrian; Harris, Jonathan; McLachlan, Campbell; Hill, Jonathan (2008). Dicey, Morris and Collins on the Conflict of Laws (14th ed.). Sweet & Maxwell. ISBN 978-0-421-88360-4.
  • Fawcett, J.J.; Carruthers, J.M.; North, Peter (2008). Cheshire, North & Fawcett: Private International Law. ISBN 978-0-19-928438-2.
  • Flowerdew, John. The final years of British Hong Kong: The discourse of colonial withdrawal (Springer, 1998).
  • Lane, Kevin. Sovereignty and the status quo: the historical roots of China's Hong Kong policy (Westview Press, 1990).
  • Mark, Chi-kwan. "To ‘educate’ Deng Xiaoping in capitalism: Thatcher's visit to China and the future of Hong Kong in 1982." Cold War History (2015): 1–20.
  • Tang, James TH. "From empire defence to imperial retreat: Britain's postwar China policy and the decolonization of Hong Kong." Modern Asian Studies 28.02 (1994): 317–337.

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Further reading[edit]

  • Chan, Ming K. (August 2003). "Different Roads to Home: The Retrocession of Hong Kong and Macau to Chinese sovereignty" (PDF). Journal of Contemporary China. 12 (36): 493–518. doi:10.1080/10670560305473. S2CID 925886.
  • "FOUR CORNERS". ABC Australia. – Transcript broadcast on 13 June 1997
  • Baum, Richard (December 1999). "Enter the dragon". Communist and Post-Communist Studies. University of California Press. 32 (4): 417–436. JSTOR 48609376.

External links[edit]

  • The Hong Kong handover at the Wayback Machine (archived 16 June 1997) – BBC World Service
  • HONG KONG: THE RETURN TO CHINA - Washington Post
  • 1997 Handover - South China Morning Post