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Прайминг - это явление, при котором воздействие одного стимула влияет на реакцию на последующий стимул без сознательного руководства или намерения. [1] [2] Например, слово МЕДСЕСТРА распознается быстрее после слова ВРАЧ, чем после слова ХЛЕБ . Прайминг может быть перцептивным , ассоциативным, повторяющимся, позитивным, негативным, аффективным, семантическим или концептуальным . Исследования, однако, еще не окончательно установили продолжительность прайминговых эффектов [3] [4], но их начало может быть почти мгновенным. [5]

Прайминг работает наиболее эффективно, когда два стимула относятся к одной и той же модальности . Например, визуальный прайминг лучше всего работает с визуальными подсказками, а вербальный прайминг лучше всего работает с вербальными репликами. Но прайминг также происходит между модальностями [6] или между семантически связанными словами, такими как «доктор» и «медсестра». [7] [8]

Типы [ править ]

Положительное и отрицательное грунтование [ править ]

Термины " положительное" и " отрицательное грунтование" относятся к тем случаям, когда грунтовка влияет на скорость обработки. Положительный штрих ускоряет обработку, а отрицательный штрих снижает скорость до более медленных, чем уровни без штрихов. [9] Положительное прайминг вызывается простым восприятием стимула [10], в то время как отрицательное прайминг вызывается ощущением стимула и последующим его игнорированием. [9] [11] Положительный эффект прайминга случается, даже если прайм не виден сознательно. [10] Эффекты положительного и отрицательного прайминга видны в показаниях связанного с событием потенциала (ERP) . [12]

Считается, что положительное праймирование вызвано активацией распределения. [10] Это означает, что первый стимул активирует части определенного представления или ассоциации в памяти непосредственно перед выполнением действия или задачи. Представление уже частично активируется, когда встречается второй стимул, поэтому требуется меньше дополнительной активации, чтобы кто-то осознал его.

Отрицательное грунтование объяснить сложнее. Было выдвинуто множество гипотез, но в настоящее время наиболее широко распространены модели торможения отвлекающих факторов и эпизодического поиска. [9] В модели подавления отвлекающих факторов активация игнорируемых стимулов тормозится мозгом. [9] Модель эпизодического поиска предполагает, что игнорируемые элементы помечаются мозгом как «не отвечающие». Позже, когда мозг пытается извлечь эту информацию, тег вызывает конфликт. Время, затрачиваемое на разрешение этого конфликта, вызывает отрицательную затравку. [9] Хотя обе модели все еще верны, недавние научные исследования заставили ученых отказаться от модели ингибитора-дистрактора. [9]

Перцептивная и концептуальная подготовка [ править ]

Разница между перцептуальными и концептуальными простыми числами заключается в том, являются ли элементы схожей формы или элементы с аналогичным значением штриховкой соответственно.

Восприятие прайминга основано на форме стимула и усиливается за счет соответствия между ранним и более поздним стимулами. Перцептивная прайминг чувствительна к модальности и точному формату стимула. Примером перцептивного прайминга является идентификация неполного слова в тесте завершения основы слова . Представление визуального прайма не обязательно должно полностью соответствовать более поздним тестовым презентациям, чтобы работать. Исследования показали, что, например, абсолютный размер стимулов может варьироваться, но при этом может служить значительным доказательством прайминга. [13]

Концептуальный прайминг основан на значении стимула и усиливается семантическими задачами. Например, стол покажет эффекты грунтовки на стуле , потому что стол и стул принадлежат к одной и той же категории. [14]

Повторение [ править ]

Повторное грунтование , также называемое прямым грунтованием , является формой положительного грунтования. Когда стимул ощущается, он также активируется. Это означает, что более позднее восприятие стимула будет быстрее обрабатываться мозгом. [15] Этот эффект был обнаружен в словах в задаче лексического решения .

Семантический [ править ]

На этом изображении показана грунтовочная сеть, построенная из различных типов грунтовки. Линии в этой сети указывают на ассоциации, которые может иметь человек. Если два слова более тесно связаны в сети, то они с большей вероятностью будут быстрее распознаны при вводе ближайшего слова. Пунктирные линии обозначают простые числа морфем или простые числа слов, которые звучат похожи друг на друга, в то время как прямые линии обозначают семантические простые числа или слова, которые имеют значения или ассоциации, которые связаны друг с другом.

In semantic priming, the prime and the target are from the same semantic category and share features.[16] For example, the word dog is a semantic prime for wolf, because the two are similar animals. Semantic priming is theorized to work because of spreading activation within associative networks.[10] When a person thinks of one item in a category, similar items are stimulated by the brain. Even if they are not words, morphemes can prime for complete words that include them.[17] An example of this would be that the morpheme 'psych' can prime for the word 'psychology'.

In support with further detail, when an individual processes a word sometimes that word can be affected when the prior word is linked semantically. Previous studies have been conducted, focusing on priming effects having a rapid rise time and a hasty decay time. For example, an experiment by Donald Frost researched the decay time of semantic facilitation in lists and sentences. Three experiments were conducted and it was found that semantic relationships within words differs when words occur in sentences rather than lists. Thus, supporting the ongoing discourse model.[18]

Associative priming[edit]

In associative priming, the target is a word that has a high probability of appearing with the prime, and is "associated" with it but not necessarily related in semantic features. dog is an associative prime for cat, since the words are closely associated and frequently appear together (in phrases like "raining cats and dogs").[19] A similar effect is known as context priming. Context priming works by using a context to speed up processing for stimuli that are likely to occur in that context. A useful application of this effect is reading written text.[20] The grammar and vocabulary of the sentence provide contextual clues for words that will occur later in the sentence. These later words are processed more quickly than if they had been read alone, and the effect is greater for more difficult or uncommon words.[20]

Response priming[edit]

In the psychology of visual perception and motor control, the term response priming denotes a special form of visuomotor priming effect. The distinctive feature of response priming is that prime and target are presented in quick succession (typically, less than 100 milliseconds apart) and are coupled to identical or alternative motor responses.[21][22] When a speeded motor response is performed to classify the target stimulus, a prime immediately preceding the target can thus induce response conflicts when assigned to a different response as the target. These response conflicts have observable effects on motor behavior, leading to priming effects, e.g., in response times and error rates. A special property of response priming is its independence from visual awareness of the prime: For example, response priming effects can increase under conditions where visual awareness of the prime is decreasing.[23][24]

Masked priming[edit]

The masked priming paradigm has been widely used in the last two decades in order to investigate both orthographic and phonological activations during visual word recognition. The term "masked" refers to the fact that the prime word or pseudoword is masked by symbols such as ###### that can be presented in a forward manner (before the prime) or a backward manner (after the prime). These masks enable to diminish the visibility of the prime. The prime is usually presented less than 80 ms (but typically between 40-60 ms) in this paradigm. In all, the short SOA (Stimuli Onset Asynchrony, i.e. the time delay between the onset of the mask and the prime) associated with the masking make the masked priming paradigm a good tool to investigate automatic and irrepressive activations during visual word recognition.[25] Forster has argued that masked priming is a purer form of priming, as any conscious appreciation of the relationship between the prime and the target is effectively eliminated, and thus removes the subject's ability to use the prime strategically to make decisions. Results from numerous experiments show that certain forms of priming occur that are very difficult to occur with visible primes. One such example is form-priming, where the prime is similar to, but not identical to the target (e.g., nature-mature).[26][27]

Kindness priming[edit]

Kindness priming is a specific form of priming that occurs when a subject experiences an act of kindness and subsequently experiences a lower threshold of activation when subsequently encountering positive stimuli. A unique feature of kindness priming is that it causes a temporarily increased resistance to negative stimuli in addition to the increased activation of positive associative networks.[28] This form of priming is closely related to affect priming.

Affective priming[edit]

Affective or affect priming entails the evaluation of people, ideas, objects, goods, etc., not only based on the physical features of those things, but also on affective context. Most research and concepts about affective priming derive from the affective priming paradigm where people are asked to evaluate or respond to a stimuli following positive, neutral, or negative primes. Some research suggests that valence (positive vs. negative) has a stronger effect than arousal (low vs. high) on lexical-decision tasks.[29] Affective priming might also be more diffuse and stronger when the prime barely enters conscious awareness.[30] Evalution of emotions can be primed by other emotions as well. Thus, neutral pictures, when presented after unpleasant pictures, are received as more pleasant than when presented after pleasant pictures.[31]

Cultural priming[edit]

Priming with different cultural knowledge alter the way people think.

Cultural priming is a technique employed in the field of cross-cultural psychology and social psychology to understand how people interpret events and other concepts, like cultural frame switching and self-concept.[32]:270[33] For example, Hung and his associate display participants a different set of culture related images, like U.S. Capitol building vs Chinese temple, and then watch a clip of fish swimming ahead of a group of fishes.[34] When exposed to the latter one, Hong Kong participants are more likely to reason in a collectivistic way.[35]:187 In contrast, their counterparts who view western images are more likely to give a reverse response and focus more on that individual fish.[36]:787[37] People from bi-culture society when primed with different cultural icons, they are inclined to make cultural activated attribution.[32]:327 One method is the Pronoun circling task, a type of cultural priming task, which involves asking participants to consciously circle pronouns like "We", "us", "I", and "me" during paragraph reading.[38][39]:381

Anti-priming[edit]

Anti-priming is a measurable impairment in processing information owing to recent processing of other information when the representations of information overlap and compete. Strengthening one representation after its usage causes priming for that item but also anti-priming for some other, non-repeated items.[40] For example, in one study, identification accuracy of old Chinese characters was significantly higher than baseline measurements (i.e., the priming effect), while identification accuracy of novel characters was significantly lower than baseline measurements (i.e., the antipriming effect).[41] Anti-priming is said to be the natural antithesis of repetition priming, and it manifests when two objects share component features, thereby having overlapping representations.[42] However, one study failed to find anti-priming effects in a picture-naming task even though repetition priming effects were observed. Researchers argue that anti-priming effects may not be observed in a small time-frame.[42]

Measuring the effects of priming[edit]

Priming effects can be found with many of the tests of implicit memory. Tests such as the word-stem completion task, and the word fragment completion task measure perceptual priming. In the word-stem completion task, participants are given a list of study words, and then asked to complete word "stems" consisting of 3 letters with the first word that comes to mind. A priming effect is observed when participants complete stems with words on the study list more often than with novel words. The word fragment completion task is similar, but instead of being given the stem of a word, participants are given a word with some letters missing. The lexical decision task can be used to demonstrate conceptual priming.[7][43] In this task, participants are asked to determine if a given string is a word or a nonword. Priming is demonstrated when participants are quicker to respond to words that have been primed with semantically-related words, e.g., faster to confirm "nurse" as a word when it is preceded by "doctor" than when it is preceded by "butter". Other evidence has been found through brain imaging and studies from brain injured patients. Another example of priming in healthcare research was studying if safety behaviors of nurses could be primed by structuring change of shift report.[44] A pilot simulation study found that there is early evidence to show that safety behaviors can be primed by including safety language into report.[44]

Effects of brain injuries[edit]

Amnesia[edit]

Amnesic patients are described as those who have suffered damage to their medial temporal lobe, resulting in the impairment of explicit recollection of everyday facts and events. Priming studies on amnesic patients have varying results, depending on both the type of priming test done, as well as the phrasing of the instructions.

Amnesic patients do as well on perceptual priming tasks as healthy patients,[45] however they show some difficulties completing conceptual priming tasks, depending on the specific test. For example, they perform normally on category instance production tasks, but show impaired priming on any task that involves answering general knowledge questions.[46][47]

Phrasing of the instructions associated with the test has had a dramatic impact on an amnesic's ability to complete the task successfully. When performing a word-stem completion test, patients were able to successfully complete the task when asked to complete the stem using the first word that came to mind, but when explicitly asked to recall a word to complete the stem that was on the study list, patients performed at below-average levels.[48]

Overall, studies from amnesic patients indicate that priming is controlled by a brain system separate from the medial temporal system that supports explicit memory.

Aphasia[edit]

Perhaps the first use of semantic priming in neurological patients was with stroke patients with aphasia. In one study, patients with Wernicke's aphasia who were unable to make semantic judgments showed evidence of semantic priming, while patient with Broca's aphasia who were able to make semantic judgments showed less consistent priming than Wernicke's aphasics or normal controls (Milberg and Blumstein 1981). This dissociation was extended to other linguistic categories such phonology and syntactic processing by Blumstein, Milberg and their colleagues.[49]

Dementia[edit]

Patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common form of dementia, have been studied extensively as far as priming goes. Results are conflicting in some cases, but overall, AD patients show decreased priming effects on word-stem completion and free association tasks, while retaining normal performance on lexical decision tasks.[50] These results suggest that AD patients are impaired in any sort of priming task that requires semantic processing of the stimuli, while priming tasks that require visuoperceptual interpretation of stimuli are unaffected by Alzheimers.

Focal cortical lesions[edit]

Patient J.P., who suffered a stroke in the left medial/temporal gyrus, resulting in auditory verbal agnosia – the inability to comprehend spoken words, but maintaining the ability to read and write, and with no effects to hearing ability. J.P. showed normal perceptual priming, but his conceptual priming ability for spoken words was, expectedly, impaired.[51] Another patient, N.G., who suffered from prosopanomia (the inability to retrieve proper names) following damage to his left temporal lobe, was unable to spontaneously provide names of persons or cities, but was able to successfully complete a word-fragment completion exercise following priming with these names. This demonstrated intact perceptual priming abilities.[52]

Cognitive neuroscience[edit]

Perceptual priming[edit]

The extrastriate cortex (shown in orange and red) is believed to be involved in perceptual priming

Priming while improving performance decreases neural processing in the cerebral cortex of sensory stimuli with stimulus repetition. This has been found in single-cell recordings[53] and in electroencephalography (EEG) upon gamma waves,[54] with PET[55] and functional MRI.[56] This reduction is due to representational sharpening in the early sensory areas which reduces the number of neurons representing the stimulus. This leads to a more selective activation of neurons representing objects in higher cognitive areas.[57]

Conceptual priming[edit]

Conceptual priming has been linked to reduced blood flow in the left prefrontal cortex.[58] The left prefrontal cortex is believed to be involved in the semantic processing of words, among other tasks.[59]

The view that perceptual priming is controlled by the extrastriate cortex while conceptual priming is controlled by the left prefrontal cortex is undoubtedly an oversimplified view of the process, and current work is focused on elucidating the brain regions involved in priming in more detail.[60]

In daily life[edit]

Priming is thought to play a large part in the systems of stereotyping.[61] This is because attention to a response increases the frequency of that response, even if the attended response is undesired.[61][62] The attention given to these response or behaviors primes them for later activation.[61] Another way to explain this process is automaticity. If trait descriptions, for instance "stupid" or "friendly", have been frequently or recently used, these descriptions can be automatically used to interpret someone's behavior. An individual is unaware of this, and this may lead to behavior that may not agree with their personal beliefs.[63]

This can occur even if the subject is not conscious of the priming stimulus.[61] An example of this was done by Bargh et al. in 1996. Subjects were implicitly primed with words related to the stereotype of elderly people (example: Florida, forgetful, wrinkle). While the words did not explicitly mention speed or slowness, those who were primed with these words walked more slowly upon exiting the testing booth than those who were primed with neutral stimuli.[61] Similar effects were found with rude and polite stimuli: those primed with rude words were more likely to interrupt an investigator than those primed with neutral words, and those primed with polite words were the least likely to interrupt.[61] A Yale study showed that something as simple as holding a hot or cold beverage before an interview could result in pleasant or negative opinion of the interviewer.[64]

These findings have been extended to therapeutic interventions. For example, Cox et al. (2012) suggest that presented with a depressed patient who "self-stereotypes herself as incompetent, a therapist can find ways to prime her with specific situations in which she had been competent in the past... Making memories of her competence more salient should reduce her self-stereotype of incompetence."[65]

Replicability controversy[edit]

The replicability and interpretation of goal-priming findings has become controversial.[66] Recent studies (from 2012) have failed to replicate findings, including age priming,[67] with additional reports of failure to replicate this and other findings such as social-distance also reported.[68][69]

Priming is often considered to play a part in the success of sensory branding of products and connected to ideas like crossmodal correspondencies and sensation transference. Known effects are e.g. consumers perceiving lemonade suddenly as sweeter when the logo of the drink is more saturated towards yellow.[70]

Although semantic, associative, and form priming are well established,[71] some longer-term priming effects were not replicated in further studies, casting doubt on their effectiveness or even existence.[72] Nobel laureate and psychologist Daniel Kahneman has called on priming researchers to check the robustness of their findings in an open letter to the community, claiming that priming has become a "poster child for doubts about the integrity of psychological research."[73] Other critics have asserted that priming studies suffer from major publication bias,[74] experimenter effect[67] and that criticism of the field is not dealt with constructively.[75]

See also[edit]

  • Intertrial priming
  • Implicit association test

References[edit]

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