Из Википедии, бесплатной энциклопедии
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В профессиональном спорте , шапка зарплаты (или зарплаты колпачок ) является соглашением или правило , которое накладывает ограничение на количество денег , которые команда может потратить на зарплату игроков. Он существует в виде лимита на игрока или общего лимита для состава команды, либо того и другого. Несколько спортивных лиг ввели потолок заработной платы, используя его для снижения общих затрат, а также для поддержания конкурентного баланса, не позволяя более богатым клубам укреплять доминирующее положение, подписывая намного больше лучших игроков, чем их соперники. Верхний предел зарплат может стать серьезной проблемой в переговорах между руководством лиги и союзами игроков.потому что они ограничивают возможности игроков и команд договариваться о более высоких зарплатах, даже если команда работает со значительной прибылью, и были центром нескольких забастовок игроков и локаутов владельцев и администраторов. [1] [2]

Принятие [ править ]

Максимальные зарплаты используются следующими крупными спортивными лигами по всему миру:

  • Северная Америка
    • Национальная баскетбольная ассоциация , Национальная футбольная лига , Национальная хоккейная лига , Высшая лига Футбол , Высшая лига регби , североамериканский регби , Канадская футбольная лига , Национальная лакросс лига , Национальная баскетбольная ассоциация женщин в , футбол Лига Национального женской , Национальные женская хоккейная лига , и низшие лиги в различных видах спорта.
    • Национальная баскетбольная ассоциация использует мягкий колпачок плюс налог на роскошь системы, в то время МЛБ не имеет крышки зарплаты и вместо реализует налог на роскошь только (смотри ниже).
  • Соединенное Королевство :
    • В Англии высшие лиги обоих кодексов регби - Премьер-лига Галлахера в регби-союзе и Суперлига в регби-лиге - имеют максимальные зарплаты.
    • Четыре валлийские региональные команды в профсоюзе регби Pro12, ныне известном как Pro14 , в одностороннем порядке приняли ограничение по зарплате, действующее в сезоне 2012–2013 годов.
  • Австралия и Новая Зеландия : в большинстве высших лиг, действующих в этих двух странах, есть ограничения по зарплате:
    • Австралийская футбольная лига (австралийские футбол правил), который работает только в Австралии. В AFL Женские лиги, которым управляет (мужским) AFL, также ограничены.
    • Национальная лига регби (регби), А-Лига (футбол) и Национальная баскетбольная лига , каждый из которых базируются в Австралии , но имеет одну команды в Новой Зеландии.
    • Национальные нетбольные лиги стран - Suncorp Super Netball в Австралии и Премьер-лига ANZ в Новой Зеландии - ограничены. Транс-Тасманский предшественник обеих лиг, чемпионат ANZ , также был ограничен.
    • В союзе регби главное внутреннее соревнование Новой Зеландии, ныне известное как Кубок Митры 10 , является ограниченным. Кроме того, австралийские команды в соревнованиях по суперрегби действуют в рамках одностороннего ограничения (команды из других четырех стран, участвующих в суперрегби - Аргентины, Японии, Новой Зеландии и Южной Африки, - в настоящее время не подпадают под какие-либо ограничения, хотя обе Новая Зеландия и Южная Африка накладывают ограничение на размер заработной платы отдельных игроков [3] [4] ).
  • Евразия : Континентальная хоккейная лига , базирующаяся в России и также включающая команды из Беларуси , Китая , Финляндии , Казахстана и Латвии , работает с потолком заработной платы с момента своего создания в 2008 году.
  • Франция : Ведущая лига регби страны, Top 14 , ввела потолок заработной платы, действующий в сезоне 2010–11 годов .
  • Азия : Китайская Суперлига по ассоциативному футболу ввела потолок заработной платы, действующий в сезоне 2021 года.

Недавно несколько европейских ассоциаций футбольных лиг также обсуждали введение потолка заработной платы. Союз европейских футбольных ассоциаций представил набор правил в Play Financial Fair в 2011 году, что ограничивает футбольные клубы расходы по сравнению с их доходами.

Преимущества [ править ]

Теоретически ограничение заработной платы дает два основных преимущества: обеспечение паритета между командами и контроль над расходами. [5] [6] [7]

В первую очередь, эффективный потолок заработной платы предотвращает определенные деструктивные действия богатых команд, такие как заключение контрактов с множеством высокооплачиваемых звездных игроков, чтобы их соперники не могли получить доступ к этим игрокам, и обеспечение победы за счет превосходной экономической мощи. С потолком заработной платы каждый клуб имеет примерно одинаковую экономическую возможность привлекать игроков, что способствует достижению паритета, обеспечивая примерно равные игровые таланты в каждой команде лиги, и, в свою очередь, приносит экономические выгоды лиге и ее отдельным командам.

Лигам необходимо обеспечить определенный паритет между командами, чтобы игры были увлекательными для болельщиков и не были предрешены. Лиги, принявшие ограничения на зарплаты, обычно делают это, потому что они считают, что позволяя более богатым командам накапливать таланты, влияет на качество спортивного продукта, который они хотят продавать: если только одна или несколько доминирующих команд смогут последовательно побеждать и бороться за чемпионство, многие соревнования будут проводиться превосходной командой, что снизит привлекательность спорта для болельщиков на стадионе и зрителей на телевидении. Доходы от телевидения являются важной частью доходов многих видов спорта во всем мире, и чем более равномерно согласованы и увлекательны соревнования, тем интереснее телевизионный продукт и тем выше ценность прав на телетрансляцию.Несбалансированная лига также угрожает финансовой жизнеспособности более слабых команд, потому что, если нет долгосрочной надежды на победу их команды, фанаты более слабых клубов будут стремиться к другим видам спорта и лигам.

Одним из известных примеров этого была Ассоциация Союза , которая действовала в 1884 году. В Ассоциации доминировали Сент-Луис Марунс, владелец которой, Генри Лукас, также был президентом лиги (очевидная ситуация конфликта интересов, которая сейчас имеет место. забанен), и купил всех лучших игроков для своей собственной франшизы, оставив Maroons легко выиграть вымпел с рекордом 94–19 (0,832 процента побед), что на 21 игру опережает своих ближайших соперников. Лига закрылась в конце сезона.

Другой известный пример - Всеамериканская футбольная конференция , которая проводилась с 1946 по 1949 год. Несмотря на то, что в AAFC участвовало много ведущих игроков и новаторских тренеров, в AAFC доминировала одна команда, Cleveland Browns , которая проиграла всего три игры за четыре года и выиграла каждую. чемпионство за четыре года существования лиги, непобежденное в 1948 году и три победы в чемпионатах по выбросам. Это привело к постоянному падению посещаемости и тяжелым потерям после второго сезона лиги как для «Браунов», так и для их соперников, и лига закрылась в конце 1949 года.

Необходимость паритета более очевидна в лигах, которые используют систему франчайзинга, а не систему повышения и понижения , которая используется в европейском футболе . Структура системы повышения и понижения означает, что более слабые команды борются с угрозой понижения, делая матчи более слабых команд более важными и увлекательными. Международные клубные соревнования, такие как Лига чемпионов УЕФА, также означают, что ведущим клубам всегда есть за что играть, даже в самых несбалансированных национальных лигах.

Ограничение заработной платы также может помочь контролировать расходы команд и предотвратить ситуации, в которых клуб будет подписывать дорогостоящие контракты со звездными игроками, чтобы воспользоваться преимуществами немедленной популярности и успеха, а позже оказаться в финансовых затруднениях, потому что этих затрат. Без ограничений существует риск того, что команды потратят слишком много средств, чтобы выиграть сейчас за счет долгосрочной стабильности. Владельцы команд, использующие тот же анализ риска и выгод, который используется в бизнесе, могут рисковать не только состояниями своей команды, но и репутацией и жизнеспособностью всей лиги. Любители спорта обычно стремятся поддерживать команду на всю жизнь, а не просто покупать продукт на короткий срок. Если команды регулярно банкротятся или меняют рынки так же, как и компании, тогда весь спорт выглядит для болельщиков нестабильным.которые могут потерять интерес и переключить свою поддержку на более стабильный вид спорта, в котором их команда и их соперники с большей вероятностью будут играть в долгосрочной перспективе.

Жесткое ограничение, мягкое ограничение и минимальный уровень заработной платы [ править ]

Верхний предел заработной платы может быть определен как жесткий или мягкий предел.

Жесткое ограничение представляет собой максимальную сумму, которая не может быть превышена ни по какой причине. Контракты, которые приводят к нарушению командой жесткого лимита, подлежат серьезным санкциям, включая аннулирование нарушенных контрактов и лишение чемпионатов, выигранных с нарушением правил ограничения зарплат, что случилось с Мельбурнским штормом в NRL . Жесткие ограничения разработаны таким образом, чтобы штрафы удерживали ограничение, но есть множество примеров клубов, которые время от времени и / или систематически обманывали ограничение.

Мягкое ограничение представляет собой сумму, которая может быть превышена в определенных обстоятельствах, но в противном случае превышение лимита вызовет штраф, который известен заранее. Обычно эти штрафы носят финансовый характер; штрафы или налог на роскошь являются обычными штрафами, применяемыми лигами.

Минимальная заработная плата - это минимальная сумма, которая должна быть потрачена на команду в целом, и она не связана с минимальной зарплатой игрока, согласованной лигой. В некоторых лигах, в частности в НФЛ , установлен жесткий минимальный уровень заработной платы, который требует от команд ежегодного соблюдения минимального уровня заработной платы, что помогает предотвратить использование командным максимальным уровнем заработной платы для минимизации затрат.

Когда верхний и нижний предел заработной платы одинаковы, результатом является контрактная модель оплаты стандартной формы , в которой каждому игроку платят одинаковую сумму, иногда меняющуюся в зависимости от должности. Стандартная форма контракта широко используется в низших лигах Северной Америки .

Резервная оговорка [ править ]

До введения потолка заработной платы экономическое влияние клубов на рынки игроков контролировалось резервной оговоркой , которая долгое время была стандартной статьей в контрактах с профессиональными спортивными игроками в Соединенных Штатах. Пункт запрещал игроку вести переговоры с другой командой без разрешения команды, обладающей правами этого игрока, даже после истечения срока контракта. Эта система начала разваливаться в 1970-х годах в основном из-за активности профсоюзов игроков и угрозы антимонопольных судебных исков. Звезда Сент-Луиса Кардинал Курт Флад начал делокогда он отказался от сделки с Philadelphia Phillies. Он был игроком 12 лет и чувствовал, что должен иметь право голоса там, где он играл в бейсбол. Несмотря на то, что он проиграл свое дело в Верховном суде, он был первым бейсболистом, который попытался отменить оговорку. Хотя антимонопольные действия не представляли угрозы для бейсбола , который долгое время был освобожден от антимонопольных законов, резервная оговорка этого вида спорта была отменена арбитром Соединенных Штатов как нарушение трудового законодательства.

К 1990-м годам большинство игроков с многолетним профессиональным опытом становились свободными агентами по истечении срока их контрактов и могли свободно заключать новый контракт со своей предыдущей командой или с любой другой командой. Эта ситуация, получившая название «Ограниченное свободное агентство» , привела к «войнам ставок» за лучших игроков - ситуации, которая по своей сути давала преимущество в привлечении таких игроков к более состоятельным командам на более крупных медиарынках.

В лигах Северной Америки [ править ]

Национальная футбольная лига [ править ]

Новое Коллективное соглашение (CBA), сформулированное в 2011 году, предусматривало начальный предел заработной платы в размере 120 миллионов долларов. В то время как предыдущий CBA имел минимальный уровень заработной платы, новый CBA не имел его до 2013 года . Начиная с этого сезона, каждая команда должна потратить минимум 88,8% от лимита денежных средств на компенсацию игрокам [8] и 90% в последующие годы. Однако нижний предел основан на общей сумме денежных средств, израсходованной за каждый из двух четырехлетних периодов, первый - с 2013 по 2016 год, а второй - с 2017 по 2020. Команда может находиться под полом в течение одного или нескольких сезонов в цикле, не нарушая CBA, при условии, что ее общие расходы в течение четырехлетнего периода достигают требуемого процента от лимита. [8]Это позволяет непредвиденным обстоятельствам, таким как завершающие карьеру травмы или неожиданный уход игрока на пенсию, не приводить к немедленному наказанию. В результате команды не вынуждены немедленно брать замену отсутствующим игрокам, что позволяет им использовать более органичные подходы, такие как обмен, приобретение свободного агентства или драфта.

Ограничение НФЛ - это жесткий предел, которого команды должны постоянно придерживаться, и минимальный уровень заработной платы также является жестким. Штрафы за нарушение или обход правил ограничения включают штрафы в размере до 5 миллионов долларов за каждое нарушение, расторжение контрактов и / или потерю драфта. Нарушение правил минимальной заработной платы не влечет за собой штрафов или конкурентных штрафов; вместо этого недостатки помещаются в пул и распределяются между всеми игроками, которые входили в обычный состав команды-нарушителя в течение четырехлетнего цикла, пропорционально времени в списке в указанный период.

Впервые ограничение было введено в сезоне 1994 года и ожидалось, что оно составит 32 миллиона долларов, но неожиданно высокая ставка со стороны Fox и других сетей [9] увеличила его до 34,6 миллиона долларов. И потолок, и нижний предел ежегодно корректируются в зависимости от доходов лиги, и каждый год они увеличиваются. В 2009 году , последнем ограниченном году по этому соглашению, предел составлял 128 миллионов долларов на команду, а нижний предел составлял 87,6% от лимита. По формуле, приведенной в коллективном договоре лиги, минимальный порог в 2009 году составил 112,1 миллиона долларов. В соответствии с соглашением NFL с NFLPA , влияние на предельный размер заработной платы гарантированных выплат, таких как подписные бонусы, за некоторыми редкими исключениями, распределяется пропорционально. равномерно в течение срока действия договора.

В переходных периодах, если игрок уходит на пенсию, его продают или сокращают до 1 июня, весь оставшийся бонус применяется к потолку заработной платы в текущем сезоне. Если изменение заработной платы происходит после 1 июня, пропорциональное соотношение бонусов в текущем сезоне не меняется, а ограничение на следующий год должно поглотить весь оставшийся бонус. Когда игрок отмечен франшизой, это влияет на ограничение зарплаты. Если потолок заработной платы не может быть достигнут для отмеченного игрока, Национальная футбольная лига профинансирует оставшуюся часть контракта. Каждая команда может отмечать только одного игрока в год.

Из-за такой схемы контракты НФЛ почти всегда включают право исключить игрока перед началом сезона. Если игрок сокращен, его зарплата за оставшийся срок действия контракта не выплачивается и не засчитывается в максимальную зарплату для этой команды. Очень востребованный игрок, подписывающий долгосрочный контракт, обычно получает подписной бонус, что обеспечивает ему финансовую безопасность, даже если он будет сокращен до окончания его контракта.

Поощрительные бонусы требуют, чтобы команда заплатила игроку дополнительные деньги, если он достигнет определенной цели. В целях ограничения заработной платы бонусы классифицируются как «вероятно, будут заработаны», что требует, чтобы сумма бонуса учитывалась в максимальном размере заработной платы команды, либо как «вряд ли будут заработаны», что не учитывается. Верхний предел заработной платы команды корректируется в сторону понижения с учетом бонусов NLTBE, которые были заработаны в предыдущем году, но не засчитываются в этот годовой потолок. Он корректируется в сторону увеличения с учетом бонусов LTBE, которые не были заработаны в предыдущем году, но были засчитаны в соответствии с лимитом этого года.

Одним из последствий ограничения заработной платы стало переключение многих более высокооплачиваемых игроков-ветеранов в другие команды после того, как их производство начало снижаться с элитного уровня. С другой стороны, многие команды практикуют использование свободных агентов для пополнения запасов более квалифицированным персоналом, более подходящим для команды. Ограничение зарплаты не позволяло командам с превосходными финансами участвовать в ранее широко распространенной практике накапливать как можно больше талантов в реестре, помещая более молодых игроков в резервные списки с ложными травмами, пока они не превращаются в игроков, способных к НФЛ. В этом отношении ограничение действует в качестве дополнения к лимиту в 55 игроков (по сравнению с 53 с 2020 года) и к лимитам тренировочных команд (14 тренирующихся игроков к 2022 году по сравнению с 10).

В целом практика удержания игроков-ветеранов, которые вносили свой вклад в команду в прошлом, но чьи способности снизились, стала менее распространенной в эпоху ограничения зарплат. [10]Минимальная зарплата ветерана должна была быть выше, чем у игрока с меньшим опытом, а это означало, что команды, как правило, отдавали предпочтение более дешевым, менее опытным игрокам с потенциалом роста, с целью иметь группу игроков, которые быстро развиваются в расцвете сил, но при этом остаются более дешевые контракты, чем их аналоги. Чтобы компенсировать эту тенденцию, которая вытеснила игроков-ветеранов, в том числе тех, кто стал фаворитом фанатов, ассоциация игроков приняла соглашение, по которому игрок-ветеран, не получающий бонусов по своему контракту, может получать ветерану минимум до 810 000 долларов, при этом учитывается только 425 000 долларов США в области верхнего предела заработной платы (скидка 47,5%).

Верхний предел заработной платы также служил для ограничения скорости роста затрат на работу команды. Это принесло пользу владельцам, и хотя первоначальный предел в 34,6 миллиона долларов увеличился до 123 миллионов долларов (максимум в 2009 году), это связано со значительным ростом доходов, включая доходы от мерчандайзинга и веб-предприятий, право собственности на которые делится с игроками. также.

Владельцы отказались от участия в CBA в 2008 году, что привело к тому, что сезон 2010 года не был ограничен. [11] В течение сезона большинство команд НФЛ тратили деньги так, как будто в любом случае был установлен лимит, с предупреждением лиги против команд, загружающих контракты заранее. сезон. Dallas Cowboys , Нью - Орлеан , Oakland Raiders , и Вашингтон краснокожий решили потратить деньги в духе незакрытого года, а в 2012 годе Cowboys и краснокожие (команды топ две НФЛИ по выручке в 2011 г.) [12]были лишены 10 млн долларов и 36 млн долларов соответственно от потолка заработной платы, который будет распределен на следующие два сезона. Эти 46 миллионов долларов впоследствии были разделены между оставшимися 26 командами НФЛ (по 1,77 миллиона долларов каждая) в качестве дополнительного места для ограничения. Это исключало Рейдеров и Святых, поскольку они также превысили предел, хотя и в меньшей степени, чем Ковбои и Краснокожие. [13]

Действия лиги по наказанию тех команд, которые действовали в рамках своих юридических рамок в течение года без ограничения, привели к судебному иску против них со стороны NFLPA. В деле утверждалось, что остальная часть лиги вступила в сговор, чтобы не допустить роста средней заработной платы игроков за год, они ожидали, что она резко возрастет, и несправедливо наказывали команды, которые не вступали в сговор. НФЛ урегулировала судебный процесс с НФЛА. [14]

Влияние эффективного управления потолком заработной платы на успех команды в НФЛ

Верхний предел зарплаты определяется как правило, устанавливающее ограничение на сумму денег, которую команда может потратить на зарплату игроков. С момента его внедрения он оказал широкое влияние на команды и организации в спортивной индустрии. Это изменило то, как организации инвестируют в своих игроков и в будущее в целом. Это оказалось препятствием на пути к устойчивому успеху. С 1994 года Национальная футбольная лига пережила лишь несколько повторных матчей за Суперкубок. В одном из своих самых известных исследований Джеймс Керри изучил данные о зарплатах и ​​результатах работы в НФЛ за 10-летний период. В конечном итоге его исследование показало, что стратегическое управление компенсацией игроков напрямую приводит к увеличению выигрышей. [15]

Можно сравнить показатели заработной платы в четырех основных профессиональных спортивных лигах США. Это позволит лучше понять влияние ограничения в более широком масштабе. Эндрю Цимбалист утверждает, что данные, собранные аналитиками по доходам в соответствующих лигах, могут быть неверно истолкованы. Это неверное толкование происходит из-за различий в организационных структурах лиг. В своем исследовании Эндрю Цимбалист собирает материально-техническое обеспечение компенсации для спортсменов. Впоследствии он связывает это с общим доходом спортивной организации. Концепция скорректированной аналитики данных используется в этом исследовании для сравнения долей заработной платы и доходов Национальной футбольной лиги, Национальной хоккейной ассоциации, Национальной баскетбольной ассоциации и Высшей бейсбольной лиги. В целом,Цимбалист анализирует, как потолок заработной платы повлиял на контроль над расходами игроков. Исследование показывает, как ограничение повлияло на то, как организации инвестируют в своих игроков и выплачивают им компенсацию.[16]

Существует предположение о предполагаемой безвозвратной стоимости, которое возникло из-за потолка заработной платы НФЛ. Это предположение подчеркивает аналитический подход к теме. В одном из своих исследований Куинн Кифер проанализировал структуру драфта НФЛ. Регрессия связывает игровое время между игроками с правилами, вытекающими из потолка заработной платы. Был сделан вывод о положительной корреляции между заработной платой и начатыми играми. Увеличение предела заработной платы приводит к увеличению количества игр, начатых для игроков, выбранных в первых двух раундах драфта. Несмотря на отсутствие заметных различий в производительности, потолок заработной платы позволяет участникам первого раунда получать компенсационные премии и подписные бонусы. Эти преимущества приводят к тому, что эти игроки начинают больше игр, чем игроки, которые не играли.t выбран на ранней стадии проекта.[17]

Максимальный размер заработной платы и правила, являющиеся его частью, взяты из коллективного договора НФЛ. Это соглашение между лигой и ее ассоциацией игроков, в котором обсуждается распределение доходов и другие правила компенсации. Куинн Кифер в своем анализе в первую очередь уделяет внимание разделу соглашения, касающемуся компенсации игрокам. Он подчеркивает, что два основных изменения были внесены в коллективный договор 2011 года. Одним из основных изменений стала шкала заработной платы новичков и то, как их выбор на драфте заметно повлиял на их компенсацию и игровое время. Вторым изменением стало ограничение на зарплату игроков за первый год. Хотя эти изменения привели к более высокому вознаграждению новичков за первый год, особенно отобранным в первых двух раундах, в конечном итоге они привели к снижению заработной платы в последующие годы.Кифер пришел к выводу, что доходность уменьшалась. В целом коллективный договор 2011 года оказал негативное влияние на заработную плату игроков. Этот эффект привел к реструктуризации управления контрактами новичков за последнее десятилетие.[18]

Разброс заработной платы и поощрительные выплаты влияют на производительность команды в НФЛ. Майк Монделло и Джоэл Максси изучают этот эффект, собирая данные из НФЛ в период с 2000 по 2007 год. Монделло и Максси провели регрессионный анализ, в котором использовались как модели фиксированных, так и случайных эффектов. Их исследование было направлено на установление взаимосвязи между производительностью и заработной платой. Была обнаружена положительная взаимосвязь между производительностью на местах и ​​увеличением заработной платы. Монделло и Макси также обнаружили связь между производительностью на местах и ​​разбросом заработной платы. Производство доходов команды, проанализированное как средство измерения производительности команды, также использовалось в этом анализе. Результаты Монделло и Максси показывают, что поощрительная оплата эффективна, когда структура оплаты труда дифференцирует игроков на основе производительности и качества работы.Результаты их исследования могут иметь значение, которое может распространиться на разные спортивные лиги.[19]

Компенсация игроков в НФЛ широко изучалась с 1994 года. Ричард Боргези проанализировал взаимосвязь между компенсацией игроков и показателями франшизы в лиге в период с 1994 по 2004 год. Свидетельства, собранные за эти годы, показывают, что успех команды зависит как от фактической, так и от предполагаемой справедливости. компенсации игроку. Собранные данные также показывают, что команды, которые применяют суперзвездный подход к кадровым решениям, в среднем были хуже по сравнению с командами, которые придерживались другого подхода. Боргези показывает, что наиболее успешный подход к компенсации игрокам и управлению потолком заработной платы состоит в том, чтобы сконцентрироваться на зарплате игроков на групповом уровне.Суперзвездный подход к компенсации игрокам приводит к неуспеху на поле из-за неудовлетворенности игроков, признающих существенное неравенство в зарплатах.[20]

Годовой потолок заработной платы

Национальная хоккейная лига [ править ]

Верхний предел зарплат существовал на заре создания Национальной хоккейной лиги (НХЛ). Во время Великой депрессии лига испытывала финансовое давление, чтобы снизить потолок заработной платы до 62 500 долларов на команду и 7 000 долларов на игрока, что вынудило некоторые команды отказаться от хорошо оплачиваемых звездных игроков, чтобы уложиться в это ограничение. [30]

Ограничение до зарплаты [ править ]

До решения о локауте 2004–05 годов НХЛ была единственной крупной североамериканской профессиональной спортивной лигой, в которой не было налога на роскошь , очень ограниченного распределения доходов и ограничений по заработной плате.

В период « оригинальной шестерки» и до первых лет эры расширения положение о строгом резерве НХЛ отрицало необходимость ограничения заработной платы.

Заработная плата игроков впервые стала проблемой в 1970-х, когда Алан Иглсон основал Ассоциацию игроков НХЛ (NHLPA), а выскочка Всемирная хоккейная ассоциация начала соревноваться с НХЛ за игроков. Не все владельцы НХЛ были готовы участвовать в торгах , в частности, Гарольд Баллард из Toronto Maple Leafs тратил на составы как можно меньше минимума в лиге. Поскольку « Кленовые листья» постоянно раскупались, независимо от того, насколько плохо играли «Кленовые листья», команда Балларда была самой прибыльной.

1994-95 НХЛ локаут боролись над вопросом зарплаты шапку. Сезон 1994–95 был отменен лишь частично: в итоге было сыграно 48 игр и плей-офф .

На момент локаута восемь франшиз НХЛ базировались в Канаде . До 1990-х годов канадские команды обычно выплачивали зарплату игрокам в канадских долларах, но с ростом свободы действий и снижением стоимости канадского доллара игроки и их агенты все чаще требовали выплаты в долларах США. Выручка канадских команд тогда, как и сейчас, была в основном в канадских долларах, и последствия несоответствия были особенно острыми для небольших франчайзинговых компаний. Финансовые трудности и неопределенность конкуренции на небольших канадских рынках привели к тому, что два клуба переехали в США; в Квебек Нордикс в Денвере , и Winnipeg Jets в Финиксе . Комиссар НХЛ Гэри Беттман успешно убедил команды из США внести пожертвования в фонд, чтобы смягчить неблагоприятные последствия обменного курса.

Переговоры [ править ]

Переговоры по Коллективному соглашению НХЛ 2004–2005 годов вращались в основном вокруг зарплат игроков. Лига утверждала, что ее клубы тратили около 75% доходов на заработную плату, что намного выше, чем в других североамериканских видах спорта; Комиссар НХЛ Гэри Беттман потребовал «определенности затрат» и представил NHLPA несколько концепций, которые Ассоциация игроков сочла не чем иным, как эвфемизмами для ограничения зарплаты, которые, как она поклялась, никогда не примет. Срок действия предыдущего CBA истек 15 сентября 2004 года, и последовал локаут, который привел к отмене всего сезона НХЛ 2004–2005 годов , впервые крупная спортивная лига в Северной Америке проиграла весь сезон из-за трудового спора.

Текущий предел зарплаты [ править ]

Локаут был решен, когда NHLPA согласилась на жесткое ограничение заработной платы, основанное на доходах лиги, при этом НХЛ ввела разделение доходов, чтобы обеспечить более высокую цифру верхнего предела. Максимальный размер заработной платы в НХЛ в новом CBA официально назван «Верхний предел диапазона заработной платы». В сезоне НХЛ 2005–2006 годов потолок заработной платы был установлен на уровне 39 миллионов долларов США на команду, при этом максимальный размер заработной платы на игрока составлял 7,8 миллиона долларов (20% от лимита команды). CBA также обязал выплачивать заработную плату в долларах США, кодифицируя то, что было универсальной практикой на протяжении более десяти лет. [31]

Доходы шести канадских команд, которые были в лиге на момент локаута, с тех пор значительно выросли, а поскольку доллар США упал до относительного паритета со своим канадским аналогом в начале 2010-х годов, доходы всей лиги измерялись в долларах США. были раздуты соответственно.

В результате этих факторов лимит был повышен каждый год в рамках CBA 2005–2012 годов до 64,3 миллиона долларов на сезон 2011–2012 годов с максимальным значением в 12,86 миллиона долларов для игрока. CBA также содержит нижний предел заработной платы, который официально называется «Нижний предел диапазона заработной платы» - минимум, который каждая команда должна платить в виде заработной платы игроков. Первоначально нижний предел был установлен на уровне 55% от верхнего предела, но теперь он определен на 16 миллионов долларов ниже верхнего предела, поэтому минимум на 2011–2012 годы составлял 48,3 млн долларов.

Поскольку текущий CBA был утвержден после более позднего локаута в 2012–2013 годах , доходы лиги остались на прежнем уровне из-за значительного падения стоимости канадского доллара по отношению к доллару США. Ограничение на сезон 2014–15 годов составляло 69 миллионов долларов, а на 2016–17 годы - 74 миллиона долларов . [32]

Разница между потолком заработной платы и фактической заработной платой команды называется « комнатой заработной платы » или «комнатой потолка».

Каждый год контракта с игроком НХЛ заработанная зарплата вносит свой вклад в «верхний предел» команды. Базовое ограничение контракта на каждый год его действия - это общая сумма денег, которую игрок будет зарабатывать в виде регулярной зарплаты в течение срока действия контракта, деленная на количество лет, в течение которых он действует. Теоретически это не позволяет команде ежегодно выплачивать игроку разные суммы, чтобы пополнить запас в те годы, когда у команды больше места для игры. Однако команды по-прежнему используют эту практику по другим причинам. Бонусы за производительность также учитываются в ограничении, но есть процент, который команда может превысить ограничение для выплаты бонусов. Тем не менее, команда должна учитывать возможные бонусные выплаты, которые могут превышать этот процент.

Заработная плата игроков, отправленных несовершеннолетним, в большинстве случаев не засчитывается в верхний предел, пока они там находятся. Если у игрока есть законная долгосрочная травма, то его кепка все равно засчитывается; однако команде разрешается заменить его одним или несколькими игроками, совокупная зарплата которых равна (или меньше) заработной платы травмированного игрока, даже если дополнительные игроки могут превысить лимит заработной платы для команды. Если размер кепки команды больше, чем кепка травмированного игрока, она может взять на себя столько же, сколько и ее кепка; однако травмированный игрок не может вернуться в игру до тех пор, пока команда снова не соблюдает исходное ограничение.

НХЛ стала первой из крупных североамериканских лиг, которая ввела жесткое ограничение, сохранив при этом гарантированные контракты с игроками. Гарантированные контракты с игроками в НХЛ отличаются от других видов спорта, особенно от НФЛ, где команды могут отказаться от контракта, отказавшись от контракта или уволив игрока. Команды НХЛ могут выкупать контракты игроков, но все равно должны выплатить часть причитающейся суммы, которая распределяется в два раза дольше оставшегося срока контракта. Это не относится к игрокам старше 35 лет на момент подписания; в этом случае команда не может выкупить контракт игрока на снижение зарплаты. Любого другого игрока можно выкупить за оставшейся зарплаты, если игрок младше 28 лет на момент увольнения, или ⅔ оставшейся зарплаты, если игроку 28 лет и старше. Обмен денег для игроков or paying a player's remaining salary after trading him have been banned outright in order to prevent wealthier teams from evading the restrictions of the cap.

Players, agents or employees found to have violated the cap face fines of $250,000 – $1 million and/or suspension. Teams found to have violated the cap face fines of up to $5 million, cancellation of contracts, forfeiture of draft picks, deduction of points and/or forfeiture of game(s) determined to have been affected by the violation of the cap.

National Basketball Association (soft cap + luxury tax)[edit]

The NBA had a salary cap in the mid-1940s, but it was abolished after only one season. The league continued to operate without such a cap until the 1984–85 season, when one was instituted in an attempt to level the playing field among all of the NBA's teams and ensure competitive balance for the Association in the future. Before the cap was reinstated, teams could spend whatever amount of money they wanted on players, but in the first season under the new cap, they were each limited to $3.6 million in total payroll. Under the 2005 CBA, salaries were capped at 57 percent of basketball-related income (BRI) and lasted for six years until June 30, 2011. The next CBA, which took effect in 2011–12, set the cap at 51.2 percent of BRI in 2011–12, with a 49-to-51 band in subsequent years. The salary cap for 2016–17 was set at $94.14 million, with the salary floor at 84.73 million and the luxury tax limit at $113.29 million.[33] The current CBA took effect with the 2017–18 season.

The NBA uses a "soft" cap, meaning that teams were allowed to exceed the cap in order to retain the rights to a player who was already on the team. This provision was known as the "Larry Bird" exception, named after the former Boston Celtics great who was retained by that team until his retirement under the provisions of this rule. The purpose of this rule was to address fan unease over the frequent changing of teams by players under the free agency system, as fans became displeased over their favorite player on their favorite team suddenly bolting to another team. The "Larry Bird" provision of the salary cap gave the player's current team an advantage over other teams in free agent negotiations, thus increasing the chances that a player would stay with his current team. The provision tended to result in most teams being over the cap at any given time. Teams that violated the cap rules faced fines of up to $5 million, cancellation of contracts and/or loss of draft picks, and are prohibited from signing free agents for more than the league minimum. The NBA also has a salary floor, but teams are not penalized as long as their total payroll exceeds the floor at the end of the season.

The NBA also uses a "luxury tax" which is triggered if the average team payroll exceeds a certain amount higher than the cap. In this case, the teams with payrolls exceeding a certain threshold had to pay a tax to the league which is divided amongst the teams with lower payrolls. However, this penalty was levied against teams in violation only if the league average also breached a separate threshold.

The NBA implemented a maximum salary for individual players. This was done following a dramatic increase in player salaries, in spite of the salary cap, in the mid-1990s. Under the CBA, a player's maximum possible salary increased along with his time of service in the league. For a player of five years' experience, the maximum salary threshold began at 25% of the salary cap, with annual increases of up to 10.5% possible beyond that for players re-signed by their original team, or 8% annual increases for free agents that signed with new teams. For players of greater experience, the salary limit was higher – but the 10.5% limit on annual increases remained the same.

The 2011 CBA resulted in several major changes to the salary cap scheme. Most of these changes were retained in the 2017 CBA.

The cap remains a soft cap; the Bird exception remains in place, but teams have less financial room to retain a player with Bird rights than under pre-2011 agreements.[34]

The 2011 CBA also reduced the maximum length of a contract by a year, and reduced allowable annual raises. Bird free agents are entitled to 5-year contracts with 7.5% raises; all other players (including sign-and-trade acquisitions) are limited to 4-year deals with 4.5% raises. Maximum salaries remain at 25, 30, or 35% of the cap, depending on years of service. These provisions remained intact in the 2017 CBA. Under the current CBA, a player coming off his rookie scale contract, who would normally be eligible to receive a salary of 25% of the cap, is eligible to receive 30% if he has been named MVP in any of the previous three seasons; named the Defensive Player of the Year in the immediately preceding season or two of the three most recent seasons; or named to an All-NBA team in the immediately preceding season or two of the three most recent seasons.[35]

These criteria are the same that determine eligibility for a new type of contract introduced with the 2017 CBA—the Designated Veteran Player Extension (DVPE), popularly known as a "supermax" contract. Players entering their eighth or ninth season in the league who meet the aforementioned criteria may be eligible to sign an extension of up to 5 years at 35% of the cap, a salary normally allowed only for players with 10 or more years in the league. Such an extension can only be offered by the team that had the player under contract in the immediately preceding season. A team can use this extension on either a player under contract or its own free agent, but only if the signing team had originally drafted the player or obtained him in a trade during his rookie contract.[36]

Substantial changes were made in 2011 to the luxury tax regime. The dollar-for-dollar tax provisions of the 2005 CBA remained in effect through the 2012–13 season. Starting in 2013–14, the tax changed to an incremental system. Tax is now assessed at different levels based on the amount that a team is over the tax threshold, which remains at a level above the actual cap. The scheme is not cumulative—each level of tax applies only to amounts over that level's threshold. For example, a team that is $8 million over the tax threshold pays $1.50 for each of its first $5 million over the tax threshold, and $1.75 per dollar for the remaining $3 million. In addition, "repeat offenders", subject to additional tax penalties, are defined as teams that paid tax in four of the five previous seasons. As in the previous CBA, the tax revenue is divided among teams with lower payrolls.[37] However, under the new scheme, no more than 50% of the total tax revenue can go exclusively to teams that did not go over the cap; the use of the remaining 50% was not specified in the new agreement.[34]

Taxpaying teams have additional spending limits under the two most recent agreements (2011 and 2017). They have a smaller "midlevel exception" (another cap provision that allows teams to go over the cap to sign at least one player per season), and can acquire less salary in a trade. Also, since 2013–14, teams that exceed the tax threshold by the so-called "apron", an amount most recently set in the 2017 CBA at $6 million,[38] cannot receive a player in a sign-and-trade deal.[34]

The midlevel exception itself also changed with the 2011 CBA. The maximum duration of midlevel contracts was reduced from 5 years to 4 for non-taxpaying teams and 3 for taxpaying teams, and maximum allowable raises were also reduced. In addition, the midlevel exception was extended to teams under the salary cap for the first time; these teams received a 2-year exception.[34] This exception was retained in the 2017 CBA.

Under the 2011 CBA, teams were allowed to "amnesty" one player before the start of any season, as long as his current contract was signed during the 2005 CBA. The amnestied player was waived from the team; although the player's former team remained obligated to pay his salary under the old contract (with a credit for any salary paid by a future team), that salary was no longer counted for purposes of the cap or luxury tax calculations. This provision could be used only once per team during the duration of the CBA, which was originally a 10-year deal but allowed either side to opt out in 2017.[34] The "amnesty" provision was eliminated in the 2017 CBA, which was agreed to by the owners and players shortly before the opt-out date.

The salary floor, previously 75% of the cap, increased to 85% in 2011–12 and 2012–13, and 90% in future years.[34]

Major League Baseball (luxury tax)[edit]

Instead of a salary cap, Major League Baseball implements a luxury tax (also called a competitive balance tax), an arrangement in which teams whose total payroll exceeds a certain figure (determined annually) are taxed on the excess amount in order to discourage large market teams from having a substantially higher payroll than the rest of the league. The tax was first instituted in 1997 and is paid to the league, which then puts the money into its industry-growth fund.[39][40]

A team that goes over the luxury tax threshold for the first time in a five-year period pays a penalty of 22.5% of the amount they were over the threshold, second-time violators pay a 30% penalty, and teams that exceed the limit three or more times pay a 50% penalty from 2013 onwards. There is also an incentive to lower payroll; if in any year a team goes under the threshold, the penalty rate decreases to 17.5%, 25% or 40% (depending on prior record over the previous five years) for the next time the tax is paid.

The threshold for 2018 is $210 million.

The following teams have been subject to luxury tax since 2003:

[41]

As of 2017, the New York Yankees have paid 61.75% of all luxury tax collected by MLB.

Money collected under the MLB luxury tax are apportioned as follows: The first $2,375,400 and 50% of the remaining total are used to fund player benefits, 25% goes to the Industry Growth Fund, and the remaining 25% is used to defray team's funding obligations from player benefits.[42]

Criticism[edit]

Measuring the success of the luxury tax in bringing the benefits of parity has brought mixed results.

A team with a $100 million plus payroll has won the World Series 12 times (the 2009 Yankees; the 2004, 2007, 2013 and 2018 Red Sox; the 2011 St. Louis Cardinals; the 2010, 2012 and 2014 San Francisco Giants; the 2015 Kansas City Royals; the 2016 Chicago Cubs; and the 2017 Houston Astros).

However, while $100 million plus payrolls have only existed since 2001, the last team to win the World Series with a payroll less than $100 million was the 2008 Philadelphia Phillies (payroll $98.26 million); this can be explained by the fact that the majority of elite players require high salaries when they hit free agency (unless their team extends their contract beforehand), and teams with those players generally perform better.

While a top tier payroll increases a team's chances of making the playoffs, it does not guarantee they will consistently win championships. On the other hand, the New York Yankees have consistently had the highest total payroll in MLB, and they have appeared in 40 of the 114 World Series for 27 wins as of 2018 (35.1% of all World Series for a 24.6% success rate).

In the past 30 years, 18 different teams have won the World Series. In comparison, only 14 different teams won the NFL Super Bowl, 13 won the NHL Stanley Cup and 10 won the NBA championship in that same time frame.

Other pundits, such as Michael Lewis, the author of the bestseller Moneyball, have argued that using World Series championships as an example of parity may be misleading, and playoff appearances may be a better indicator of relative team strength. The playoff system used in baseball comprises a small number of games compared to success over a long season, and has been described as a "crapshoot" by Oakland A's General Manager Billy Beane (the central figure of Moneyball). In fact, teams with consistently high payrolls, including the New York Yankees and Boston Red Sox, have secured high numbers of playoff berths (the two teams have combined to win the AL East 19 out of 25 seasons from 1994–2018). In contrast, teams with low payrolls are far less likely to make the playoffs: for example, the Pittsburgh Pirates went 20 years without a winning season before making the 2013 playoffs.

A number of the small market teams, notably the Milwaukee Brewers, have called for the introduction of a salary cap, but any introduction is opposed by the MLB players' union and the Yankees' ownership group; the latter have threatened legal action if such a cap is implemented.

Although some saw the success of NHL owners in their 2004–05 lockout as an opportunity for MLB to reform its collective bargaining agreement, baseball owners agreed to a new five-year deal in October 2006 that did not include a salary cap. Unlike the other three major North American sports, MLB also has no team salary floor: the only minimum limits for team payrolls are based on the minimum salaries for individual players of various levels of experience that are written into MLB's collective bargaining agreement. The players' union has also historically been vehemently opposed to a team salary floor, considering any floor proposal to be a prelude to a later request for a cap.[43]

Major League Soccer[edit]

Here are some major points of the MLS rules and regulations for the 2017 season.[44]

  • A team's roster can be made up of up to 30 players. They are eligible to be selected to the 18-player team for each game.
  • The salary cap is $4.035 million per team in 2018, not counting the extra salary of designated players. Players in the first 20 roster spots will count against the cap.
  • Roster spots 19 and 20 are not required to be filled, and teams may spread their salary budget across only 18 players. A minimum salary budget charge ($67,500 in 2018) will be imputed against a team's salary budget for each unfilled senior roster spot below 18.
  • The maximum salary for any non-designated player is $504,375.
  • A designated player counts $504,375 against a team's cap. However, if a player joins his team in the middle of the season, the charge against the budget will be $252,187.
  • Players who are in the roster spots from 21–30 will not count against a team's cap. They will be known as off-budget players.
    • Those in roster slots 21–24 must be a senior minimum salary player ($65,000 base salary – will increase to $67,500 in 2018) or Generation adidas player.
    • Those in slots 25–30 must be a reserve minimum salary player ($53,000 base salary – will increase to $54,500 in 2018). Additionally, those who earn the lowest possible league salary must be 24 or younger during the 2017 calendar year.
    • Those in slots 29–30 must also be homegrown players.
  • In addition to the salary cap, each MLS team can also spend additional funds on a player in the form of allocation money and homegrown player subsidy.

Since the 2012 season, the cap number for designated players has depended on the players' ages. Since the 2013 season, players 20 or younger have counted $150,000 against the cap and those age 21 to 23 have counted $200,000, with older players remaining at the standard cap number ($368,750 for 2013, $387,500 for 2014, $436,250 for 2015, $457,500 for 2016, $480,625 for 2017, and $504,375 for 2018). For the purpose of determining a cap number, the player's age is determined solely by his year of birth.[45]

Canadian Football League[edit]

On June 13, 2006, a proposed salary management system featuring a Maximum Salary Expenditure Cap (SEC) was ratified at the Canadian Football League board of governors meeting in Winnipeg, Manitoba.[46]The CFL began enforcing strict salary cap regulation for the 2007 season and the cap was initially set at $4.05 million. The cap will be $5.3 million for the 2020 season or an average salary of $115,217 per active roster player.[47] However, most clubs spend between $7,000,000 to $8,000,000 per season on salaries due to injury exemptions allowed under the cap. For instance, the Edmonton Eskimos spent $8.6 million on salaries in 2018, $8.8 million in 2017 season and $7.9 million in 2016, while still cap compliant.

Penalties for teams found to have breached the salary cap or salary floor regulations are:

[48]

The following breaches of the salary cap have occurred (no team has yet been penalized for violating salary floor regulations):[49]

  • In 2007, the Montreal Alouettes were fined $116,570 and forfeited a first-round draft pick after a CFL investigation found that they had exceeded the salary cap by $108,285 during the season.
  • The Saskatchewan Roughriders were also fined in 2007 ($76,552) for a string of minor breaches in relation to benefit payments to injured players.
  • In 2008, the Saskatchewan Roughriders were fined $87,147 for exceeding the salary cap by that amount.
  • In 2009, the Winnipeg Blue Bombers were fined $44,687 for minor breaches in relation to player bonuses.
  • In 2010, the Saskatchewan Roughriders were fined $26,677 for exceeding the salary cap by that amount.
  • In 2013, the Saskatchewan Roughriders were fined $17,975 for exceeding the salary cap by that amount.

Major League Rugby[edit]

The current team salary cap in the Major League Rugby is 500,000$.[50]

Other North American leagues[edit]

Salary caps are common in other leagues.

The salary cap of the first Arena Football League was $1.82 million per team in its final season in 2008. In 2005, the Tampa Bay Storm were fined $125,000 for salary cap violations and their head coach Tim Marcum was suspended for four games (last two of the 2005 season and first two of the 2006 season) and fined $25,250; Marcum was suspended for a fifth game the next day for criticizing the decision at a press conference.

When the Arena Football League returned in 2010, it instituted a standard salary of $400 per game and a salary cap of $1.5 million, considerably lower than that paid by teams in the previous AFL; given that the new AFL had a 16-game season in 2010, this effectively means that its players are semi-professional.

The National Women's Soccer League, launched in 2013, was initially planned to have a team cap of $500,000, but that was later lowered to $200,000.[51] However, the sport's three North American national federations—the United States Soccer Federation, which runs the league; the Canadian Soccer Association; and the Mexican Football Federation—committed to paying the league salaries of many national team players. For the league's first season, 23 US players, plus 16 players each from Canada and Mexico, had their salaries paid by their respective federations; these players' salaries do not count against the team cap.[52] In a player allocation held before the inaugural season, each of the eight charter teams received two Canadian and two Mexican internationals; seven of the eight teams received three US internationals and the Western New York Flash received two.[52]

In Europe[edit]

Salary caps are rarely used in Europe. However, several European rugby competitions, as well as ice hockey leagues have successfully instituted salary caps. Rugby league's Super League, mainly in England with a team also in France (and formerly one in Wales), is capped. The league has used promotion and relegation for most of its history, though from 2009 through 2014 it operated on a licensing system with some similarities to the North American franchising model. Promotion and relegation returned to Super League in the 2015 season. In rugby union, two of the continent's three main domestic/regional leagues—the English Premiership and the French Top 14—instituted caps despite both being at the top of extensive pyramid structures with promotion and relegation throughout. The most notable European ice hockey league with a salary cap is the Kontinental Hockey League (which uses the franchising model), and that league implemented a cap despite currency issues.

Rugby union[edit]

English Premiership[edit]

The Premiership's salary cap has been in place since the late 1990s.[53] By 2007–08, the cap reached £2.2 million. In the following season, it nearly doubled to £4 million,[53] and remained at that amount through the 2011–12 season.[54] A provision applicable only in seasons that run up against the quadrennial Rugby World Cup, such as 2015–16, gives teams a credit for each player in the squad participating in the competition, helping them to manage their reduced squads in the season's early weeks. This credit was £30,000 in the 2011–12 season,[54] and rose to £35,000 for 2015–16.[55] In addition, each club has a separate salary cap for its academy players (£200,000 prior to 2015–16, reduced to £100,000 thereafter, but with home-grown players no longer counting under this cap),[55][56] and is allowed to provide an unlimited educational fund to enable its players to pursue university or vocational training.[55] Finally, each club has a separate cap of £400,000 for use in signing replacements for players lost to long-term injuries (12 weeks or more).[55]

Through 2011–12, the cap remained at £4 million. However, academy credits were introduced that season. Teams received a £30,000 credit for each home-grown player in their senior squads who was under age 24 at the start of the season and earned more than £30,000,[56] with a maximum of eight such credits. This increased the effective cap to a maximum of £4.24 million (not counting World Cup roster credits).[54]

Two substantial changes took effect for 2012–13. First, the cap increased to £4.26 million before academy credits and up to £4.5 million with credits. The most significant change was that each team could now sign one player whose salary did not count against the cap, similar to the Designated Player Rule in MLS.[54] The player so designated, which the Premiership calls an "excluded player", had to meet one of the following three criteria:[56]

  • Played at least two full seasons with his current club before his designation.
  • Played outside the Premiership in the season before his designation.
  • Included in the official squad of any participant in the 2011 Rugby World Cup final tournament.

For the 2014–15 season, the cap increased to £4.76 million before academy credits and up to £5 million with credits. Other features of the cap remained unchanged.[57]

Several significant changes were introduced for the 2015–16 season:[55][58]

  • The base cap increased to £5.1 million.
  • The maximum possible number of academy credits per club remained at eight, but the per-player credit increased to £50,000. In turn, this means that the effective cap for a club that uses all of its academy credits was increased by £400,000 (instead of £240,000 in past seasons).
  • Clubs may now have two excluded players instead of one. Unlike the first slot, which can be used for a player on a team's current roster, the new slot can only be filled by a player who had not been in the Premiership in the 12 months preceding the start of his initial contract with his Premiership club. A player's inclusion in, or exclusion from, a Rugby World Cup roster is no longer relevant to his status as an excluded player.

The cap later increased to a base of £6.5 million with maximum academy credits of £600,000 for the 2016–17 season, and is now at a base of £7 million with the same maximum for academy credits.[55] Additionally, each team receives a credit of £80,000 for each member of the England national team on the roster, and a luxury tax (which the Premiership calls an "overrun tax") is imposed on clubs that exceed the salary cap by more than 5%.[59] The base value of the cap will remain at £7 million through the end of the 2019–20 season.[60]

French Top 14[edit]

In December 2009, Ligue Nationale de Rugby (LNR), operator of the Top 14, announced it would impose a cap of €8 million, effective with the 2010–11 season.[61] Previously, the only restrictions on team salaries were that wage bills were limited to 50% of turnover[62] and that 10% of the salary budget had to be held in reserve.[61] Along with the announcement of the cap, LNR also declared that the reserve requirement would be raised to 20%,[61] with the previous limitation of 50% of turnover remaining in effect.[62]

The new cap was slightly higher than the highest official wage bill in the 2009–10 season. Also, due to the complex nature of French club administration, clubs were seen as likely to find creative ways to skirt the cap.[62] This was publicly admitted in 2014 by Mourad Boudjellal, owner of then-current Top 14 power Toulon. Boudjellal found a loophole that allowed him to set up a separate company to supplement the salary of star Jonny Wilkinson by a six-figure amount while staying under the cap.[63]

The Top 14 salary cap was set at €9.5 million for 2012–13.[64] For 2013–14, the cap was increased to €10 million, and in addition youth players are excluded from the cap unless their salaries are more than €50,000. The €10 million total cap remained in place for three seasons (through 2015–16); the agreement allowed for the threshold for exclusion of youth players to be adjusted before any of those seasons,[65] but no such adjustment was made. The €10 million cap was later extended through the 2018–19 season.[66] Additionally, each club that has a member of the France national team on its roster (more specifically, one of the 30 players named by the French Rugby Federation to the so-called "elite squad") is allowed to exceed the cap by a set amount per national team member. This amount was fixed at €100,000 through the 2015–16 season,[67] and increased to €200,000 starting in 2016–17.[66]

The cap rules were further tweaked for the 2015–16 season. Player bonus payments that amount to more than 10% of a player's salary are now counted against the cap.[68]

Welsh rugby union[edit]

On 20 December 2011, the four Welsh regional sides that participate in the competition then known as Pro12 and now as Pro14 announced that they would impose a salary cap of £3.5 million, effective with the 2012–13 season. The cap covers only the registered squad for European competitions—at the time of announcement, the Heineken Cup and European Challenge Cup, and from 2014–15 the European Rugby Champions Cup and European Rugby Challenge Cup. It does not cover players in the regions' academies.[69]

This cap was unilaterally instituted only on the Welsh teams. The Pro14 league is uncapped, and none of the other three European countries involved in the Pro12 (Ireland, Italy, and Scotland) are known to have formally instituted such a system. South Africa maintains a cap and floor on individual player salaries but does not impose a separate team cap.

The operation of the cap was modified for select Wales national team players in 2014 by agreement between the Welsh Rugby Union and the Welsh professional players' trade union. This agreement introduced "National Dual Contracts", which make signatories available for all Wales national team matches regardless of whether they fall within an official World Rugby window for Test matches. The WRU funds 60% of the salary of NDC players, with the region covering the other 40%, with only the latter amount included in the salary cap.

Kontinental Hockey League[edit]

When the Russian Superleague was dissolved to make way to the modern-day KHL, the Kontinental Hockey League Players' Trade Union (KHLPTU) agreed to the implementation of a salary cap. When first implemented there was a salary cap, as well as a salary floor. For the 2009-10 KHL season, the salary cap was 620 million rubles ($US18.3 million) and the salary floor was 200 million rubles ($US5.9 million).

The KHL's cap operates despite the KHL's multinational nature, with teams in Belarus, China, Finland, Kazakhstan, and Latvia, in addition to its primary base of Russia. The five non-Russian countries use four different currencies (two countries use the euro), with most floating against the ruble.

From 2011–12, each team can sign up to two "designated players" whose salaries are not counted against the cap. Up until 2011, the KHL salary cap was a soft cap, with a luxury tax amounting to 30% of the payroll that is over the cap paid to the special stabilization account, which helps KHL teams facing financial hardship. From the 2012-13 KHL season onward, the KHL uses a hard cap, set at 1.25 billion rubles ($US36.5 million).

In European football[edit]

Several European association football leagues have considered introducing salary caps in the early 21st century. In 2002, the BBC reported[70] that the G14 group of 18 leading European football teams would cap their payrolls at 70% of team's income, starting from the 2005/2006 season, however this did not occur. Serie A, the leading Italian football league and The Football League in England have also considered salary caps.

These measures would be implemented to ensure clubs spend responsibly rather than as a tool to create parity. Top executives in European football have acknowledged that a number of challenges not present in North America would confront anyone who tried to implement an effective cap across European football or even across a single league with a view to creating competitive balance:

  • The various national leagues are in competition with each other for the best players because there is free movement of players between the leagues. Football leagues in European Union countries have been forbidden from prohibiting the signing of EU players from other nations, or even from limiting their numbers. Therefore, if one league imposed a strict cap on its teams, the best players from the country in question would still be free to move to uncapped rival leagues.
  • The existence of lucrative and prestigious international club competitions encourage clubs to ensure dominance of their national leagues in order to play in the higher-level European leagues. For many top clubs, the domestic league is little more than a stepping stone to the European league. Success in European club competitions is not only a matter of national pride, as the number of places allocated to each country for these competitions is determined by that country's teams' past performances in Europe. Salary capped clubs in a franchise structure do not have to compete with teams in rival leagues where there is no salary cap.
  • Different governing bodies have authority over domestic and international competitions. For example, UEFA governs European football and organizes the prestigious Champions League and Europa League, but its authority over the domestic leagues is very limited. Although UEFA could, in theory, impose a salary cap, it would only apply to UEFA's club competitions and to the portion of each team's payroll paid to players registered with UEFA. A wealthy Champions League team could then sign players who would play exclusively in domestic competitions. In other sports that have a single governing body which oversees a single premier competition, the power to enforce salary cap rules is much greater.
  • The pyramid structure of European leagues means the number of small clubs in the various lower divisions can run into the thousands. The promotion and relegation system which allows transfers between these divisions presents challenges to a cap system. A club that is relegated to a lower league after a poor season may find themselves significantly over the lower division cap. Similarly, a promoted club might have to face the challenge of hastily finding players who it could then pay under a higher cap. A salary cap exacerbates the problem of players switching clubs along with the clubs' movement between tiers.
  • European tax systems and rates vary greatly from country to country. One prominent club, AS Monaco, plays in Monaco, a principality with no income tax at all. A flat payroll limit would therefore equate to aggregate take home pay that varied greatly from one club to the next, which would make it difficult for teams in countries with higher taxation to attract the best players. By comparison, the differences between the tax systems and tax rates of Canada, the US and between their respective provinces and states are not nearly as great.
  • Europeans use multiple currencies and football wages are usually paid in the local currency. Although the countries hosting all but one of the most prominent European leagues now use the Euro, the one exception, England, has the richest league. Even if a hypothetical UEFA-wide cap were denominated in Euros, fluctuating exchange rates would make it difficult for the cap to be fairly administered in the United Kingdom since its salaries are paid in pounds sterling. By comparison, most player salaries paid to players on Canadian major sports teams are paid in U.S. dollars; in fact this is now mandated in the NHL to ensure that payrolls do not fluctuate with exchange rates. On the other hand, trying to force British clubs to pay wages in Euros so that their payrolls could not exceed a cap would meet with opposition from clubs since their revenues are collected in pounds, and might even provoke political opposition from Britons determined to prevent the Euro from replacing the pound.

In Australia and New Zealand[edit]

Australian rules football[edit]

The Australian Football League has implemented a salary cap on its clubs since 1987, when Brisbane and West Coast were admitted, as part of its equalization policy designed to neutralize the ability of the richest and most successful clubs, Carlton, Collingwood and Essendon, to perennially dominate the competition.

The cap was set at A$1.25 million for 1987–1989 as per VFL agreement, with the salary floor set at 90% of the cap or $1.125 million; the salary floor was increased to 92.5% of the cap in 2001, and to 95% of the cap for 2013 onwards due to increased revenues. The salary cap, known officially as Total Player Payments, is A$13,000,000 for the 2020 season with a salary floor of $12,350,000.

Both the salary cap and salary floor has increased substantially since the competition was re-branded as the AFL in 1990 to assist in stemming the dominance of other high membership clubs, such as Adelaide, Hawthorn and the West Coast Eagles.

Certain payments are excluded from the cap, and concessions are available for some players, in particular "veteran" players (those who have completed 10 seasons with their current club[71]) and "nominated" rookie list players, who are discounted by 50% for purposes of the cap, depending on the number of these players at each club.

The AFL Players Association negotiates for players with the AFL on the topic of average salary.

Breaches[edit]

The breaches of the salary cap and salary floor regulations are exceeding the TPP, falling below the salary floor, not informing the AFL of payments, late or incorrect lodgement or loss of documents relating to player financial and contract details, or engaging in draft tampering. Trading cash for players and playing coaches, formerly common practices, are also prohibited to prevent wealthier clubs from circumventing the restrictions of the salary cap and salary floor.

Penalties for players, club officials or agents include fines of up to one-and-a-half times the amount involved and/or suspension. Penalties for clubs include fines of up to triple the amount involved, forfeiture of draft picks and/or deduction of premiership points. As of 2019, no club has been penalised for breaches of the salary floor regulations, and no punishment has included the deduction of premiership points.

Success of the cap[edit]

The VFL/AFL's salary cap has been quite successful in terms of parity: since the cap was introduced in 1987, 17 of the 18 teams [72] have reached the Grand Final, and 13 teams have won the premiership.

Another major statistic in regards to the success of the VFL/AFL's cap is that the three richest and most successful clubs, Carlton, Collingwood and Essendon, who won 41 of the premierships between them from 75 Grand Finals [73] in the 90 seasons between 1897 and 1986 (83.3% of all Grand Finals for a 45.6% premiership success rate), have only won six of the premierships between them from twelve Grand Finals since [74] (35.2% of all Grand Finals for a 17.6% premiership success rate).

Of note in this regard is that the Sydney Swans, playing as South Melbourne before 1981, mostly struggled in the 50 seasons between 1946 and 1995, and made the finals on just four occasions in that time (a finals success rate of 8%). They had not won a premiership since 1933 and had not appeared in a Grand Final since 1945, but since the implementation of the salary cap, have since qualified for the finals in 20 of 24 seasons (a finals success rate of 83%) and played in five Grand Finals, winning the premiership in 2005 and 2012.

Football department cap[edit]

Originally, the cap was only for the Total Player Payments of each club and not the club's football department. This has caused concern in recent years; for instance, three of the four top-spending clubs played in the Preliminary Finals in 2012 and 2013, and the last team to win the premiership outside the top eight spending teams was North Melbourne in 1999.

There had been calls for a separate cap for the football department, or to reform the salary cap to include football department spending, but these had been opposed by the wealthier clubs, with Sydney CEO Andrew Ireland saying that the AFL needed to examine the gap between football department spending for these teams.[75]

In 2014, the AFL and its clubs accepted a luxury tax on football department spending (excluding the salary cap) to take effect in 2015 and an overall revenue tax to take effect by 2017. Clubs that exceed the football department cap will pay the AFL the lesser of $1 million or 37.5% of the excess, and repeat offenders will pay the lesser of 75% of the excess or $2 million.[76][77]

Criticism of the cap[edit]

The AFL salary cap is occasionally controversial, as it is a soft salary cap and can sometimes be slightly different for each club. Clubs in poor financial circumstances have not always used their full cap, in some circumstances not even reaching the salary floor.

The AFL has also used the cap to pursue its policy of supporting clubs in non-traditional markets such as Sydney and Brisbane.

State and regional leagues[edit]

Apart from the AFL, several regional leagues also have salary caps which although widening between them and the AFL and overall less than national competitions, are substantial enough to dictate the movement of semi-professional and professional players between states and the overall playing quality and spectator attendance of the state leagues.

AFL Women's[edit]

In 2017, the AFL launched a semi-professional women's national league, known as AFL Women's. All of its current and announced future teams are fielded by AFL clubs. In the league's inaugural season of 2017, a three-tiered salary structure was employed. Marquee players received A$27,000 for the season, with second-tier players earning $12,000 and other listed players $8,500. All three amounts were scheduled to rise for the league's second season of 2018.[78]

Rugby league[edit]

The National Rugby League has a salary cap of A$9.6 million in 2018, with a salary floor of A$9.12 million (95% of the cap). The salary cap keeps average annual player salaries at around A$364,800.

The National Rugby League adopted a hard salary cap model in its first season in 1998. The NRL's stated purposes for having a salary cap are "to assist in spreading the playing talent" and "ensure that clubs are not put into positions where they are forced to spend more money than they can afford in terms of player payments, just to be competitive."[79]

Before the 2012 season, the NRL's then Chief executive David Gallop said "The cap's there to make sure that pure purchasing power cannot dominate the sport... It means we can genuinely say that all 16 teams ... have a chance. For the fan every week, every game is a contest. That's at the core of why rugby league is so successful."[80]

The breaches of the salary cap and salary floor regulations outlined by the NRL are exceeding the salary cap, falling below the salary floor, not informing the NRL of payments, late or incorrect lodgement or loss of documents relating to player financial and contract details or engaging in contract tampering. Trading cash for players is also prohibited to prevent wealthier clubs from evading the salary cap and salary floor regulations.

Penalties for players, club officials and agents include fines of the one-and-a-half times of the amount involved and/or suspension. Penalties for clubs include fines of up to triple the amount involved ($10,000 for each document that is late or incorrectly lodged or lost) and/or deduction of premiership points.

The NRL is one of the few major leagues to implement a salary cap in a sport that has competing leagues in other countries where there is either no salary cap or a much higher cap per club. As a result, at times there has been a tradition of players from Australia moving to Europe where salaries for the elite, and even for average players, were considerably higher. This is often dependent on exchange rates or the rise and fall in the fortunes of international rugby league or union competitions.

The NRL chooses to continue with the cap, believing that any reduction in quality of the sporting product due to the loss of these players is less than allowing richer clubs to dominate. In practice, the goal of parity has been quite successful, with 12 different clubs winning the 19 premierships between 1998 and 2019.

Rugby union[edit]

Australia: Super Rugby[edit]

Through the 2017 southern hemisphere season, the five Australian teams then playing in rugby union's Super Rugby competition were subjected to an A$5 million salary cap for a squad of 30 full-time players per Australian team.[81][82][83] The Australian Rugby Union, now known as Rugby Australia, decided in 2011 to introduce the salary cap because of financial pressures.[84]Originally starting in 2012 as a cap of A$4.1 million, it was later was raised to $4.5 million for the 2013 and 2014 seasons to take pressure off the teams' ability to recruit and retain players.[85] The salary cap has been key component of negotiations between Rugby Australia and the Rugby Union Players' Association (RUPA) over the collective bargaining agreement.[86]The fact that the Australian teams in Super Rugby face a salary cap has been attributed as a factor that makes it more difficult for Australian teams to win the title.[87]

The cap regulations had some small concessions:[88]

  • Five players on each team could be paid $30,000 each per season by team sponsors; this amount was not included in the team cap.
  • The maximum cap charge for a non-Australian player was $137,000, regardless of his actual wages.

Rugby Australia and RUPA later negotiated a new bargaining agreement, running from 2018–2020, that made significant changes to previous cap schemes.[89] The 2018 season, coinciding with the transition from five Australian Super Rugby sides to four, was uncapped, but the salary cap returned for 2019 and 2020, at A$5.5 million.[90] Prior concessions for sponsor payments and non-Australian players were removed, while a salary floor was added at 90% of the cap.[91]

New Zealand: Mitre 10 Cup[edit]

The 14 teams participating in New Zealand's top domestic competition, now known as the Mitre 10 Cup, faced a salary cap in 2013 that was the lesser of $NZ 1.35 million or 36% of the union's commercial revenue.[92] Maximum player salaries are $55,000, and minimum salaries are $18,000.[93] In August 2013, it was announced that the cap would be further reduced, with the team cap for the 2015 season set to $1.025 million.[94]

New Zealand first implemented the salary cap in the 2006 season. The purpose of the salary cap was to ensure an even spread of players to produce competitive matches and higher television audiences for the new, fully professional competition.[95]

The salary cap had been as high as $2 million in 2008. However, the competition had generated losses of approximately $9.6m in 2007, and salary payments had increased by 75% in the previous four years.[96] Some teams were reported to be in dire financial position, with four teams having payrolls of $1.75 million or more.[97] The salary cap was cut in 2008, converting what was then known as the ITM Cup into a semi-professional competition, with players not under national team or Super Rugby contracts needing to find other part-time jobs.

Association football[edit]

A-League[edit]

The A-League national association football (soccer) competition has set a salary cap of $3.063 million for the 2018/19 Season. Clubs must spend at least the Salary Floor which is $2.756 million (representing 90% of the Salary Cap). The Salary Cap applies to the 20 to 23 Players that Clubs have registered to their Hyundai A-League Player Roster. Unless specifically exempt, all payments and benefits (eg. cars, accommodation, etc) provided by a Club to a Player are included in the Club’s Salary Cap.[98]

Each team can sign two "marquee players" and one "guest player", the latter of whom can only play for a maximum of 14 matches in a season, whose salaries are excluded from the team's salary cap. The A-League has also introduced a "junior marquee" for eligible under 23 year old players with the aim of keeping young talented players in Australia (or New Zealand for the Wellington Phoenix) for a longer period,[99] similar to the Designated Player Rule in Major League Soccer in North America.

The breaches of the salary cap and salary floor regulations outlined by the A-League are exceeding the salary cap, falling below the salary floor, not informing the A-League of payments, late or incorrect lodgement or loss of documents relating to player financial and contract details or engaging in contract tampering.

Penalties for players, club officials or agents include fines of up to one and one half times the amount involved and/or suspension. Penalties for clubs include fines of up to triple the amount involved ($7,500 for each document that is late or incorrectly lodged or lost) and/or deduction of competition points.

In the 2006–07 season, Sydney FC were fined $174,000 and deducted three competition points after it was found that they had exceeded the salary cap by $110,000 and failed to declare third-party payments during the 2005–06 season in which they were premiers.

In 2014–15, Perth Glory were fined $269,000, deducted nine points and ruled ineligible to compete in the finals series after it was found that they had exceeded the salary cap by $400,000 during the season.

National Basketball League[edit]

The National Basketball League has a salary cap of A$1.1 million for each of its eight teams as of the 2016–17 season. In addition, from 2003–04 through 2015–16, the NBL used a "points cap" to encourage spread of talent: players were assigned points on a 1–10 basis each season "based on their performance in the NBL or based on the league they have participated in for the season just concluded", and each team's player roster (of between 10 and 12 players) had to fall within a "Total Team Points" limit.[100]

On May 9, 2014, in order to help attract high-calibre imports or offer financial incentive for local stars considering overseas opportunities, the NBL introduced a marquee player rule. It originally allowed a team to nominate one player whose salary was paid outside the cap, with a 25% Marquee Player levy applied to any payment made above the salary cap.[101][102] The levy still applies to non-local marquee players (i.e., players who are neither Australians nor New Zealanders), with one exception introduced in 2016–17.

Effective with the 2016–17 season, several significant changes were made to the cap scheme. First, the cap was changed from a hard cap of A$1 million to a soft cap of $1.1 million. Teams exceeding the cap are required to pay "salary equalisation" (effectively a luxury tax) equal to the amount above the cap. Additionally, players' values for purposes of the cap are not based on their publicised salaries, but are instead determined by an NBL panel. Also, the points system in place for the previous 13 seasons was scrapped; in its place, a salary cap provision was added requiring that all teams have at least one group of five players with a collective cap value of no more than A$400,000.[103] Second, the Marquee Player rule was modified with regard to "non-restricted" players; the cap charge for a qualifying player who fills the marquee player slot is now $150,000, regardless of his actual salary.[103] Since that season, "non-restricted" players have been defined as all Australians and New Zealanders, plus one player per team from another country that is a member of either FIBA Asia or FIBA Oceania.[103]

The 2018–19 season saw another significant change to the cap scheme with the introduction of the NBL's "Next Stars" initiative, targeted mainly at young American players seeking an alternative to U.S. college basketball, plus Australians and New Zealanders considering U.S. college basketball. The league identifies young prospects preparing to graduate from secondary school and offers them NBL contracts at a first-year salary of A$100,000, plus housing and transport allowances. Players who sign "Next Stars" contracts are then allocated among the league's teams, with each team receiving an extra import roster slot intended to be filled by a "Next Star". As these slots are funded by the NBL, they do not count against the salary cap.[104][105]

Netball[edit]

In netball's now-defunct ANZ Championship, which featured five teams each from Australia and New Zealand, each franchise was restricted to a NZ$380,000 salary cap (as of 2013) from which player salaries were paid. Salary amounts varied among players, but each player received a retainer of at least NZ$12,000 per season; high-profile players were expected to earn up to NZ$50,000.[106][107]

Following the 2016 season, Australia's national governing body of Netball Australia broke away from the trans-Tasman championship[108] and launched its own national league, Suncorp Super Netball. The initial team salary cap in the new league was A$675,000, with minimum player salaries of A$27,375. This latter figure was more than double the minimum wage of A$13,250 in the final season of the ANZ Championship.[109] New Zealand rebranded its now-domestic league as the ANZ Premiership, presumably retaining its prior salary cap provisions.

Since then, Super Netball's salary cap has risen modestly. The original team cap of A$675,000 had been structured with a $500,000 cap on playing payments, plus an additional $150,000 for club-related employment, educational, and ambassadorial roles, and the balance for health insurance and technology allowances.[109] For the 2019 season, the minimum player wage (not including the health insurance allowance, set at $1,635 for that season) rises to $30,000, and the team cap on playing payments rises to $515,000.[110]

Chinese Super League[edit]

Following a 2020 season financially rocked by COVID-19, the Chinese Super League saw major turmoil. In February 2021 alone, the reigning champions Jiangsu F.C. folded; Shandong Taishan were expelled from the AFC Champions League for "overdue payables"; and Tianjin Jinmen Tiger were reportedly at risk of collapsing, with Chinese media reporting that the club had not paid players in 10 months. In 2020, then-current Super League member Tianjin Tianhai folded, as did Liaoning F.C., which had been the first Chinese club to win the AFC Champions League before dropping to the country's lower levels.[111]

In December 2020, the Chinese Football Association imposed a salary cap on the Super League. Effective in 2021, total player wages are capped at RMB 600 million (US $91.7 million at March 2021 exchange rates), with a separate cap of €10 million (US $12.1 million) on total wages of foreign players. Individual player salaries are also capped at RMB 5 million (US $765,000) before tax for Chinese players and €3 million (US $3.63 million) for foreign players.[111]

In rugby union[edit]

Salary caps and currency conversions accurate as of July 2020.[112]

Notes:

  1. ^ Does not include €200,000 "bonus" per France national team member on the roster.
  2. ^ Maximum possible cap after academy credits. Base value of cap in local currency, before credits, is 7.0m. Does not include separate caps for academy players and injury replacements, credits for Rugby World Cup squad members in World Cup seasons, or £80,000 "bonus" per England national team member on the roster.
  3. ^ The other European countries in the Pro14 – Ireland, Scotland, and Italy – do not impose a salary cap. South Africa, which joined the league in 2017–18, imposes a cap on individual player salaries, but does not impose a separate team cap.
  4. ^ The other countries in Super Rugby are Argentina, Japan, New Zealand and South Africa. New Zealand and South Africa impose caps on individual player salaries, but do not impose a separate team cap. Argentina and Japan are not known to impose a cap of either type.

In cricket[edit]

Salary caps and currency conversions accurate as of January 2018.

2021 season[edit]

See also[edit]

  • List of largest sports contracts

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External links[edit]

  • salary caps 101
  • CapGeek.com – NHL salary cap calculator, buyout calculator, org charts, free agents, and more
  • The Hockey GM – Up to date salary cap information for NHL teams
  • Overview of salary caps in US professional leagues
  • Ask the Commish NFL Salary Cap FAQ, up to date with current (2006) labor deal
  • NBA salary cap FAQ
  • Salary Cap Spreadsheets for the Washington Redskins from TheWarpath.net
  • NRL salary cap page
  • Sports' salary cap discussed in detail
  • 2010/2011 Toronto Maple Leafs Salary Cap