Африканский период влажный (МАИ, известный также другими названиями ) является период климат в Африке в конце плейстоцена и голоцена геологических эпох, когда северная Африка была более влажным , чем сегодня. Покрытие большей части пустыни Сахара травами, деревьями и озерами было вызвано изменениями орбиты Земли вокруг Солнца ; изменения в растительности и пыли в Сахаре, которые усилили африканский муссон ; и увеличение выбросов парниковых газов , что может означать, что антропогенное глобальное потепление может привести к сокращению пустыни Сахара.
Во время предыдущего последнего ледникового максимума Сахара содержала обширные поля дюн и была в основном необитаемой. Он был намного больше, чем сегодня, но его озера и реки, такие как озеро Виктория и Белый Нил, были либо сухими, либо на низком уровне. Влажный период начался примерно 14 600–14 500 лет назад в конце события Генриха 1 , одновременно с потеплением Бёллинга-Аллерёда . Реки и озера, такие как озеро Чад, образовались или расширились, ледники выросли на горе Килиманджаро, а Сахара отступила. Произошли два основных сухих колебания; во время позднего дриаса и короткого 8,2 килогодового события . Африканский влажный период закончился 6000–5000 лет назад во время холодного периода Пиорской осцилляции . Хотя некоторые свидетельства указывают на конец 5 500 лет назад, в Сахеле , Аравии и Восточной Африке этот период, по-видимому, имел несколько этапов, таких как событие 4,2 килолетия .
AHP привел к широкому заселению Сахары и Аравийских пустынь и оказал глубокое влияние на африканские культуры, такие как рождение цивилизации фараонов . Они жили как охотники-собиратели до сельскохозяйственной революции и приручили крупный рогатый скот, коз и овец. Они оставили археологические раскопки и артефакты, такие как один из старейших кораблей в мире , и наскальные рисунки, например, в Пещере Пловцов и в горах Акак . Более ранние влажные периоды в Африке были постулированы после обнаружения этих наскальных рисунков в теперь негостеприимных частях Сахары. Когда этот период закончился, люди постепенно покинули пустыню в пользу регионов с более безопасным водоснабжением, таких как долина Нила и Месопотамия , где они породили первые сложные общества.
История исследований
Геродот в 440 г. до н.э. и Страбон в 23 г. н.э. обсуждали существование более зеленой Сахары, хотя их сообщения сначала были подвергнуты сомнению из-за их анекдотического характера. В 1850 году исследователь Генрих Барт обсудил возможность прошлого изменения климата, которое привело к увеличению влажности в Сахаре после обнаружения петроглифов в пустыне Мурзук , а дальнейшие открытия петроглифов привели исследователя пустыни Ласло Альмаси к созданию концепции Зеленой Сахары в 1930-х годах. Позже, в 20-м веке, все чаще сообщалось о существовании озер [1] [2] и более высоких уровней стока Нила [3] , о неопровержимых доказательствах более зеленой Сахары в прошлом, и было признано, что голоцен характеризовался влажным периодом в Сахаре. [4]
Идея о том, что изменения орбиты Земли вокруг Солнца влияют на силу муссонов, была выдвинута еще в 1921 году, и хотя первоначальное описание было частично неточным, позднее были обнаружены широко распространенные свидетельства такого орбитального контроля над климатом. [1] Сначала считалось, что влажные периоды в Африке коррелируют с ледниковыми стадиями (« плювиальная гипотеза ») до того, как радиоуглеродное датирование стало широко распространенным. [5]
Развитие и существование африканского периода влажного исследовались с археологией , моделированием климата и paleoproxies , [6] с археологическими раскопками , [7] дюна и депозиты оставленных озерами, эоловыми отложениями и листьев воском в море и водно - болотные угодья , играющие важные роль. [2] [8] Пыльца , озерные отложения и бывшие уровни озер были использованы для изучения экосистем африканского периода влажного, [9] и древесный угль и лист впечатление было использовано для выявления изменений растительности. [10] Время 6000 лет назад привлекло особое внимание, особенно с тех пор, как этот период МАИ использовался в качестве эксперимента в проекте взаимного сравнения моделирования палеоклимата . [11]
Проблемы исследования
Несмотря на то, что количество осадков изменилось со времени последнего ледникового цикла, масштабы и время этих изменений неясны. [12] В зависимости от того, как и где производятся измерения и реконструкции, для африканского влажного периода были определены разные даты начала, даты окончания, продолжительность [3] и уровни осадков [13] . [3] Количество осадков, восстановленное из палеоклиматических записей и смоделированное моделированием климата, часто несовместимо друг с другом; [14] в целом моделирование Зеленой Сахары считается проблемой для моделей земных систем . [15] Эрозия озерных отложений и влияние углеродных резервуаров затрудняют определение даты их высыхания. [16] Изменения растительности сами по себе не обязательно указывают на изменения в количестве осадков, поскольку изменения в сезонности, видовом составе растений и изменениях в землепользовании также играют роль в изменениях растительности. [17] Изотопные отношения, такие как отношение водород / дейтерий , которые использовались для восстановления прошлых значений осадков, также находятся под влиянием различных физических эффектов, что усложняет их интерпретацию. [18]
Терминология
Более ранние влажные периоды иногда называют «африканскими влажными периодами» [19], а для региона Центральной Африки определен ряд засушливых / влажных периодов. [20] В общем, эти типы колебаний климата между более влажным и более засушливым периодами известны как « плювиальные » и « межлювиальные » соответственно. [21] [a] [b] Поскольку МАИ не затронула всю Африку, Уильямс и др. 2019 рекомендовал исключить этот термин. [35]
Предпосылки и начало
Африканский период влажно имело место в конце плейстоцена [36] и в начале среднего голоцена , [37] и увидел увеличение количества осадков в Северной и Западной Африке из - за миграции на север тропической rainbelt. [17] [38] AHP - это наиболее глубокое изменение климата низких широт за последние 100 000 лет [39], которое выделяется в относительно климатически стабильном голоцене. [40] Это часть так называемого климатического оптимума голоцена , когда лето в Северном полушарии было теплее, чем сегодня. [41] [c] Лю и др. 2017 [48] разделил влажный период на «AHP I», который длился до 8000 лет назад, и «AHP II», начиная с 8000 лет [49], причем первый был более влажным, чем второй. [50]
Африканский влажный период был не первой такой фазой; Существуют свидетельства примерно 230 более древних таких «зеленых сахарных» / влажных периодов, восходящих, возможно, к первому появлению Сахары 7-8 миллионов лет назад [1], например, во время морских изотопных стадий 5 а и с. [51] Более ранние влажные периоды, по-видимому, были более интенсивными, чем AHP голоцена, [52] [53] включая исключительно интенсивный влажный период в Эмском периоде, который предоставил древним людям пути для пересечения Аравии и Северной Африки [54] и который вместе с более поздними влажными периодами были связаны с расширением атерийских популяций. [55] Такие влажные периоды обычно связаны с межледниковьем , а ледниковые периоды коррелируют с засушливыми периодами. [19]
Bolling-Allerød потепление , как представляется, синхронно с началом африканского периода влажного [56] [57] [58] , а также к повышенной влажности в Аравии. [59] Позже, в последовательности Блитта-Сернандера влажный период совпадает с атлантическим периодом . [60]
Условия до африканского влажного периода
Во время последнего ледникового максимума Сахара и Сахель были чрезвычайно засушливыми [61] с меньшим количеством осадков, чем сегодня [62] [63], о чем свидетельствует протяженность дюн и уровень воды в закрытых озерах . [61] Сахара была намного больше, [64] простираясь на 500–800 километров (310–500 миль) южнее, [65] с разницей в 5 ° широты. [66] Дюны были активны намного ближе к экватору, [65] [67] [d], а тропические леса уступили место афромонтанным и саванным ландшафтам, поскольку температура, осадки и влажность снизились. [31] [70]
Существует мало и часто двусмысленных свидетельств человеческой деятельности в Сахаре или Аравии в то время, что отражает ее более засушливый характер. [71] [72] [73] Засушливость во время последнего ледникового максимума, по-видимому, была следствием более холодного климата и больших полярных ледяных щитов , которые сжали муссонный пояс до экватора и ослабили западноафриканский муссон. Атмосферный водный цикл и Walker и тиражи Hadley были слабее , а также. [74] Исключительно засушливые фазы связаны с событиями Генриха [75], когда в Северной Атлантике имеется большое количество айсбергов ; [76] выброс большого количества таких айсбергов между 11 500 и 21 000 лет до настоящего времени совпал с засухой в субтропиках . [77]
Считается, что до начала МАИ высохли озера Виктория , Альберта , Эдварда , [78] Туркана [79] и болота Садд . [80] Белый Нил стал сезонной рекой [80] , русло которой [81] вместе с течением главного Нила могло быть перекрыто дюнами. [82] Дельта Нила был частично сухой, с песчаными равнинами , проходящими между эфемеровыми каналами и подвергаются морским дном, и она стала источником песка для эрг [е] дальше на востоке. [84] Другие озера по всей Африке, такие как озеро Чад и озера Танганьика , также сжался [е] в это время, [85] и как реки Нигер и реки Сенегал были низкорослыми. [86]
Раннее повышение влажности
Достигнуты ли некоторые части пустыни, такие как нагорья, такие как холмы Красного моря, западными ветрами [87] или погодными системами, связанными с субтропическим струйным течением [88], и, таким образом, выпадением осадков - вопрос спорный. Он только явно поддерживается для Магриба на северо - западе Африки, [87] хотя речной поток [67] / терраса образование [89] и развитие озера в Тибести и Джебель Марра горы [90] [91] и остаточного потока Нила можно объяснить этим способом. [92] Высокогорья Африки, по-видимому, меньше пострадали от засухи во время последнего ледникового максимума. [93]
Окончание ледниковой засухи произошло между 17 000 и 11 000 лет назад [91], причем более раннее начало было отмечено в горах Сахары [94] [70] (возможно) 18 500 лет назад. [95] В южной и центральной Африке более раннее начало 17 000 и 17 500 лет назад, соответственно, может быть связано с потеплением в Антарктике , [96] [25] в то время как озеро Малави, по- видимому, было низким примерно 10 000 лет назад. [97]
Высокий уровень озера произошел в горах Джебель-Марра и Тибести между 15 000 и 14 000 лет назад [98], а самая молодая стадия оледенения в горах Высокого Атласа произошла в то же время, что и ранний африканский влажный период. [99] Около 14 500 лет назад озера начали появляться в засушливых районах. [100]
Начало
Влажный период начался примерно 15 000 [96] [101] -14 500 лет назад. [g] [36] Начало влажного периода произошло почти одновременно по всей Северной [h] и Тропической Африке, [105] с ударами до Санту-Антау на Кабо-Верде . [106] [107] В Аравии влажным условиям, по-видимому, потребовалось около двух тысячелетий, чтобы продвинуться на север, [104] [108] постепенное продвижение подтверждается тефрохронологическими данными. [109]
Озеро Виктория снова появилось и разлилось; [100] Озеро Альберт также вылилось в Белый Нил [98] 15 000–14 500 лет назад [78], как и озеро Тана в Голубой Нил . [98] Белый Нил затопил часть своей долины [110] и снова соединился с главным Нилом. [101] [i] В Египте имело место масштабное наводнение «Диким Нилом»; [98] этот период «Дикого Нила» [112] привел к крупнейшим зарегистрированным наводнениям на этой реке [82], отложению отложений в поймах, [113] и, вероятно, также повлиял на население вдоль реки. [114] Еще раньше, 17 000–16 800 лет назад, талая вода из ледников в Эфиопии, которые в то время отступали, могла начать увеличивать поток воды и наносов в Ниле. [115] В Восточно-Африканском разломе уровень воды в озерах начал повышаться примерно на 15 500/15 000 [116] -12 000 лет назад; [117] Озеро Киву начало вытекать из озера Танганьика около 10 500 лет назад. [118]
Примерно в то же время, когда началась МАИ, холодный ледниковый климат в Европе, связанный с событием Генриха 1, закончился [100] изменением климата до Австралии . [98] Потепление и отступление морского льда вокруг Антарктиды совпадает с началом африканского влажного периода, [119] хотя антарктическая инверсия холода также приходится на это время [25] и может относиться к интервалу засухи, зарегистрированному в Заливе Гвинея . [120]
Причины
Африканский влажный период был вызван более сильным западноафриканским муссоном [121], вызванным изменениями солнечной освещенности и обратных связей альбедо . [14] Это приводит к увеличению импорта влаги как из экваториальной Атлантики в Западную Африку, так и из Северной Атлантики и Средиземного моря к средиземноморскому побережью Африки. [122] [123] Существовали сложные взаимодействия с атмосферной циркуляцией во внетропических районах и между влажностью, поступающей из Атлантического и Индийского океанов , [124] и усиление перекрытия между областями, увлажненными муссонами, и областями, увлажненными внетропическими циклонами. . [125]
Климатические модели показывают, что переход от сухой к зеленой Сахаре и обратно имеет пороговое значение, причем изменение происходит после превышения определенного уровня инсоляции; [126] аналогично, постепенное снижение инсоляции часто приводит к внезапному переходу обратно в сухую Сахару. [127] Это происходит из-за различных процессов обратной связи, которые действуют, [17] и в климатических моделях часто существует более одного стабильного состояния климата и растительности. [128] Температура поверхности моря и изменения парниковых газов синхронизировали начало МАИ по всей Африке. [105]
Орбитальные изменения
Африканский влажный период объясняется повышенной инсоляцией летом в Северном полушарии. [17] Из-за прецессии меняется время года, когда Земля проходит ближе всего к Солнцу по своей эллиптической орбите - перигелий , с максимальной летней инсоляцией, когда это происходит летом в Северном полушарии. [129] Между 11 000 и 10 000 лет назад Земля прошла через перигелий во время летнего солнцестояния , увеличив количество солнечной радиации примерно на 8% [36], в результате чего африканский муссон стал сильнее и распространялся дальше на север. [130] Между 15 000 и 5 000 лет назад летняя инсоляция была как минимум на 4% выше, чем сегодня. [39] наклонение также снизилось в голоцене [131] , но эффект изменения наклонения на климат сосредоточен на высоких широтах и ее влияние на муссоне остается неясным. [132]
Летом солнечное нагревание сильнее над сушей Северной Африки, чем над океаном, образуя область низкого давления, которая втягивает влажный воздух и осадки [36] из Атлантического океана. [133] Этот эффект был усилен увеличением летней инсоляции, [134] [135] что привело к более сильному муссону, который также достиг более северного направления. [131] Эффекты этих изменений циркуляции достигли субтропиков. [16]
Наклон и прецессия ответственны за два основных цикла Миланковича и ответственны не только за начало и прекращение ледниковых периодов [136], но и за колебания силы муссонов. [132] Ожидается, что муссоны в Южном полушарии будут иметь противоположную реакцию муссонов в Северном полушарии на прецессию, поскольку изменения инсоляции обратятся; это наблюдение подтверждается данными из Южной Америки. [137] Изменение прецессии увеличило сезонность в северном полушарии и уменьшило ее в южном полушарии . [131]
Отзывы об Альбедо
В соответствии с моделированием климата , [1] орбитальные изменения самого по себе не могут увеличить количество осадков над Африкой достаточно , чтобы объяснить образование больших пустынных озер , такие как 330,000 квадратных километров (130 000 квадратных миль) Озеро Megachad [J] [16] или на севере расширение растительность [141] [142] [131], если не учитывать изменения поверхности океана и суши. [17]
Снижение альбедо в результате изменений растительности является важным фактором увеличения количества осадков. [16] В частности, увеличение количества осадков увеличивает количество растительности; Растительность поглощает больше солнечного света, и поэтому в сезон дождей доступно больше энергии. Кроме того, эвапотранспирация растительности добавляет больше влаги, хотя этот эффект менее выражен, чем эффект альбедо. [61] Потоки тепла в почве и испарение также изменяются растительностью. [143]
Уменьшение пылеобразования из более влажной Сахары влияет на климат [144] , уменьшая количество света, поглощаемого пылью, а также изменяя свойства облаков , делая их менее отражающими и более эффективными при образовании осадков. [1] [145] [146] В климатических моделях уменьшение количества пыли в тропосфере вместе с изменениями растительности может [147] [148] часто, но не всегда, объяснять распространение муссонов на север. [149] Однако нет единого мнения о влиянии пыли на осадки в Сахеле. [1]
В дополнение к необработанным изменениям количества осадков, при оценке воздействия изменения климата на растительность [150], а также удобряющих эффектов повышения концентрации углекислого газа в атмосфере необходимо учитывать изменения сезонности осадков, такие как продолжительность засушливых сезонов . [143]
Другие источники изменений альбедо:
- Изменения свойств почвы приводят к изменениям муссонов; Замена пустынных почв суглинистыми приводит к увеличению количества осадков [151], а влажные [143] или содержащие органическое вещество почвы меньше отражают солнечный свет и ускоряют процесс увлажнения. [1] Изменения песка пустыни также изменяют альбедо. [143]
- Изменения альбедо, вызванные озерами и водно-болотными угодьями [14], могут изменять количество осадков в климатических моделях. [151]
Изменения в зоне межтропической конвергенции
Более теплые экстратропики летом, возможно, потянули Зону межтропической конвергенции (ITCZ) на север [147], что привело к изменению количества осадков. [152] Температура поверхности моря у побережья Северной Африки повысилась под действием орбитального воздействия и из-за более слабых пассатов , что привело к перемещению ITCZ на север и увеличению градиента влажности между сушей и морем. [61] Этому изменению, возможно, способствовали два температурных градиента, один между более прохладной Атлантикой весной и уже нагретым африканским континентом, другой - между более теплыми температурами к северу от 10 ° широты и более прохладными на юге. [153] В Восточной Африке изменения ITCZ оказали относительно небольшое влияние на изменения количества осадков. [154] [155] Позиция ITCZ в Аравии в прошлом также вызывает споры. [156]
Изменения количества осадков в Восточной Африке
Африканский влажный период, имевший место в Восточной Африке, по- видимому, был вызван различными механизмами. [157] Среди предложенных механизмов - снижение сезонности осадков [158] из-за увеличения количества осадков в засушливый сезон [159], сокращение периода засухи, увеличение количества осадков [160] и увеличение притока влаги из Атлантического и Индийского океанов. Приток влаги в Атлантику отчасти был вызван более сильным западноафриканским и индийским муссонами, что, возможно, объясняет, почему влияние МАП распространилось на Южное полушарие. [154] [161] Поведение восточных пассатов неясно; усиление переноса влаги восточными пассатами могло способствовать развитию AHP [121], но в качестве альтернативы мог произойти более сильный индийский муссон, который уводит восточные ветры от Восточной Африки. [162]
Возможно, этому способствовали изменения воздушной границы Конго [k] [163] или усиление конвергенции вдоль этой границы; [160] [163] Воздушная граница Конго сместилась бы на восток из-за более сильных западных ветров [161], направленных на более низкое атмосферное давление над Северной Африкой, [164] позволяя дополнительной влаге из Атлантики достигать Восточной Африки. [165] Части Восточной Африки, которые были изолированы от атлантической влаги, не стали значительно более влажными во время AHP [102], хотя на одном участке в Сомали сезонность осадков могла [166] или не уменьшиться. [167]
Различные способствующие факторы могли привести к повышению влажности в Восточной Африке, не все из которых обязательно работали одновременно во время МАИ. [168] [169] То, что «африканский влажный период» достиг этой части Африки, вызывает сомнения. [170] Наконец, повышение концентрации парниковых газов могло быть связано с началом МАИ в тропической юго-восточной Африке; [171] ожидается, что изменения орбиты приведут к изменениям климата, противоположным изменениям в северном полушарии. [172] Характер изменения влажности в Юго-Восточной Африке сложен. [173]
Дополнительные факторы
- Изменение климата в крайних северных широтах, возможно, способствовало наступлению МАИ. [121] Сокращение скандинавского и лаурентидного ледяных щитов произошло в его начале, [143] и в климатических моделях отступление ледяных щитов часто требуется для имитации влажного периода. [174] Их существование может также объяснить, почему AHP не начался сразу с ранним пиком инсоляции, поскольку все еще существующие ледяные щиты могли охладить климат. [175]
- Изменения температуры поверхности моря в Атлантике влияют на африканский муссон [121] и, возможно, повлияли на наступление МАП. Более слабые пассаты и более высокая инсоляция приведут к повышению температуры поверхности моря, увеличивая количество осадков за счет увеличения градиента влажности между сушей и морем. [61] Также были затронуты изменения в градиентах температуры в Северной Атлантике. [133]
- Потепление Средиземного моря увеличивает количество сахельских осадков; этот эффект является причиной недавнего антропогенного глобального потепления, вызванного увеличением количества осадков в Сахеле. [1] Более высокие температуры поверхности моря могут также объяснить увеличение количества осадков, зафиксированное в Средиземном море во время МАИ. [156]
- Увеличение количества осадков зимой коррелирует с большей пространственной протяженностью средиземноморских осадков и, возможно, способствовало установлению AHP, особенно в Северной Африке , [176] [177] [178] Северном Египте , [179] вокруг северной части Красного моря. , [180] в Тибести [181] [182] и в северной Аравии [156] и, как правило, в более высоких широтах, куда не приходили муссоны. [153] Эти осадки, возможно, распространились на другие части Сахары; это привело бы к тому, что области летних и зимних осадков перекрывались [183], а засушливые области между климатическими зонами, подверженными муссонным и западным воздействиям, стали более влажными или вообще исчезли. [184] Такие изменения в средиземноморских осадках могут коррелировать с изменениями в Северной Атлантике и Арктических колебаниях . [176]
- Перенос влаги осенью и весной в желоб на север также был предложен для объяснения увеличения количества осадков и его недооценки климатическими моделями . [14] В одной климатической модели увеличение переноса влаги на север такими впадинами увеличивает количество осенних осадков в Сахаре, особенно в середине голоцена, когда климат там уже более влажный, чем обычно. [185]
- Более слабые субтропические антициклоны предлагались в качестве объяснения в 1970–1980-е годы. [186]
- В горных регионах, таких как вулканическое поле Мейдоб, низкие температуры после последнего ледникового максимума могли снизить испарение и, таким образом, способствовать раннему появлению влажности. [187]
- Изменения геомагнитного поля Земли могут быть связаны с изменениями влажности. [188]
- Повышенное поступление влаги из более крупных озер, таких как озеро Мегачад, могло увеличить количество осадков, хотя этот эффект, вероятно, неадекватен для объяснения всего МАИ. [189] Аналогичная роль приписывается обширным водно-болотным угодьям, дренажам и озерам в Восточной Сахаре [190] и экосистеме в целом. [191]
- Два высокогорных ветра, африканский восточный джет и тропический восточный джет, изменяют потоки атмосферного воздуха над Африкой и, таким образом, также количество осадков; Тропический Истерли Джет прибывает из Индии и питается от температурных градиентов между тропиками [62] и субтропиками, в то время как Африканский Истерли Джет питается от температурных градиентов в Сахеле . [192] Более сильный западноафриканский муссон привел к ослаблению африканского восточного джета и, таким образом, уменьшил перенос влаги из Африки. [161]
- Повышенные концентрации углекислого газа в атмосфере, возможно, сыграли роль в запуске AHP, [143] особенно его распространения через экватор, [193], а также его возобновлении после позднего дриаса и события Генриха 1 из-за повышения температуры поверхности моря. [194]
- В некоторых частях Сахары увеличение водоснабжения из горных районов могло способствовать развитию влажных условий. [195] [196]
- Более крупные леса в Евразии могли привести к смещению ITCZ на север. [197]
- Другие предложенные механизмы включают конвекцию, возникающую над пограничным слоем атмосферы , [198] увеличение скрытых тепловых потоков , [145] низкое давление на северо-западе Африки, втягивающее влагу в Сахару, [199] изменения в солнечных циклах [200] и сложные явления атмосферного потока. . [201]
Эффекты
Африканский влажный период распространился на Сахару, а также на восточную, [48] юго-восточную и экваториальную Африку. В целом по континенту разрослись леса и редколесья. [202] Аналогичный эпизод дождя произошел в тропической Америке, [l] Китае, Азии, [m] [203] [204] [38] [61] [205] Индии , [206] регионе Макран , [207] ] Ближний Восток и Аравийский полуостров [203] [204] [38] [61] [205] и , как представляется , относятся к тому же орбитальный принуждая как МАИ. [203] Эпизод муссонов в раннем голоцене распространился до пустыни Мохаве в Северной Америке. [208] Напротив, более засушливый эпизод зарегистрирован в большей части Южной Америки, где озера Титикака , озеро Хунин , сток реки Амазонки и доступность воды в Атакаме были ниже. [209]
Увеличился сток рек Конго , Нигера , [210] Нила , [211] Нтема , [23] Руфиджи , [212] и Санага . [210] Сток из Алжира , [213] экваториальной Африки, северо-востока Африки и западной Сахары также был больше. [214] Изменения в морфологии речных систем и их аллювиальных равнин произошли в ответ на увеличенный сток, [25] [23] и река Сенегал прорвала дюны и снова вошла в Атлантический океан. [86]
Флора и фауна Сахары
В течение африканского влажного периода озера, реки, водно-болотные угодья и растительность, включая траву и деревья, покрывали Сахару и Сахель [134] [215] [130], создавая «Зеленую Сахару» [216] с земным покровом, не имеющим современных аналогов. [217] Доказательства включают данные о пыльце, археологические раскопки, свидетельства фаунистической деятельности, такой как диатомовые водоросли , млекопитающие , остракоды , рептилии и улитки , погребенные речные долины , богатые органическими веществами маты , аргиллиты , эвапориты, а также травертины и туфы, отложившиеся в подводной среде. [37]
Тогда растительный покров простирался почти на всю Сахару [36] и представлял собой открытую травяную саванну с кустарниками и деревьями. [133] [218] В целом, растительность расширилась на север [38] до 27–30 ° северной широты в Западной Африке [219] [10] с границей Сахеля примерно на 23 ° северной широты, [41] поскольку Сахара была заселена. растениями, которые сегодня часто встречаются примерно на 400–600 километров (250–370 миль) [220] [221] южнее. [222] Перемещение растительности на север заняло некоторое время, и некоторые виды растений перемещались быстрее, чем другие. [223] Растения, осуществляющие связывание углерода C3, стали более распространенными [224], и пожарный режим растительности изменился. [225]
Леса и растения влажных тропиков были сосредоточены вокруг озер и рек. [226] Ландшафт во время AHP был описан как мозаика между различными типами растительности полупустынного и влажного происхождения [227], а не просто смещение видов растений к северу, [228] и сохранились некоторые коричневые или желтые растительные сообщества. [1] Данные по пыльце часто показывают преобладание травы над деревьями во влажных тропиках. [10] Дерево Lophira alata и другие, возможно, распространились из африканских лесов во время AHP, [229] и растения Lactuca, возможно, разделились на два вида под воздействием AHP и других климатических изменений в Африке во время голоцена. [230]
Климат Сахары не стал полностью однородным; его центрально-восточные части, вероятно, были суше, чем западный и центральный секторы [231], а ливийское песчаное море все еще оставалось пустыней [1], хотя чистые пустынные районы отступили или стали засушливыми / полузасушливыми . [232] Засушливый пояс мог существовать к северу от 22 ° широты [233] или растительность [141], а африканский муссон мог достигать 28–31 ° северной широты; [234] в общих условиях между 21 ° и 28 ° северной широты изучены мало. [235] Засушливые районы, возможно, сохранялись в дождевых тенях гор и могли поддерживать растительность засушливого климата, что объясняет присутствие ее пыльцы в кернах отложений . [236] Кроме того, градации с севера на юг в структуре растительности были реконструированы по данным древесного угля и пыльцы. [237]
Окаменелости фиксируют изменения в фауне животных Сахары. [238] Эта фауна включала антилоп , [36] павианов , тростниковых крыс , [239] сомов , [240] [241] моллюсков , [242] бакланов , [243] крокодилов, [36] слонов, [244] лягушек, [ 245] газелей , [244] жирафов , [36] хищников , [240] [246] зайцев , [244] бегемотов , [240] [246] моллюсков , нильских окуней , [247] пеликанов , [248] носорогов , [239] ] змеи-орлы , [243] змеи, [245] тилапия , [242] жабы , [245] черепахи [240] и многие другие животные, [249] а в Египте встречались пятнистые гиены , бородавочники , буйволы , антилопы гну и зебры. . [250] Дополнительные птицы включают ворон с коричневой шеей , лысуху , обыкновенную вересковую погонку , хохлатую поганку , глянцевого ибиса , длинноногого канюка , сизого голубя , шпорцевого гуся и хохлатую утку . [251] В Сахаре жили большие стада животных. [252] Некоторые животные распространились по всей пустыне, в то время как другие были ограничены местами с глубокой водой. [247] Более ранние влажные периоды в Сахаре, возможно, позволяли видам пересекать теперь уже пустыню. [233] Уменьшение площади открытых пастбищ в начале AHP может объяснить ограничение популяции гепардов в начале влажного периода, [253] в то время как влажный период привел к расширению некоторых популяций животных, таких как мышь-самородок Губерта . [254]
Озера и реки Сахары
Ряд озер образовался [238] или расширился в Сахаре. [186] Самым крупным из них было озеро Чад, которое увеличилось как минимум в десять раз по сравнению с нынешними [255], образуя озеро Мегачад. [138] Это увеличенное озеро Чад достигло размеров 1000 на 600 километров (620 миль × 370 миль) в направлении север-юг и восток-запад соответственно, [256] покрывая впадину Боделе [257] и, возможно, до 8% площади. современная пустыня Сахара. [258] Это повлияло на сам климат; [259] например, количество осадков было бы уменьшено в центре озера и увеличилось бы на его краях. [1] Озеро Чад , возможно , кормили с севера рек , дренирующих Hoggar (Taffassasset дренаж) [260] и Тибести, от Ennedi гор на востоке через «восточных palaeorivers» [261] и с юга на Шари - Реки Логоне и Комадугу . [262] Река Чари была главным притоком [263], в то время как реки, впадающие в Тибести, образовывали конус выноса [264] / дельту реки Ангамма у входа в северное озеро Чад. [265] Скелеты слонов, бегемотов и гомининов были найдены в дельте Ангаммы, которая является доминирующей особенностью береговой линии северного озера Чад. [256] Озеро вылилось в реку Нигер [266] во время высокого уровня через Майо-Кебби и реку Бенуэ , в конечном итоге достигнув Гвинейского залива . [262] Более старые системы дюн были затоплены озером Чад. [267]
Среди крупных [268] озер, которые могли образоваться в Сахаре, - озеро Мегафезан в Ливии [269] и озеро Птолемей в Судане. [268] [258] [270] Quade et al. 2018 возникают некоторые сомнения по поводу размера и существования некоторых из этих озер , таких как озеро Птолемея, озеро Megafezzan, озеро Ahnet-Mouydir , [271] , особенно для озера Megafezzan. [272] Другие озера известны из Адрар Боус в Нигере , [86] Ин-Атей в Хоггаре , у Ине Сакане [273] и в Тауденни [n] в Мали , [275] Озера Гарат Уда и Такаркори в Акаке. Горы , [241] Чемчане в Мавритании , [276] в Себха-Меллала недалеко от Уаргла в Алжире , [277] в Бильме, Дибелле, Фачи [278] и Гоберо в Тенере , [9] Зетеррасцентале в Нигере [279] и в «Восемь хребтов», [280] Эль-Атрун, [281] Озеро Гуреинат, Мерга, [282] «Ридж», [280] Сидиг, [282] в Вади Мансураб, [4] Селима и Ойо в Судане. [283] Озеро Йоа из озер Унианга вышло из берегов , над поверхностью или под землей. [284] Мозаика небольших озер сложилась в некоторых регионах. [270] Водно-болотные угодья также расширялись во время AHP, но и их расширение, и последующее отступление происходили медленнее, чем у озер. [285]
В некоторых частях Сахары образовались эфемерные озера, такие как Абу Баллас , Бир Кисейба , Бир Сахара , Бир Тарфави и Набта Плайя [о] в Египте [286] [282], которые могут относиться к более поздним египетским религиям, [288] или болото- озера, такие как Адрар Бус недалеко от Воздушных гор . [278] Эфемерные озера образовались между дюнами, [241] [289] и «пресноводный архипелаг», по-видимому, существовал в бассейне Мурзук. [290] Все эти озерные системы оставили окаменелости, такие как рыба, лимнические отложения [291] и плодородные почвы, которые позже использовались для сельского хозяйства (Эль-Дейр, оазис Харга ). [292] Наконец, кратерные озера образовались в вулканических полях [293] и иногда сохранились до наших дней в виде небольших остаточных озер, таких как кратер Малха [294] в вулканическом поле Мейдоб . [293] Потенциально повышенная доступность воды во время AHP могла способствовать началу фреатомагматических извержений, таких как образование маара в вулканическом поле Байуда , хотя хронология извержений вулканов там недостаточно хорошо известна, чтобы обосновать связь с AHP . [295]
Большая река Таманрассет [296] текла из Атласских гор и Хоггар на запад к Атлантике [297] и впадала в нее в заливе Аргуин в Мавритании . [298] Когда-то он составлял 12-й по величине водораздел в мире [299] и оставил после себя подводный каньон и речные отложения. [300] Вместе с другими реками он образовал устья и мангровые заросли в заливе Аргуин. [298] Другие реки в том же районе также образовали подводные каньоны [301], а структура наносов в кернах морских отложений [302] и возникновение подводных оползней в этом районе были связаны с деятельностью этих рек. [303]
Такие реки, как Ирхархар в Алжире , Ливии и Тунисе [304] и реки Сахаби и Куфра в Ливии, были активными в это время [305], хотя есть некоторые сомнения, что они имели постоянный сток; [306] они, по-видимому, были более важными в более ранние влажные периоды. [300] Небольшие водоразделы, [307] вади [308] и реки, впадающие в эндорейские бассейны, такие как Вади Танеззуфт, также несли воду во время МАИ. [309] [310] В Air , Хоггара и Тибести, так называемый «Middle Terrace » был внедрившейся в это время. [311] Реки Сахары, [305] озера и их водоразделы могли служить путями для распространения людей и животных; [312] [313] реки часто соединялись друг с другом конусами выноса . [305] Предлагаемые примеры животных, которые распространяются по рекам, - это нильский крокодил и рыба Clarias gariepinus и Tilapia zillii . [236] Возможно, что название Тассили н'Аджер , что в переводе с берберского означает «плато рек» , относится к прошлым речным потокам. [314] С другой стороны, интенсивные потоки этих рек, возможно, сделали их берега опасными для людей и, таким образом, создали дополнительный импульс для передвижения людей. [315]
Люди Сахары
Условия и ресурсы были созрели для первых охотников-собирателей , рыбаков [316], а затем и скотоводов . [317], прибывшие в Сахару в то время, когда возникли озера. [318] Они могли прибыть либо с севера ( Магриб или Киренаика ) [319] [320], где располагалась капсианская культура , [321] юга ( Африка к югу от Сахары ) или с востока ( долина Нила ). [319] Следы человеческой деятельности были обнаружены в горах Акак [322], где пещеры и каменные убежища использовались в качестве базовых лагерей для людей [323], таких как пещера Уан Афуда [322] и каменные убежища Уан Табу и Такаркори. [324] Первая оккупация Такаркори произошла между 10 000 и 9 000 назад; [325] здесь записано около пяти тысячелетий культурной эволюции человека. [317] В Гоберо в пустыне Тенере было найдено кладбище , которое использовалось для воссоздания образа жизни этих бывших жителей Сахары, [9] а на озере Птолемей в Нубии люди поселились недалеко от берега озера, используя его ресурсы и, возможно, даже участие в досуге . [326] В то время многие люди, похоже, зависели от водных ресурсов, поскольку многие из инструментов, оставленных первыми людьми, были связаны с рыболовством ; поэтому эта культура также известна как « аквалитическая » [186] [215], хотя были обнаружены существенные различия между культурами разных мест. [327] Озеленение Сахары привело к демографической экспансии [42], и особенно в Восточной Сахаре занятость людей совпадает с AHP. [328] И наоборот, население долины Нила уменьшилось, возможно, из-за расширения там водно-болотных угодий. [329]
Humans were hunting large animals with weapons that have been found in archeological sites[330] and wild cereals occurring in the Sahara during the AHP such as brachiaria, sorghum and urochloa were an additional source of food.[331] Humans also domesticated cattle,[60] goats and sheep;[332] cattle domestication occurred especially in the more environmentally variable Eastern Sahara.[333] Animal husbandry picked up in earnest around 7,000 years ago when domestic animals came to the Sahara, and a population boom may be linked to this change in cultural practice;[334][316] cattle and goat spread southwestwards from northeasternmost Africa from 8,000 years before present.[335] Dairying has been demonstrated in some locations[336] and cattle-husbandry is supported by the frequent depiction of cattle in rock paintings.[337] The Dufuna canoe, one of the oldest known ships in the world,[338] appears to date to the Holocene humid period and implies that the waterbodies of that time were navigated by humans.[339] The cultural units "Masara" and "Bashendi" existed in Dakhleh Oasis during the AHP.[340] In the Acacus Mountains, several cultural horizons known as Early and Late Acacus and Early, Middle, Late and Final Pastoral have been identified[341] while in Niger the Kiffian culture has been related to the beginning of the AHP.[342] Ancient civilizations thrived,[38] with farming and animal husbandry taking place in Neolithic settlements.[276][343] Possibly, the domestication of plants in Africa was delayed by the increased food availability during the AHP, it only took place around 2,500 BC.[344][345]
Humans created rock art such as petroglyphs and rock paintings in the Sahara, perhaps the largest density of such creations in the world.[346] Scenes include animals[130] and everyday life[346] such as swimming which supports the presence of past wetter climates.[295] One well-known such petroglyph location is the Cave of Swimmers in the Gilf Kebir mountains of Egypt;[347] other well known sites are the Gabal El Uweinat mountains also of Egypt,[60] Arabia[348] and the Tassili n'Ajjer in Algeria where rock paintings from this time have been discovered.[349] Humans also left artifacts such as Fesselsteine[p] and ceramics in what today are inhospitable deserts.[60] North Africa together with East Asia is one of the first places where pottery was developed[317] probably under the influence of increased availability of resources during the AHP. The humid period also favoured its development and spread in West Africa during the 10th millennium BC;[351] the so-called "wavy line" or "dotted wavy-line" motif was widespread across Northern Africa[327] and as far as Lake Turkana.[352]
These populations have been described as Epipaleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic[353] and produced a variety of lithic tools and other assemblages.[354] Genetic and archeological data indicate that these populations which exploited the resources of the AHP Sahara probably originated in Sub-Saharan Africa and moved north after some time, after the desert got wetter;[355] this may be reflected in the northward spread of Macrohaplogroup L and Haplogroup U6 genomic lineages.[356] In return, the AHP facilitated the movement of some Eurasian populations into Africa.[357] These favourable conditions for human populations may be reflected in paradise myths such as the Garden of Eden in The Bible and Elysium and the Golden Age in Classical Antiquity,[358] and in the spread of the Nilo-Saharan languages.[236][327]
Additional manifestations in the Sahara
The expanded vegetation and soil formation stabilized previously active dunes,[359] eventually giving rise to the present-day draa dunes in the Great Sand Sea of Egypt for example,[289] although there is uncertainty about whether this stabilization was widespread.[360] Soil development and biological activity in soils are attested in the Acacus Mountains[361] and the Mesak Settafet area of Libya,[362] but evidence of soil formation[363]/pedogenesis[52] such as bog iron[364] are described from other parts of the Sahara as well.[52] In the Selima Sand Sheet, the landscape underwent erosional truncation and bioturbation.[365] The Central and Southern Sahara saw the development of alluvial deposits[186] while sebkha deposits are known from the Western Sahara.[366] Lightning strikes into soil left lightning-altered rocks in parts of the Central Sahara.[367]
The increased precipitation also resulted in recharged aquifers[368][353] such as the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer; presently, water from this aquifer maintains several lakes in the Sahara, such as the Lakes of Ounianga.[369] Other groundwater systems were active at that time in the Acacus Mountains, Air Mountains, in the Fezzan[370] and elsewhere in Libya[371] and the Sahel.[372] Raised groundwater tables provided water to plants and was discharged in depressions,[373] lakes[113] and valleys, forming widespread carbonate deposits[q] and feeding lakes.[374]
The formation of lakes[68] and vegetation reduced the export of dust from the Sahara. This has been recorded in marine cores,[375][144] including one core where dust export decreased by almost half.[376] In coastal places, such as in Oman, sea level rise also reduced the production of dust.[68] In the Mediterranean, a decreased dust supply was accompanied by increased sediment input from the Nile, leading to changes in marine sediment composition.[377]
Whether the strengthening of the monsoon enhanced or reduced upwelling off Northwestern Africa is debatable,[378] with some research suggesting that the strengthening in upwelling decreased sea surface temperatures[379][380][381] and increased the biological productivity of the sea,[378] while other research suggests that the opposite occurred; less upwelling with more moisture.[61] However, regardless of whether upwelling increased or decreased, it is possible that the strengthening of the monsoon boosted productivity off the coasts of Northern Africa because the increased river discharge delivered more nutrients to the sea.[379][380][381]
Arabia
Precipitation in Dhofar and southwestern Arabia is brought by the African monsoon,[382] and a change to a wetter climate resembling Africa has been noted in southern Arabia[383] and Socotra from cave and river deposits.[384] It possibly reached as far as Qatar.[385] Holocene paleolakes are recorded at Tayma, Jubbah,[386] in the Wahiba Sands of Oman[387][388] and at Mundafan.[389][390] In the Rub al-Khali lakes formed between 9,000 and 7,000 years ago[391] and dunes were stabilized by vegetation,[108] although the formation of lakes there was less pronounced than in the Pleistocene.[392] The Wadi ad-Dawasir river system in central Saudi Arabia became active again[389][390] with increased river runoff into the Persian Gulf.[393] Wadis in Oman eroded across LGM dunes[394] and formed accumulation terraces.[395] Episodes of increased river discharge occurred in Yemen[396] and increased precipitation is recorded in the caves of Hoti, Qunf in Oman, Mukalla in Yemen and Hoq cave in Socotra.[397] Freshwater sources in Arabia during the AHP became focus points of human activity[398] and herding activity between mountains and lowlands occurred.[108] In addition, karstic activity took place on exposed coral reefs in the Red Sea and traces of it are still recognizable today.[399] Increased precipitation has been also invoked to explain decreased salinities in the Red Sea.[400] Archeological sites such as cairns appeared with the beginning of the humid period.[401]
The humid period in Arabia did not last as long as in Africa,[402] deserts did not retreat as much[204] and precipitation may not have reached the central[403] and northern part of the peninsula[404] past the Yemen Highlands;[405] northern Arabia remained somewhat drier than southern Arabia,[406] droughts were still common[407] and the land and still produced dust.[408] One study has estimated that the amount of rainfall in the Red Sea did increase to no more than 1 metre per year (39 in/year).[409] Whether some former lakes in Arabia were actually marshes is contentious.[410]
East Africa
Nile discharge was higher than today[211] and during the early African humid period, the Nile in Egypt flooded up to 3–5 metres (9.8–16.4 ft)[211] higher than it did recently before flood control;[98] the increased flooding may explain why many archeological sites along the Nile were abandoned during the AHP, with violent conflicts reconstructed from the Jebel Sahaba archeological site.[81][114] Waters from the Nile[r] filled depressions like the Fayum Depression[309] to form a deep lake with anoxic bottom waters[411] and reaching 20 metres (66 ft) above sea level,[412] probably once a geomorphic barrier was breached.[413] Wetlands and anastomosing channels developed in the Nile Delta[414] as sediment supply increased.[415] In addition, Nile tributaries in northwestern Sudan[416] such as Wadi Al-Malik,[211] Wadi Howar[s][418] and Valley of the Queens became active during the AHP.[419] Wadi Howar was active until 4,500 years ago,[418] and at the time often contained dune-dammed lakes, swamps and wetlands;[420][196] it was the largest Saharan tributary of the Nile[421] and constituted an important pathway into sub-Saharian Africa.[211] Conversely it appears that Lake Victoria and Lake Albert were not overflowing into the White Nile for all of the AHP,[422] and the White Nile would have been sustained by overflow from Lake Turkana.[418] There appears to be a tendency over the course of the AHP for the discharge of the Blue Nile to decrease relative to that of the White Nile.[423] The Blue Nile built an alluvial fan at its confluence with the White Nile, and incision by the Nile reduced flooding risk in some areas which thus became available for human use.[211]
Closed lakes in East Africa rose, sometimes by hundreds of metres.[424] Lake Suguta developed in the Suguta Valley, accompanied by the formation of river deltas where rivers such as the Baragoi River entered the lake.[425] In turn, Lake Suguta overflowed into the Kerio River, this adding water to Lake Turkana[426] where increased discharge by the Turkwel River led to the formation of a large river delta.[427] Over half of the water in Lake Turkana came from the Omo River, a decline compared to present-day conditions.[428] Lake Turkana itself overflowed on its northwestern side through the Lotikipi Swamp into the White Nile.[429][430] Deposits from this lake highstand form the Galana Boi Formation.[327] This overflowing large lake was filled with freshwater and was populated by humans; the societies there engaged in fishery[431] but could probably also fall back on other resources in the region.[432]
The Ethiopian[433] Lake Abhe expanded to cover an area of 6,000 square kilometres (2,300 sq mi), much larger than the present-day lake, in the "Abhe IV"-"Abhe V" lake cycle.[434] The enlarged lake covered a large area west of the present-day lake, present-day lakes Afambo, Gamari and Tendaho, reducing Borawli, Dama Ale and Kurub to islands.[435] The maximum water level was reached during the early Holocene as river discharge increased, but was later limited by partial overflow and did not rise above 380 metres (1,250 ft) again.[436] Deep thermal groundwater recharge occurred in the region.[437] About 9,000 years of human occupation are documented at the lake.[438] Archeological sites indicate that people obtained resources from the lake and followed its rise[436] and decline.[439] The cultural traditions at Lake Abhe appear to be unusual by AHP/African standards.[440]
Lake Zway and Lake Shala in Ethiopia joined with Lake Abiyata and Lake Langano to form a large waterbody[441] which began overflowing into the Awash River.[442] Other lakes that expanded include Lake Ashenge[443] and Lake Hayq also in Ethiopia,[444] Lake Bogoria, Lake Naivasha[186] and Lake Nakuru/Lake Elmenteita all in Kenya,[445] Lake Masoko in Tanzania,[443] and a lake formed in the caldera of the Menengai volcano.[446] Overflow of several of these lakes allowed animals including Nile crocodiles and fish to propagate to the individual lake basins.[447] A 1,600 square kilometres (620 sq mi) large and 50 metres (160 ft) deep Lake Magadi formed in the early Holocene,[139] and in the Danakil Depression of Ethiopia freshwater conditions became established.[186] Finally, lakes formed in depressions on the mountains around Lake Kivu.[448]
Glaciers stopped retreating or briefly expanded in East Africa at the beginning of the AHP before continuing retreat.[449] On Mount Kilimanjaro they may have expanded during the AHP[450] after a phase during the Younger Dryas where the mountain was ice free,[451] but the tree line also rose at that time, accompanied by soil formation.[452] The wetter climate may have destabilized the neighbouring Mount Meru volcano, causing a giant landslide that removed its summit.[453]
Erosion in catchments of East Africa increased with the beginning of the humid period but then decreased even before its end,[454] as the increased weathering led to the formation of soils, these in turn to the establishment of a vegetation cover that subsequently reduced additional erosion.[455] Increased weathering resulted in the increased consumption of atmospheric CO2 during the AHP.[456]
Surprisingly, and contrary to the patterns expected from precessional changes, the East African Rift also experienced a wetter climates during the AHP,[133] reaching as far south as Lake Rukwa and Lake Cheshi into the Southern Hemisphere.[457][458] In the region of the African Great Lakes, pollen evidence points to the occurrence of forests including rainforest vegetation[459] due to the increased precipitation,[460] while today they occur only in limited areas there.[459] Denser vegetation also occurred at Lake Turkana,[461] with wooden vegetation covering almost half of the dry land[462] although grasslands remained dominant.[230] Development of forest vegetation around the African Great Lakes created an interconnected environment where species spread, increasing biodiversity with effects on the future when the environment became fragmented.[463] Vegetation cover also increased in the Afar region.[464] Forests and moisture-requiring vegetation expanded in the Bale Mountains.[465] Different types of vegetation, including dryland vegetation, existed at Lake Malawi and Lake Tanganyika however,[466] and vegetation did not change much.[467] A wetter climate is recorded from a soil in the Afar region.[468]
In East Africa, the AHP led to improved environmental conditions in terms of food and water supply from large lakes, allowing early human populations to survive and grow in size without requiring major changes in food gathering strategies.[469] Pottery techniques such as the "dotted wavy line" and "Kanysore" are associated with fishing and foraging communities.[352] Earlier wet and dry periods in East Africa may have influenced the evolution of humans[470] and allowed their spread across the Sahara[471] and into Europe.[472]
Other parts of Africa and the rainforest realm
Lake Bosumtwi in Ghana rose during the AHP.[473][t] Evidence there also suggests a decrease in wildfire activity took place.[475] Tropical forests expanded in the Adamawa Plateau of Cameroon[476][477] and moved upward at Lake Bambili also in Cameroon.[478] The core of the rainforest was probably unaltered by the African humid period, perhaps with some changes in species[479][480] and an expansion of their area,[58] although the peatlands of Central Congo started developing during the African humid period and peat continues to accumulate there to this day,[481] albeit with a slowdown in the Cuvette Centrale after the end of the African humid period.[482] In the Canary Islands, there is evidence of a moister climate on Fuerteventura,[483] the laurel forests changed perhaps as a consequence of the AHP.[107] Recharge of groundwater levels have been inferred from Gran Canaria also in the Canary Islands, followed by a decrease after the end of the AHP.[484] Choughs may have reached the Canary Islands from North Africa when the latter was wetter.[485]
Levant and Mediterranean
High latitude Africa has not undergone large scale changes in the past 11,700 years;[121] the Atlas Mountains may have blocked the monsoon from expanding further north.[486] However, cave deposits showing a moister climate in southern Morocco,[147] vegetation changes in the Middle Atlas,[487] several floods in Tunisian rivers[488] and ecosystem changes which impacted steppe-dependent rodents of Northern Africa have been linked to the AHP.[489]
In the Pleistocene and Holocene humidity in the Mediterranean is often correlated to humidity in the Sahara,[490][491] and the early-mid Holocene climate of Iberia, Italy, Negev and Northern Africa was wetter than today;[492] in Sicily wettening correlates with ITCZ changes in Northern Africa.[493] Mediterranean precipitation is brought by Mediterranean cyclones and the westerlies;[490] either increased precipitation from the westerlies,[494] northward moisture transport from Africa[495] or monsoonal precipitation extending into the Mediterranean may have rendered it wetter.[45] The connection between the African Monsoon and Mediterranean precipitation is unclear[496][490] and it was winter rainfall that increased predominantly.[497]
The Mediterranean Sea became less saline during the AHP, in part due to increased precipitation from the westerlies[494] but also from increased river discharge in Africa, leading to the formation of sapropel layers when the increased runoff led to the Mediterranean becoming more stratified.[498][499] The S1 sapropel layer is specifically associated with the AHP[214] and with increased discharge of the Nile and other African rivers.[300] This together with decreased dust transport by wind led to changes in the sediment patterns[500] and an increased marine food web productivity in the Mediterranean,[501] which impacted the development of deep-sea corals.[502]
In the Levant, wetter conditions during the AHP are recorded from Jeita Cave in Lebanon and Soreq Cave in Israel[503] while the Dead Sea and other southern European lakes were low during this period. This is unlike some earlier wet periods in the Sahara; possibly the stronger winter-summer insolation gradient in these earlier wet periods created a different moisture pattern than during the Holocene.[504]
Southern Africa
The effects, if any, of the African humid period on Southern Africa have been unclear. Originally it was proposed that the orbitally driven changes would imply a dry period in Southern Africa which would have given way to moister conditions as the northern AHP ended,[505] as the ITCZ should shift its average position between the two hemispheres.[121] However, the lack of paleoclimatology data with sufficient time resolution from Southern Africa has made it difficult to assess the climate there during the AHP.[505] More recently obtained paleoclimate data have suggested however that southern Africa was actually wetter during the AHP rather than drier,[506][507] perhaps reaching as far as north[159] and northwest Madagascar,[458] 23° south[160] and as far as the catchment of the Orange River.[508] The area between Lake Tanganyika and Lake Malawi has been interpreted as the limit of the AHP's influence.[509]
Conversely, and consistent with the opposite reaction pattern of the Southern Hemisphere, the Zambezi River reached its lowest discharge during the AHP,[510] and the AHP did not reach southern[135] or southeastern Africa.[511] There may have been opposite changes in precipitation between southeast Africa and tropical East Africa,[512] separated by a "hinge zone".[159] Particular changes occurred in central southern Africa, where a dry period co-occurred with an expansion of Lake Makgadikgadi; presumably increased wetness over the Okavango River catchment in the Angolan Highlands due to the AHP nourished the lake during a dry interval.[513] In general there is little consistency between Northern and Southern Africa in terms of hydrological changes during the Holocene,[514] and nowhere are both the start and end of the AHP apparent.[217] Orbitally-mediated changes in Northern Hemisphere climate affected the Southern Hemisphere through oceanic pathways involving sea surface temperatures.[515] Additionally, wetter periods unrelated to the AHP may have occurred after deglaciation in Southern Africa.[516]
Numerical estimates
Estimates of the exact amount of increased precipitation vary widely.[517] During the African humid period, Saharan rainfall increased to 300–400 millimetres per year (12–16 in/year),[518] and values exceeding 400 millimetres per year (16 in/year) may have spread to 19–21° northern latitude.[519] In the eastern Sahara, a gradient from 200 millimetres per year (7.9 in/year) increment in the north to 500 millimetres per year (20 in/year) in the south has been identified.[291] An area with less than 100 millimetres per year (3.9 in/year) may have remained in the Eastern Sahara however,[520][521] although its driest parts may have received 20-fold more precipitation than today.[373] Precipitation in the Sahara probably reached no more than 500 millimetres per year (20 in/year),[522] with large uncertainty.[197]
Other reconstructed values of the precipitation increase indicate an annual increase of about 150–320 millimetres (5.9–12.6 in) in Africa,[523] with strong regional variation.[524] From lake levels precipitation increases of 20–33%[525] or 50–100%[186]/40-150% have been inferred for East Africa,[456] with an increase of 40% reconstructed for Northern Africa.[526] In the early Holocene, there appears to have been an eastward- and northward-decreasing trend of humidity.[527] Additionally, at Tayma in Arabia a threefold increase appears to have occurred[528] and precipitation in the Wahiba Sands of Oman may have reached 250–500 millimetres per year (9.8–19.7 in/year).[529]
Effect on other climate modes
One climate model has indicated that a greener Sahara and reduced dust output would have increased tropical cyclone activity, especially over the Atlantic but also in most other tropical cyclone basins. Changes in the intensity of the storms, decreases in wind shear, changes in atmospheric circulation and less dust in the atmosphere, which results in warmer oceans, are responsible for this phenomenon,[530] despite an expected decrease of tropical wave activity over the Atlantic in climate models.[531] The net effect could be a global increase in tropical cyclone activity and a westward shift.[532] While there are no good paleotempestology data for the time of the African humid period that could confirm or refute this theory[533] and many of these records are specific for particular locations,[534] hurricane activity[535] including past strikes in Puerto Rico[536] and in Vieques appear to correlate with the strength of the West African Monsoon.[537] On the other hand, at Grand Bahama Bank and the Dry Tortugas of South Florida a decrease of hurricane activity took place during the AHP[538] and dust emission is not always anti-correlated to hurricane activity.[539] Finally, the northward movement of the ITCZ during the AHP may have caused a corresponding northward movement of tropical cyclogenesis areas and storm tracks in the Atlantic Ocean,[540] which could also explain decreased hurricane activity in the Bahamas and Dry Tortugas.[538]
The El Niño–Southern Oscillation is a major climate variability mode. Paleoclimatology records from Ecuador and the Pacific Ocean indicate that during the early and middle Holocene ENSO variability was suppressed by about 30–60%, which can be only partially explained through orbital forcing.[541][542] The Green Sahara may have suppressed ENSO activity, forcing a La Niña–like climate state,[536][542] in a climate model this is accompanied by decreased upwelling and deepening of the thermocline in the Eastern Pacific as the Walker circulation shifts westward.[543][544] In addition, Atlantic Niño sea surface temperature patterns develop in the Atlantic Ocean.[545][546]
Remote effects of the AHP on the monsoons of the Northern Hemisphere have also been studied.[547] In climate models, the strengthened and expanding monsoons of Africa and Asia alter the atmospheric circulation of the planet, inducing a wetter East Asian Monsoon and drying across tropical South America and central-eastern North America.[548][549] The reduced dust emission warms the North Atlantic and increases westerly flow into the North American Monsoon, strengthening it.[547] The far-field precipitation changes reach as far as Europe and Australia.[550] Discrepancies between modelled and reconstructed northward extension[551] and precipitation in the Asian monsoon regions and the North American Monsoon area may be explained through these remote effects.[552]
Sun et al. 2020 proposed that the greening of the Sahara during the AHP can increase precipitation over the Middle East even if neither the African nor the Indian monsoons reach it.[553] During spring, the increased vegetation forces anomalous atmospheric circulations that direct moisture transport from the Mediterranean, the Red Sea and eastern tropical Africa into the Middle East, increasing precipitation[554] and agricultural productivity there.[555] This could explain increased precipitation in the Middle East during the AHP:[556] A wet climate occurred in the Middle East during the early Holocene, leading to the Ubaid period of settlement in Mesopotamia, followed by dry phases around 5,500 years ago[557] and a concomitant reduction in simulated wheat yield.[558]
Колебания
Some gaps with less precipitation took place during the late glacial and the Holocene.[218] During the Younger Dryas 12,500–11,500 years ago, the North Atlantic and Europe became much colder again and there was a phase of drought in the area of the African humid period,[559][560] extending over both East Africa,[u][562] where lake levels dropped in many places,[563][564] southern Africa[565] and West Africa. The dry interval extended to India[562] and the Mediterranean[566] where dune activity occurred in the Negev.[567] At the end of the Younger Dryas, precipitation, lake levels and river runoff increased again, although south of the equator the return of humid conditions was slower than the relatively abrupt change to its north.[568][528]
Another dry phase took place about 8,200 years ago, spanning East Africa[169] and Northern Africa[v] as documented by various lines of evidence[571] such as decreased water levels in lakes.[572] It coincided with cooling in the Northern Atlantic,[573] in surrounding landmasses such as Greenland[574] and around the world;[335] the drought may be related to the 8.2 kiloyear event[559] which separates the Greenlandian and Northgrippian stages of the Holocene[575] and lasted for about one millennium.[217] The 8,200 year event has also been noted in the Maghreb, where it is associated with a transition of the Capsian culture[576] as well as with cultural changes both in the Sahara and the Mediterranean;[323] at the Gobero cemetery a population change occurred after this dry interruption[577] but the occurrence of widespread cultural changes appears to be questionable.[35] This episode appears to have been caused by the draining of ice-dammed lakes in North America [578] although a low latitude origin has also been suggested.[579]
Cooling of the Northern Atlantic during Heinrich event 1 and the Younger Dryas associated with a weaker Atlantic meridional overturning circulation leads to atmospheric pressure anomalies that shift the Tropical Easterly Jet and precipitation belts south, making Northern Africa drier. [174][194][580] Storm tracks shift north away from the Mediterranean.[581] Earlier Heinrich events were also accompanied by drought in North Africa.[51] Likewise, a weakening of moisture transport and a less eastward position of the Congo Air Boundary contributed to reducing precipitation in East Africa[562] although some parts of southern Africa at Lake Malawi were wetter during the Younger Dryas.[582]
Many humidity fluctuations in the early Holocene appear to be caused by the discharge of meltwater from the Laurentide Ice Sheet into the Atlantic, which weakens the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation.[581] Some dry periods in marine cores in the Gulf of Guinea appear to coincide with events recorded in Greenland ice cores.[583] Other variations in precipitation observed in records have been attributed to solar activity changes,[13] water levels of Lake Turkana for example appear to reflect the 11-year solar cycle.[584]
In Lake Turkana, water level fluctuations took place between 8,500 and 4,500 years before present, with highstands before 8,400, around 7,000 and between 5,500 and 5,000[585] and lowstands around 8,000, 10,000 and 12,000 years before present.[586] The highstands appear to be controlled by sea surface temperature patterns in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, but also by overflow of water from Lake Suguta and[585] - intermittently -[587] the Chew Bahir basins into Lake Turkana, which themselves received water from additional lakes.[430] Volcanic and tectonic phenomena occur at Lake Turkana, but do not have the magnitude required to explain large changes in lake level.[588] Water level fluctuations have also been inferred for Lake Chad on the basis of pollen data, especially towards the end of the AHP.[589] In the Taoudenni lake fluctuations of about a quarter-millennium have been recorded[590] and frequent droughts occurred in the Eastern Sahara.[591]
Other variations appear to have occurred 9,500–9,000 and 7,400–6,800[269] as well as 10,200, 8,200, 6,600 and 6,000 years before present; they were accompanied by decreased population density in parts of the Sahara,[581] and other dry interludes in Egypt have been noted 9,400–9,300, 8,800–8,600, 7,100–6,900 and 6,100–5,900 years ago.[592] The duration and severity of dry events is difficult to reconstruct[335] and the impact of events like the Younger Dryas is heterogeneous even between neighbouring areas.[593] During dry episodes, humans might have headed to waterbodies which still had resources,[327] and cultural changes in the central Sahara have been linked to some dry episodes.[594] Aside from fluctuations, a southward retreat of the humid period may have been underway after 8,000 years ago[595] with a major drought around 7,800 years ago.[596]
Конец
The African humid period ended about 6,000–5,000 years ago,[16][597] an ending date of 5,500 years before present is often used.[598] After vegetation declined,[62] the Sahara became barren and was claimed by sand.[130] Wind erosion increased in northern Africa,[599] and dust export from the now-desert[581] and from dried up lakes[600] such as the Bodélé Basin grew; Bodélé today is the largest single source of dust on Earth.[601] The lakes dried up, mesic vegetation disappeared, and sedentary human populations were replaced by more mobile cultures.[16] The transition from the "green Sahara" to the present-day dry Sahara is considered to be the greatest environmental transition of the Holocene in northern Africa;[602] today almost no precipitation falls in the region.[36] The end of the AHP but also its beginning could be considered a "climate crisis" given the strong and extended impact.[573] Drying extended as far as the Canary Islands[603] and southeastern Iran,[604] and there is evidence of climate change on São Nicolau, Cape Verde.[605]
The Piora Oscillation cold period in the Alps[606] coincides with the end of the AHP;[358][607] the period 5,600–5,000 calibrated years ago was characterized by widespread cooling and more variable precipitation changes around the world[607] and was possibly forced by changes in solar activity and orbital parameters.[608] Some changes in climate possibly extended into southeastern Australia,[609] Central America[610] and into South America.[611] The neoglacial began.[612]
A major pan-tropical environmental change took place about 4,000 calibrated years ago.[613] This change was accompanied by the collapse of ancient civilizations, severe drought in Africa, Asia and the Middle East and the retreat of glaciers on Mount Kilimanjaro[614] and Mount Kenya.[615]
Chronology
Whether the drying happened everywhere at the same time and whether it took place in centuries or millennia is unclear[244][38][130] in part due to disagreeing records[234][616] and has led to controversy,[48][617] and such a disagreement on timing also exists with respect to the expected vegetation changes.[163][202] Marine cores usually indicate an abrupt change[618][127] but not without exceptions[48] while pollen data do not, perhaps due to regional and local differences in vegetation.[619] Groundwater and local vegetation can modify local conditions;[316] groundwater-fed water bodies for example persisted longer than those nourished by rain.[247] The debate on how quickly the Sahara formed goes back to 1849, when the Prussian naturalist Alexander von Humboldt suggested that only a quick drying could form the desert.[620]
Most recently, the idea has taken hold that the end of the African humid period occurred from north to south in a stepwise fashion.[621][622][316] In the western Sahara and east Africa it ended within 500 years[623] with a one-step drying 6,000 – 5,000 years ago north of the present-day monsoon belt. Farther south, precipitation decrease was more protracted[14][105][624] and closer to the equator the AHP ended between 4,000 and 2,500 years ago.[105][14] In East Africa, pronounced drying occurred between 4,500 and 3,500 years ago, centered on 4,000 years ago;[217] Egypt during the Old Kingdom was still wetter than today.[625] A later end in northeast Africa about 4,000 years ago may reflect the different configuration of landmasses and thus monsoon behaviour,[626] while other research has found a westward propagating drying trend.[104]
Some evidence points to a two-phase change in climate with two distinct dry transitions[627] caused by the existence of two different steps of insolation decrease at which climate changes.[628] Distinct environmental changes may have occurred in Central Africa, Western Africa and East Africa.[617] Finally, sometimes the 4.2 kiloyear event - the transition from the Northgrippian to the Meghalayan stage of the Holocene -[575] is considered to be the true end of the AHP,[579] especially in central Africa.[629]
Increased variability in precipitation may have preceded the end of the AHP; this is commonly observed before a sudden change in climate.[630] In Gilf Kebir, between 6,300 and 5,200 years ago apparently a winter rainfall regime became established as the AHP ended.[180] Later fluctuations in climate that produced brief humid spells also took place,[631] such as a moister period between 500 BCE – 300 CE in Roman Northern Africa and along the Dead Sea[632] and an earlier one 2,100 years before present in the western Sahel.[107]
Sahara and Sahel
After a first brief lake level drop between 5,700 and 4,700 calibrated years ago that might reflect climate variability towards the end of the African humid period,[633] water levels in Lake Megachad decreased quickly after 5,200 years before present.[634] It shrank to about 5% of its former size,[256] with the deeper northern Bodele basin drying up entirely about 2,000[263]-1,000 years ago[635] as it was disconnected from the southern basin where its major tributary, the Chari River, enters Lake Chad.[256] The dried out basin was now exposed to the Harmattan winds, which blow dust out of the dry lake bed,[636] making it the single largest source of dust in the world.[637] Dunes formed in the dried-up Sahara[638] or began moving again after stabilizing during the AHP.[639]
The tropical vegetation was replaced by desert vegetation, in some places suddenly and in others more gradually.[640] Along the Atlantic coast, the vegetation retreat was slowed by a stage of sea level rise that increased soil moisture levels, delaying the retreat by about two millennia.[641][642] In Libya at Wadi Tanezzuft the end of the humid period was also delayed by leftover water in dune systems and in the Tassili mountains until 2,700 years ago, when river activity finally ceased.[71][643] A brief moist pulse between 5,000 – 4,000 years ago in the Tibesti led to the development of the so-called "Lower Terrace".[644] The Egyptian Sahara might still have been vegetated until 4,200 years ago, based on depictions of savanna environments in Fifth Dynasty tombs in Egypt.[645]
At Lake Yoa, which is groundwater-fed, vegetation decreased and became desert vegetation between 4,700–4,300 and 2,700 years ago, while the lake became hypersaline 4,000 years ago.[646][647][648] However, the climate there may have been affected by the Tibesti Mountains and the end of the AHP thus delayed,[634] and fossil groundwater left by the AHP nourishes the lake to this day.[649] In the central Sahara, water resources in the mountains persisted longer.[650]
East Africa and Arabia
In northern East Africa, water levels dropped rapidly about 5,500 years ago[189] while in Hoti cave in Arabia a southward retreat of the Indian Monsoon took place about 5,900 years ago.[108] Drying is also documented from Oman,[115] and rivers and lakes of Arabia became intermittent or entirely dry.[651] The Blue Nile basin became less moist[115] with a noticeable decrease of Nile discharge about 4,000 years ago.[500] Decreased discharge of the Nile led to the cessation of sapropel deposition and turbidite activity off its delta.[98]
Some data from Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa indicate that drying there may have begun already 7,000–8,000 years ago or earlier.[564][384] Reconstructions from Lake Abiyata in Ethiopia suggest that the end of the African humid period took the form of severe droughts rather than a gradual decrease of precipitation.[652] Drying in Arabia commenced about 7,000 calibrated years ago[398] and there are large disparities in the timing between various parts of Arabia[43] but a tendency towards an arid climate between 6,000 and 5,000 years ago has been observed[653] which continued until 2,700 years ago.[387] In the Bale Mountains and the Sanetti Plateau of Ethiopia vegetation changes signalling a drier climate took place around 4,600 years ago.[654]
Forest cover in the area of the African Great Lakes decreased between 4,700 and 3,700 years ago,[459] although drying at Lake Victoria had begun around 8,000 years ago,[466] at Lake Rukwa 6,700 years ago,[457] at Lake Tanganyika about 6,000 years ago[466] and at Lake Edward major changes in lake chemistry consistent with drying are noted 5,200 years ago. There a minor recovery in vegetation took place between 2,500 and 2,000 years ago, followed by a much more rapid appearance of grasses accompanied also by substantial wildfire activity. This might have been the most severe drought of the Lake Edward region in the Holocene, with many lakes such as Lake George dropping significantly or drying up altogether.[655] Other lakes such as Nakuru, Turkana, Lake Chew Bahir, Lake Abbe and Lake Zway also dropped between 5,400 and 4,200 years ago.[656] Decreased vegetation cover in the catchment of the Blue Nile has been correlated with increased sediment transport in the river beginning 3,600 – 4,000 years ago.[657]
The end of the AHP at Lake Turkana occurred about 5,300 years before present, accompanied by a lake level decline[658] and the cessation of overflow from other lakes in its area into Lake Turkana.[427] Between 5,000 and 4,200, Lake Turkana became more saline and its water levels decreased below the level of outflow to the Nile.[659] Towards the end of the AHP water temperatures in the lake and in other regional lakes appear to have increased, followed by a drop after its end[660] possibly resulting from the insolation seasonality pattern that was in force at the time of the end of the AHP.[661] The decrease of water levels in Lake Turkana also impacted the Nile and the Predynastic societies dependent on it.[662]
Mediterranean
Libya and the Middle Atlas became gradually more dry,[640] and drying in Morocco took place about 6,000 radiocarbon years ago,[627] Drier conditions in Iberia accompanied the end of the African humid period between 6,000 and 4,000 years ago, perhaps as a consequence of increasingly frequent positive North Atlantic Oscillation episodes and the shift of the ITCZ.[663][664] More complicated changes have been found for the northern margin of the Mediterranean.[665] A 4.2 kiloyear event is recorded in dust records from the Mediterranean[666] and might have been caused by changes in the circulation of the Atlantic Ocean.[175]
Tropical West Africa
In Lake Bosumtwi the African humid period ended about 3,000 years ago[130] after a brief moistening between 5,410 ± 80 years ago that ended 3,170 ± 70 years ago. This, earlier but similar changes off western Senegal and later but similar changes in the Congo Fan appear to reflect a southward shift of the precipitation zone over time.[580] Some drying occurred simultaneously between the Sahel and the Gulf of Guinea.[194] Some lakes in the Guineo-Congolian region dried out, while others were relatively unaffected.[641]
A general tendency towards a drier climate is observed in West Africa at the end of the AHP.[667] There, dense vegetation became progressively thinner between 5,000 and 3,000 years ago,[655] and major perturbations of the vegetation took place around 4,200 and 3,000–2,500[668]/2,400 calibrated years ago.[669] A brief return of moister conditions took place 4,000 years ago[573] while a substantial dry phase occurred between 3,500 and 1,700 years ago.[667] Aridity became established between 5,200 and 3,600 years ago in the Sahara.[670] In Senegal modern-type vegetation arose about 2,000 years ago.[671]
Central Africa
Farther south at the equator between 6,100 and 3,000 calibrated years before present savannah expanded at the expense of forests, with the transition possibly lasting until 2,500 calibrated years before present;[613] a different time course estimate for the area between 4° southern and 7° northern latitude states that forest cover decreased between 4,500 and 1,300 years ago.[641] In the Adamawa Plateau (Cameroon[672]), the Ubangui Plateau (Central African Republic[672]) and the Cameroon Volcanic Line montane forests disappeared at the end of the African humid period.[673] In the Adamawa Plateau savannah has continuously expanded since 4,000 calibrated years ago.[669] Such a change took also place in Benin and Nigeria between 4,500 and 3,400 calibrated years ago.[641] Many vegetation changes in the tropical regions were probably caused by a longer dry season[674] and perhaps a smaller latitudinal range of the ITCZ.[669]
Southern Hemisphere Africa
In the Southern Hemisphere at Lake Malawi drying began later – 1,000 years before present – as did the African humid period which there began only about 8,000 years ago.[660] Contrarily, increased water levels in Etosha Pan (Namibia) appear to relate to a southward movement of the ITCZ at the end of the AHP[675] although stalagmite growth data in Dante Cave also in Namibia has been interpreted as indicating a wetter climate during the AHP.[506]
Mechanisms
The end of the humid period appears to reflect the changes in insolation during the Holocene,[105] as a progressive decrease of summer insolation caused the insolation gradients between Earth's hemispheres to decrease.[676] However, the drying appears to have been much more abrupt than the insolation changes;[127] it is not clear whether non-linear feedbacks led to abrupt changes in climate and it is also unclear whether the process, driven by orbital changes, was abrupt.[130] Also, the Southern Hemisphere warmed and this resulted in a southward shift of the ITCZ;[677] orbitally-driven insolation has increased over the Holocene in the Southern Hemisphere.[119]
As precipitation decreased, so did vegetation, in turn increasing the albedo and further decreasing precipitation.[134] Furthermore, vegetation may have responded to increased variations in precipitation towards the end of the AHP[131] although this view has been challenged.[678] This could have directed sudden changes in precipitation, although this view has been cast in doubt by the observation that in many places the end of the African humid period was gradual rather than sudden.[679] Plants at higher and lower latitudes might respond differently to climate change; for example more diverse plant communities might have slowed down the end of the AHP.[77]
Other proposed mechanisms:
- Decreases in polar insolation through altered cosmic ray fluxes might promote the growth of sea ice and cooling at high latitudes, which in turn result in stronger equator-to-pole temperature gradients, stronger subtropical anticyclones and more intense upwelling in for example the Benguela current.[188]
- Changes in the circulation of high latitude oceans may have played a role,[676] such as the potential occurrence of another meltwater/ice rafting pulse around 5,700 years before present.[677] The decreased insolation during the mid-Holocene may have made the climate system more sensitive to changes, explaining why earlier comparable pulses did not terminate the humid period for good.[680]
- There is evidence that glaciers in Tibet such as at Nanga Parbat expanded during the Holocene, especially towards the end of the AHP.[681] In climate models, increased snow and ice on the Tibetan Plateau can lead to a weakening of the Indian and African monsoons, with the weakening of the former preceding that of the latter by 1,500–2,000 years.[682]
- Decreases in sea surface temperatures of the Indian Ocean may be involved in the drying of East Africa, but there is no agreement on the temperature records from that ocean.[165] Moreover, there is no evidence of temperature changes in the Gulf of Guinea at the critical time that might explain the end of the AHP.[189]
- Additional feedback processes may have included the drying of soils and loss of vegetation after decreased rainfall,[130] which would have led to wind-driven deflation of the soils.[683]
- An expansion of sea ice around Antarctica about 5,000 calibrated years ago may have provided another positive feedback.[684]
- The expanding dry belt of the Sahara pushed the regions of cyclogenesis in the Mediterranean northwest-northward, resulting in wind changes[685] and precipitation regime changes in parts of Italy.[686]
- Climate change at high latitudes has been proposed as a cause for the end of the AHP. Specifically, about 6,000–5,000 years ago the Arctic became colder, with sea ice expanding, temperatures in Europe and off Northern Africa decreasing and the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation weakening.[189] This cooling tendency may have weakened the Tropical Easterly Jet and thus reduced the amount of precipitation falling over Africa.[687]
The orbitally-induced changes of precipitation may have been modified by the solar cycle; specifically, solar activity maxima during the ending phase of the AHP may have offset the orbital effect and thus stabilized precipitation levels, while solar activity minima compounded the orbital effects and thus induced rapid decreases in water levels of Lake Turkana.[688] At Lake Victoria on the other hand, solar variations appear to sometimes lead to drought and sometimes lead to wetness, probably due to changes in the ITCZ.[677]
Potentially human-mediated changes
Major changes in vegetation in East Africa about 2,000 years ago may have been caused by human activity, including large-scale deforestation for iron production during the Iron Age.[689] Similar changes have been observed on the Adamawa Plateau[690] (Cameroon[672]) but later dating of archeological sites has found no correlation between human expansion in Cameroon and environmental degradation.[691] Similar rainforest degradation across Western African took place between 3,000 and 2,000 years ago[692] and the degradation is also known as "third millennium rainforest crisis".[693] Climate-mediated processes may have increased the impact of land use changes in East Africa.[463] In the Sudanian and Sahelian savannah on the other hand human activity seems to have had little impact,[256] and in Central Africa forest changes were clearly triggered by climate change with little or no evidence of anthropogenic changes.[694] The question has led to intense debate among paleoecologists and archeologists.[695]
While humans were active in Africa during the end of the African humid period, climate models analyzed by Claussen and colleagues 1999 indicate that its end does not need any human activity as an explanation[696] although vegetation changes may have been induced by human activity.[222] Later it was suggested that overgrazing may have triggered the end of the AHP around 5,500 years ago;[316] human influence might explain why the Sahara became a desert without the accompanying onset of an ice age; usually the existence of a Sahara desert is associated with the expansion of high latitude glaciers.[362] Later research has on the contrary suggested that human pastoralism may have actually delayed the end of the AHP by half a millennium[697] as moving herds of animals driven by humans seeking good pasture conditions may lead to more balanced impacts of pastures on the vegetation and thus to greater vegetation quality.[698][699] However, increased grazing has been invoked to explain the increase in dust emissions after the end of the AHP.[700] The effects of grazing on vegetation cover are context-dependent and hard to generalize over wider region.[701]
Global
A general drying tendency is observed in the northern tropics[702] and between 5,000 – 4,500 calibrated years ago the monsoons weakened.[703] Asian monsoon precipitation declined between 5,000 and 4,000 years ago.[22] A drought 5,500 years ago is recorded in Mongolia[704] and eastern America, where drought conditions around 5,500–5,000 years ago occurred in places like Florida, New Hampshire and Ontario.[705][706] A drying tendency is also noted in the Caribbean and the Central Atlantic.[707]
Conversely, in South America there is evidence that the monsoon behaves in an opposite fashion consistent with precessional forcing;[702] water levels in Lake Titicaca were low during the middle Holocene and began to rise again after the end of the AHP.[708] Likewise, a trend towards increased wetness took place in the Rocky Mountains at this time[709] although it was accompanied by a drier phase around Lake Tahoe, California and in the Western United States.[710]
Consequences
Humans
As observed in archeological sites, population in Northern Africa decreased between 6,300 and 5,200 years ago[130] over less than a millennium,[683] beginning from the north.[711] In inner Arabia many settlements were abandoned about 5,300 years ago.[139] Some Neolithic people in the desert persisted for longer thanks to the exploitation of groundwater.[627]
Different human populations responded to the drying in diverse manners,[353] with responses in the Western Sahara being distinct from those in the Central Sahara.[9] In the Central Sahara, pastoralism replaced hunter-gatherer activity[712] and a more nomadic lifestyle replaced semi-sedentary lifestyles[713] as observed in the Acacus Mountains of Libya.[333] Nomadic lifestyles also developed in the Eastern Sahara/Red Sea Hills in response to the end of the AHP.[714] There was a shift in domestic animal use from cattle to sheep and goats as these are more suited in arid climates, a change reflected in rock art from which cattle disappeared at this time.[715]
The development of irrigation systems in Arabia may have been an adaptation to the drying tendency.[398] The decreased availability of resources forced human populations to adapt,[716] in general fishing and hunting declined in favour of farming and herding.[717] However, the effects of the end of the AHP on human food production have been subject to controversy.[718]
The warm episode and coinciding drought may have triggered animal and human migration to less inhospitable areas[661] and the appearance of pastoralists where previously fishery-dependent societies had existed, as happened at Lake Turkana.[431] Humans moved to the Nile,[w] where the society of Ancient Egypt with pharaohs and pyramids was eventually forged by these climate refugees[720][683][721] perhaps reflecting renewed exuberance;[358] thus the end of the AHP can be considered responsible for the birth of Ancient Egypt.[721][1] Lower water levels in the Nile also aided the settlement of its valley as has been observed at Kerma.[722] A similar process may have led to the development of the Garamantian civilization.[723] Such human migrations towards more hospitable conditions along rivers and the development of irrigation also took place along the Euphrates, Tigris and Indus, leading to the development of the Sumerian and Harappan civilizations.[724][77] Population shifts into mountain areas have also been reported for the Air Mountains, Hoggar and Tibesti.[526] In other places, such as the Acacus Mountains populations conversely remained in oases[725][631] and hunter-gatherers also stayed in the Horn of Africa.[168]
The Nile itself was not totally unaffected however;[422] the 4.2 kiloyear event[726] and the end of the AHP may be linked to the collapse of the Old Kingdom in Egypt[38] when the Nile floods failed for three decades around 4,160 years before present[727] and the final drying occurred.[728] The ongoing decrease of precipitation after the end of the AHP could be the cause of the end of the Akkadian Kingdom in Mesopotamia.[729] The end of the Garamantian civilization may also relate to climate change although other historical events were probably more important;[730] at Tanezzuft oasis after 1,600 years ago it certainly relates to the drying trend.[725]
In Central Africa, forests became discontinuous and savannahs formed in some places, facilitating the movement and growth of Bantu speaking populations;[679] these in turn may have affected the ecosystem.[731] The vegetation changes may have aided in the establishment of agriculture.[694] The relatively slow decline of precipitation gave humans more time to adapt to the changing climate conditions.[469]
Cultural changes may also have occurred as a consequence of climate change, such as[732] changes in gender roles, the development of elites,[733] the increased presence of human burials where formerly cattle burials predominated,[734] as well as an increase of monumental architecture in the Sahara may have also been a response to increasingly adverse climates.[712] A spread in cattle domestication at the time of climate change[333] and as herders escaped the drying Sahara southwards[735][736] may also relate to these events, although the details of the exact process by which cattle domestication spread are still controversial.[732] Finally, changes in agricultural practices at the end of the AHP may be associated with the propagation of malaria and one of its causative pathogens Plasmodium falciparum; in turn these may correlate with the origin of human genome variants such as sickle cell disease that are linked to malaria resistance.[737]
Non-human
In the Sahara, animal and plant populations were fragmented and restricted to certain favoured areas such as moist areas of mountain ranges; this happened for example to fish and crocodiles which only persist in isolated water bodies. Mediterranean plants[738][739] such as cypresses too persist only in mountains,[740] along with some reptiles that may have also been stranded in mountains by the drying.[741] The whip spider Musicodamon atlanteus is probably also a relic of past wetter conditions.[742] The buffalo species Syncerus antiquus probably went extinct from the increased competition of pastoralists triggered by the climate drying.[743] The drying of the African Great Lakes region split gorilla populations became split into western and eastern populations,[460] and a similar population split between the insect species Chalinus albitibialis and Chalinus timnaensis in Northern Africa and the Middle East may have also been caused by the expansion of deserts there.[744] Some aquatic species disappeared from the Sahara.[313] Giraffes, widespread in the Sahara during the AHP, may have been forced to migrate into the Sahel; this together with the separating effect of Lake Megachad may have influenced the development of giraffe subspecies.[745] Climate change together with human impacts may have led to the extinction of a number of large mammals in Egypt.[746] On the other hand, the decline of tree cover may have grown the niche available to domestic animals[747] and some drought-tolerant plant species may have expanded their range.[748]
The Dahomey Gap[x] formed 4,500–3,200 years before present, correlative to the end of the AHP.[750] The harbour porpoise declined in the Mediterranean due to a switch to oligotrophic conditions as discharge from African rivers decreased.[501] Desert varnish formed on exposed rocks in the Sahara.[751]
Global climate
The shrinkage of subtropical wetlands probably led to a drop in atmospheric methane concentrations between 5,500 and 5,000 years ago, before boreal wetlands expanded and offset the loss of subtropical wetlands, leading to a return of higher atmospheric methane concentrations.[573] Conversely, increases in atmospheric methane concentrations, detected in Greenland ice cores about 14,700 years ago,[100] and atmospheric carbon dioxide decreases in the early Holocene may relate to the vegetation expansion caused by the AHP.[752] Carbon dioxide concentration then increased after about 7,000 years as the biosphere began releasing carbon in response to increasing aridity.[729]
A sudden increase in the amount of land-originating dust in an oceanic drill core off Cape Blanc, Mauritania, has been interpreted as reflecting the end of the AHP 5,500 years ago occurring in only a few centuries.[753] Potentially, dried up lake basins became an important source for dust[648][120] and silt-sized particles.[754] Today, the Sahara is the single largest source of dust in the world, with far ranging effects on climate and ecosystems,[755] such as the growth of the Amazon rainforest.[756]
In one climate model, the desertification of the Sahara at the end of the AHP reduces the amount of heat transported in the atmosphere and ocean towards the poles, inducing cooling of 1–2 °C (1.8–3.6 °F) especially in winter in the Arctic and an expansion of sea ice. Reconstructed temperatures in the Arctic indeed show a cooling, although less pronounced than in the climate model.[757] Further, this climate transition in the climate model is accompanied by increased negative Arctic Oscillation states, a weaker subpolar gyre and increased precipitation and cold air outbreaks in much of Europe; such changes have also been observed in paleoclimate data.[758] These findings imply that the vegetation state of the Sahara influences the Northern Hemisphere climate.[759] In turn, this high latitude cooling may have further reduced precipitation over Africa.[687]
Современная ситуация
Presently, the African Monsoon still influences the climate between 5° south and 25° north latitude; the latitudes around 10° north receive the bulk of their precipitation from the monsoon[y] during summer, with smaller amounts of rainfall occurring farther north. Thus farther north deserts can be found while the moister areas are vegetated.[131] In the Central Sahara, annual precipitation reaches no more than 50–100 millimetres per year (2.0–3.9 in/year).[761] Even farther north, the margin of the desert coincides with the area where the westerlies bring precipitation;[2] they also influence southernmost Africa.[762] Subsidence of air over parts of Northern Africa is responsible for the existence of deserts, which is further increased by the radiative cooling over the desert.[1] Climate variability exists to this day, with the Sahel suffering from droughts in the 1970s and 1980s when precipitation decreased by 30% and the flow of the Niger River and Senegal River even more,[763] followed by an increase of precipitation.[1] The droughts are one of the most significant climate anomalies of the 20th century.[764] Sea surface temperatures and feedbacks from land surface conditions modulate the strength of the monsoon[765] and the droughts may have been triggered by sea surface temperature changes forced by anthropogenic aerosols.[532] A large increase in dust fluxes after 1800 AD has been explained with changed agricultural practices.[766]
In East Africa the monsoon leads to two rain seasons in the equatorial area, the so-called "long rains" in March–May and the "short rains" in October–November[767] when the ITCZ moves northward and southward over the region, respectively;[768] in addition to the Indian Ocean-sourced precipitation there is also Atlantic[z]- and Congo-sourced precipitation west of the Congo Air Boundary.[760][767] In Arabia, the monsoon does not penetrate far from the Arabian Sea and some areas are under the influence of winter precipitation brought by cyclones from the Mediterranean Sea.[769] East Africa is also under the influence of monsoon circulations.[770]
Последствия для будущего глобального потепления
Some simulations of global warming and increased carbon dioxide concentrations have shown a substantial increase in precipitation in the Sahel/Sahara.[128] This and the increased plant growth directly induced by carbon dioxide[765] could lead to an expansion of vegetation into present-day desert, although it would be less extensive than during the mid-Holocene[128] and perhaps accompanied by a northward shift of the desert, i.e. a drying of northernmost Africa.[771] Such a precipitation increase may also reduce the amount of dust originating in Northern Africa,[772] with effects on hurricane activity in the Atlantic and increased threats of hurricane strikes in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico and the East Coast of the United States of America.[533]
The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C and the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report indicate that global warming will likely result in increased precipitation across most of East Africa, parts of Central Africa and the principal wet season of West Africa, although there is significant uncertainty related to these projections especially for West Africa.[773] In addition, the end of the 20th century drying trend may be due to global warming.[774] On the other hand, West Africa[775] and parts of East Africa may become drier during given seasons and months.[775][774] Currently, the Sahel is becoming greener but precipitation has not fully recovered to levels reached in the mid-20th century.[771]
Climate models have yielded equivocal results about the effects of anthropogenic global warming on the Sahara/Sahel precipitation. Human-caused climate change occurs through different mechanisms than the natural climate change that led to the AHP,[776] in particular through increased inter-hemispheric temperature gradients.[532] The direct effect of heat on plants may be detrimental.[777] Non-linear increases in vegetation cover are also possible.[532] One study in 2003 showed that vegetation intrusions in the Sahara can occur within decades after strong rises in atmospheric carbon dioxide[778] but would not cover more than about 45% of the Sahara.[41] That climate study also indicated that vegetation expansion can only occur if grazing or other perturbations to vegetation growth do not hamper it.[779] On the other hand, increased irrigation and other measures to increase vegetation growth such as the Great Green Wall could enhance it.[777]
Plans to geoengineer the Sahara to increase its vegetation cover and precipitation have been proposed since the 19th century.[777] The mechanisms and consequences of the AHP are important context to evaluate such proposals and their ramifications;[765] precipitation may increase[777] but the consumption of carbon dioxide would be small and there could be detrimental impacts on climate and dust fluxes in the far-field.[780] Building large solar farms in the Sahara desert would also act to decrease its albedo and may trigger similar climate responses.[781]
A greening of the Sahara on the one hand may allow agriculture and pastoralism to expand into hitherto unsuitable areas, but increased precipitation can also lead to increased water borne diseases and flooding.[782] Expanded human activity resulting from a wetter climate may be vulnerable to climate reversals as demonstrated by the droughts that followed the mid-20th century wet period.[783]
Смотрите также
- Sahara pump theory
Заметки
- ^ Other terms that have been applied to the Holocene AHP or correlative climate phases are "Holocene humid period", which also covers an analogous episode in Arabia and Asia;[22] "Holocene Pluvial";[23] "Holocene Wet Phase";[24] "Kibangien A" in Central Africa;[25] "Makalian" for the Neolithic period of northern Sudan;[26] "Nabtian Wet Phase"[27] or "Nabtian period" for the 14,000–6,000 humid period over the Eastern Mediterranean and Levant;[28] "Neolithic pluvial";[29] "Neolithic Subpluvial";[24] "Nouakchottien" of the Western Sahara 6,500 – 4,000 years before present;[30] and "Tchadien" in the Central Sahara 14,000 – 7,500 years before present.[30]
- ^ The terms "Léopoldvillien"[31] and Ogolien have been applied to the dry period in the last glacial maximum,[32] the latter is equivalent to the "Kanemian";[33] "Kanemian dry period" refers to a dry period between 20,000–13,000 years before present in the Lake Chad area.[34]
- ^ The hypsithermal, which coincides with the AHP,[42] has been recorded from Arabia,[43] the Caribbean[44] and the Mediterranean.[45] At Lake Ashenge, the onset of the AHP was accompanied by climatic warming[46] while in Senegal, temperatures during the AHP were 1 °C (1.8 °F) lower than today there.[47]
- ^ Active dunes also formed in Arabia, Israel[68] and the exposed seafloor of the Persian Gulf[69] where dust generation increased.[59]
- ^ Dune-covered areas.[83]
- ^ However, some lakes persisted in areas where colder temperatures had decreased evaporation.[33]
- ^ Earlier it was thought that it had started about 9,000 years ago, before it was found that it probably began earlier and was interrupted by the Younger Dryas;[61] the older hypothesis has not been entirely abandoned.[102] Some lake level curves indicate a stepwise increase of lake levels 15,000 ± 500 and 11,500–10,800 years ago, before and after the Younger Dryas.[103]
- ^ Whether it commenced first in the eastern Sahara is unclear.[104]
- ^ This was originally believed to have occurred 7,000 or 13,000 years before present,[101] but a more recent suggestion indicates a reconnection of the Nile 14,000–15,000 years ago.[111]
- ^ Lake Megachad is an expanded Lake Chad[138] which had a size comparable to the Caspian Sea[139] which is today's largest lake.[140]
- ^ The Congo Air Boundary is the point at which moisture bearing winds from the Indian Ocean collide with those from the Atlantic Ocean.[160]
- ^ In the Caribbean, a wet period has been identified in the mid-Holocene which correlated with the African wet period and was preceded and followed by drier conditions.[44]
- ^ Where the Monsoon of South Asia penetrated farther inland[13] and was more intense starting about 14,800 years ago.[96]
- ^ Salt deposits left there were mined beginning in the 16th century.[274]
- ^ Both Bir Kiseiba and Nabta Playa feature archeological sites;[286] Nabta may have been a religious centre of regional importance.[287]
- ^ Fesselsteine are stony artifacts, that are interpreted as tools for restraining animals.[350]
- ^ In the form of calcretes, "lake chalks", rhizoliths, travertines and tufa.[374]
- ^ Local runoff contributed to the filling of the Fayum Depression.[179]
- ^ Also known as the Yellow Nile[417]
- ^ A lake level drop 8,000 years ago has been related to the northward movement of the rainbelt.[474]
- ^ There is conflicting evidence on whether the Younger Dryas was wetter or drier in tropical southeastern Africa.[561]
- ^ Whether it also took place in Asia is unclear; perhaps it was too short to trigger climate changes recognizable in records[569] but some evidence has been found.[570]
- ^ At the time of the Gerzeh culture[719]
- ^ The Dahomey Gap is a region without forests in southern Benin, Ghana and Togo[749] that forms a gap in the Guineo-Congolian forest belt.[641]
- ^ The main area of monsoon rains does not coincide with the ITCZ.[760]
- ^ The Atlantic Ocean is also the source of monsoon rainfall for the Sahel.[3]
Рекомендации
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Bader, Jürgen; Dallmeyer, Anne; Claussen, Martin (29 March 2017). "Theory and Modeling of the African Humid Period and the Green Sahara". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Climate Science. 1. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.532.
- ^ a b c Hoelzmann & Holmes 2017, p. 3.
- ^ a b c d McCool 2019, p. 5.
- ^ a b Dawelbeit, Jaillard & Eisawi 2019, p. 12.
- ^ Wendorf, Karlén & Schild 2007, p. 190.
- ^ Timm et al. 2010, p. 2612.
- ^ Hoelzmann et al. 2001, p. 193.
- ^ Chandan & Peltier 2020, p. 1.
- ^ a b c d Stivers et al. 2008, p. 2.
- ^ a b c Watrin, Lézine & Hély 2009, p. 657.
- ^ Chandan & Peltier 2020, p. 2.
- ^ Lézine, Duplessy & Cazet 2005, p. 227.
- ^ a b c Junginger et al. 2014, p. 1.
- ^ a b c d e f Skinner & Poulsen 2016, p. 349.
- ^ Hopcroft et al. 2017, p. 6805.
- ^ a b c d e f Menocal et al. 2000, p. 348.
- ^ a b c d e Peck et al. 2015, p. 140.
- ^ Hoelzmann & Holmes 2017, p. 11.
- ^ a b Krüger et al. 2017, p. 1.
- ^ Sangen 2012, p. 144.
- ^ Médail et al. 2013, p. 1.
- ^ a b Lézine et al. 2017, p. 68.
- ^ a b c Runge 2013, p. 81.
- ^ a b Olsen 2017, p. 90.
- ^ a b c d Sangen 2012, p. 213.
- ^ Spinage 2012, p. 71.
- ^ Said 1993, p. 128.
- ^ Revel et al. 2010, p. 1357.
- ^ Brass, Michael (1 March 2018). "Early North African Cattle Domestication and Its Ecological Setting: A Reassessment". Journal of World Prehistory. 31 (1): 86. doi:10.1007/s10963-017-9112-9. ISSN 1573-7802.
- ^ a b Baumhauer & Runge 2009, p. 10.
- ^ a b Sangen 2012, p. 211.
- ^ Soriano et al. 2009, p. 2.
- ^ a b Pachur & Altmann 2006, p. 32.
- ^ Sepulchre et al. 2008, p. 42.
- ^ a b Garcea, Elena A.A. (2020). The Prehistory of the Sudan. SpringerBriefs in Archaeology. Cham: Springer International Publishing. p. 10. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-47185-9. ISBN 978-3-030-47187-3.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Menocal et al. 2000, p. 347.
- ^ a b Quade et al. 2018, p. 1.
- ^ a b c d e f g Costa et al. 2014, p. 58.
- ^ a b McGee & deMenocal 2017, p. 3.
- ^ Blanchet et al. 2013, p. 98.
- ^ a b c Petoukhov et al. 2003, p. 99.
- ^ a b Badino, Federica; Ravazzi, Cesare; Vallè, Francesca; Pini, Roberta; Aceti, Amelia; Brunetti, Michele; Champvillair, Elena; Maggi, Valter; Maspero, Francesco; Perego, Renata; Orombelli, Giuseppe (April 2018). "8800 years of high-altitude vegetation and climate history at the Rutor Glacier forefield, Italian Alps. Evidence of middle Holocene timberline rise and glacier contraction". Quaternary Science Reviews. 185: 41. Bibcode:2018QSRv..185...41B. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.01.022. ISSN 0277-3791.
- ^ a b Vahrenholt & Lüning 2019, p. 507.
- ^ a b Greer, Lisa; Swart, Peter K. (2006). "Decadal cyclicity of regional mid-Holocene precipitation: Evidence from Dominican coral proxies". Paleoceanography. 21 (2): 2. Bibcode:2006PalOc..21.2020G. doi:10.1029/2005PA001166. ISSN 1944-9186. S2CID 17357948.
- ^ a b Sbaffi, Laura; Wezel, Forese Carlo; Curzi, Giuseppe; Zoppi, Ugo (January 2004). "Millennial- to centennial-scale palaeoclimatic variations during Termination I and the Holocene in the central Mediterranean Sea". Global and Planetary Change. 40 (1–2): 203. Bibcode:2004GPC....40..201S. doi:10.1016/S0921-8181(03)00111-5. ISSN 0921-8181.
- ^ Marshall et al. 2009, p. 124.
- ^ Rolandone, F.; Lucazeau, F. (20 August 2012). "Heat-flow and subsurface temperature history at the site of Saraya (eastern Senegal)". Solid Earth. 3 (2): 216. Bibcode:2012SolE....3..213L. doi:10.5194/se-3-213-2012. ISSN 1869-9510.
- ^ a b c d Liu et al. 2017, p. 123.
- ^ Chiotis 2018, p. 17.
- ^ Chiotis 2018, p. 20.
- ^ a b Röhl et al. 2008, p. 671.
- ^ a b c Zerboni, Trombino & Cremaschi 2011, p. 331.
- ^ Jones & Stewart 2016, p. 126.
- ^ Krüger et al. 2017, pp. 12–13.
- ^ Jones & Stewart 2016, p. 117.
- ^ Timm et al. 2010, p. 2627.
- ^ Hoelzmann & Holmes 2017, p. 10.
- ^ a b Runge 2013, p. 65.
- ^ a b Petraglia & Rose 2010, p. 45.
- ^ a b c d Blümel 2002, p. 8.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Adkins, Menocal & Eshel 2006, p. 1.
- ^ a b c Schefuß et al. 2017, p. 2.
- ^ Coutros 2019, p. 4.
- ^ Brooks et al. 2007, p. 255.
- ^ a b Williams et al. 2010, p. 1131.
- ^ Riemer 2006, pp. 554–555.
- ^ a b Baumhauer & Runge 2009, p. 28.
- ^ a b c Muhs et al. 2013, p. 29.
- ^ Kennett & Kennett 2007, p. 235.
- ^ a b Pachur & Altmann 2006, p. 6.
- ^ a b Brooks et al. 2007, pp. 258–259.
- ^ Petraglia & Rose 2010, p. 197.
- ^ Heine 2019, p. 514.
- ^ Sangen 2012, p. 212.
- ^ Krüger et al. 2017, p. 14.
- ^ Haslett & Davies 2006, p. 43.
- ^ a b c Bard 2013, p. 808.
- ^ a b Williams et al. 2010, p. 1129.
- ^ Morrissey & Scholz 2014, p. 95.
- ^ a b Williams et al. 2010, p. 1134.
- ^ a b Castañeda et al. 2016, p. 54.
- ^ a b Runge 2010, p. 237.
- ^ Perego, Zerboni & Cremaschi 2011, p. 465.
- ^ Muhs et al. 2013, pp. 42, 44.
- ^ Gasse 2000, p. 195.
- ^ a b c Coutros 2019, p. 5.
- ^ a b Brookes 2003, p. 164.
- ^ Maley 2000, p. 133.
- ^ Runge 2010, p. 234.
- ^ Maley 2000, p. 122.
- ^ a b Zerboni & Gatto 2015, p. 307.
- ^ Maley 2000, p. 127.
- ^ Moeyersons et al. 2006, p. 166.
- ^ Pachur & Altmann 2006, p. 11.
- ^ Pachur & Altmann 2006, p. 601.
- ^ a b c Junginger et al. 2014, p. 12.
- ^ Talbot et al. 2007, p. 4.
- ^ a b c d e f g Williams et al. 2010, p. 1132.
- ^ Hughes, Fenton & Gibbard 2011, pp. 1066–1068.
- ^ a b c d Menocal et al. 2000, p. 354.
- ^ a b c Williams et al. 2006, p. 2652.
- ^ a b Reid et al. 2019, p. 9.
- ^ Battarbee, Gasse & Stickley 2004, p. 242.
- ^ a b c Bendaoud et al. 2019, p. 528.
- ^ a b c d e Peck et al. 2015, p. 142.
- ^ Stokes, Martin; Gomes, Alberto; Carracedo-Plumed, Ana; Stuart, Fin (2019). Alluvial Fans And Their Relationship To African Humid Period Climate Dynamics. 20th Congress of the International Union for Quaternary Research (INQUA).
- ^ a b c Castilla-Beltrán, Alvaro; de Nascimento, Lea; Fernández-Palacios, José María; Fonville, Thierry; Whittaker, Robert J.; Edwards, Mary; Nogué, Sandra (15 June 2019). "Late Holocene environmental change and the anthropization of the highlands of Santo Antão Island, Cabo Verde". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 524: 104. Bibcode:2019PPP...524..101C. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2019.03.033. ISSN 0031-0182.
- ^ a b c d Petraglia & Rose 2010, p. 46.
- ^ Neugebauer, Ina; Wulf, Sabine; Schwab, Markus J.; Serb, Johanna; Plessen, Birgit; Appelt, Oona; Brauer, Achim (August 2017). "Implications of S1 tephra findings in Dead Sea and Tayma palaeolake sediments for marine reservoir age estimation and palaeoclimate synchronisation". Quaternary Science Reviews. 170: 274. Bibcode:2017QSRv..170..269N. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.06.020. ISSN 0277-3791.
- ^ Williams et al. 2010, p. 1127.
- ^ Williams et al. 2006, p. 2664.
- ^ Blanchet, Contoux & Leduc 2015, p. 225.
- ^ a b Hamdan & Brook 2015, p. 184.
- ^ a b Kuper 2006, p. 412.
- ^ a b c Revel et al. 2010, p. 1358.
- ^ Barker et al. 2002, p. 302.
- ^ Moeyersons et al. 2006, p. 177.
- ^ Gasse 2000, p. 203.
- ^ a b Guilderson et al. 2001, p. 196.
- ^ a b Marshall et al. 2009, p. 125.
- ^ a b c d e f Burrough & Thomas 2013, p. 29.
- ^ Vermeersch, Linseele & Marinova 2008, p. 395.
- ^ Röhl et al. 2008, p. 673.
- ^ Mercuri et al. 2018, p. 219.
- ^ Baumhauer 2004, p. 290.
- ^ Menocal et al. 2000, p. 356.
- ^ a b c Renssen et al. 2003, p. 1.
- ^ a b c Renssen et al. 2003, p. 4.
- ^ Shi & Liu 2009, p. 3721.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Menocal 2015, p. 1.
- ^ a b c d e f Hély et al. 2009, p. 672.
- ^ a b Shi & Liu 2009, p. 3722.
- ^ a b c d Tierney et al. 2011, p. 103.
- ^ a b c Renssen et al. 2006, p. 95.
- ^ a b Phelps et al. 2020, p. 1119.
- ^ Shi & Liu 2009, pp. 3720–3721.
- ^ Shi & Liu 2009, p. 3723.
- ^ a b Armitage, Bristow & Drake 2015, p. 8543.
- ^ a b c Beer et al. 2002, p. 591.
- ^ Martin, Damodaran & D'Souza 2019, p. 53.
- ^ a b Thompson et al. 2019, p. 3917.
- ^ Battarbee, Gasse & Stickley 2004, p. 243.
- ^ a b c d e f Timm et al. 2010, p. 2613.
- ^ a b Donnelly et al. 2017, p. 6222.
- ^ a b Gaetani et al. 2017, p. 7622.
- ^ Thompson et al. 2019, p. 3918.
- ^ a b c Sha et al. 2019, p. 6.
- ^ Chandan & Peltier 2020, p. 9.
- ^ Thompson et al. 2019, p. 3923.
- ^ Servant, Buchet & Vincens 2010, p. 290.
- ^ a b Menocal et al. 2000, p. 357.
- ^ Heine 2019, p. 45.
- ^ a b The Hadley circulation : present, past and future. Advances in Global Change Research. 21. Kluwer academic Publishers. 2004. p. 339. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-2944-8. ISBN 978-1-4020-2944-8.
- ^ a b Tierney et al. 2011, p. 110.
- ^ Cohen et al. 2008, p. 254.
- ^ a b c Vahrenholt & Lüning 2019, p. 529.
- ^ Burrough & Thomas 2013, pp. 29–30.
- ^ Tierney et al. 2011, p. 109.
- ^ a b c Wang et al. 2019, p. 150.
- ^ a b c d Burrough & Thomas 2013, p. 30.
- ^ a b c Junginger et al. 2014, p. 13.
- ^ Costa et al. 2014, p. 64.
- ^ a b c Costa et al. 2014, p. 59.
- ^ Castañeda et al. 2016, p. 53.
- ^ a b Liu et al. 2017, p. 130.
- ^ Reid et al. 2019, p. 10.
- ^ Yang, Deming; Uno, Kevin T.; Souron, Antoine; McGrath, Kate; Pubert, Éric; Cerling, Thure E. (5 November 2020). "Intra-tooth stable isotope profiles in warthog canines and third molars: Implications for paleoenvironmental reconstructions". Chemical Geology. 554: 11–12. Bibcode:2020ChGeo.554k9799Y. doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2020.119799. ISSN 0009-2541.
- ^ a b Reid et al. 2019, p. 1.
- ^ a b Liu et al. 2017, p. 131.
- ^ Johnson, Thomas C.; Werne, Josef P.; Castañeda, Isla S. (1 September 2007). "Wet and arid phases in the southeast African tropics since the Last Glacial Maximum". Geology. 35 (9): 825. Bibcode:2007Geo....35..823C. doi:10.1130/G23916A.1. ISSN 0091-7613.
- ^ Hoelzmann & Holmes 2017, p. 31.
- ^ Barker et al. 2002, p. 295.
- ^ Barker et al. 2002, p. 296.
- ^ a b Timm et al. 2010, p. 2629.
- ^ a b Hoelzmann & Holmes 2017, p. 26.
- ^ a b Hamdan & Brook 2015, p. 185.
- ^ Phillipps et al. 2012, p. 72.
- ^ Petit-Maire 1989, p. 648.
- ^ a b Hamdan et al. 2020, p. 468.
- ^ a b Williams et al. 2010, p. 1133.
- ^ Baumhauer & Runge 2009, p. 6.
- ^ Prasad & Negendank 2004, pp. 219–220.
- ^ Linstädter & Kröpelin 2004, p. 763.
- ^ Marks, Leszek; Welc, Fabian; Milecka, Krystyna; Zalat, Abdelfattah; Chen, Zhongyuan; Majecka, Aleksandra; Nitychoruk, Jerzy; Salem, Alaa; Sun, Qianli; Szymanek, Marcin; Gałecka, Izabela; Tołoczko-Pasek, Anna (15 August 2019). "Cyclonic activity over northeastern Africa at 8.5–6.7 cal kyr B.P., based on lacustrine records in the Faiyum Oasis, Egypt". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 528: 121. Bibcode:2019PPP...528..120M. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2019.04.032. ISSN 0031-0182.
- ^ Skinner & Poulsen 2016, pp. 355–356.
- ^ a b c d e f g Bowman, D.; Nyamweru, C. K. (1 January 1989). "Climatic changes in the Chalbi Desert, North Kenya". Journal of Quaternary Science. 4 (2): 137. Bibcode:1989JQS.....4..131N. doi:10.1002/jqs.3390040204. ISSN 1099-1417.
- ^ Pachur & Altmann 2006, p. 276.
- ^ a b Reimer et al. 2010, p. 42.
- ^ a b c d Schefuß et al. 2017, p. 7.
- ^ Pachur & Altmann 2006, p. 556.
- ^ Heine 2019, p. 518.
- ^ Schefuß et al. 2017, p. 3.
- ^ Hoelzmann & Holmes 2017, pp. 25–26.
- ^ a b c Schefuß et al. 2017, p. 5.
- ^ Mercuri et al. 2018, p. 225.
- ^ a b Prasad & Negendank 2004, p. 221.
- ^ a b Hopcroft et al. 2017, p. 6804.
- ^ Dixit et al. 2018, p. 234.
- ^ Bendaoud et al. 2019, p. 529.
- ^ Pachur & Altmann 2006, p. 9.
- ^ Dixit et al. 2018, p. 247.
- ^ a b Russell & Ivory 2018, p. 1.
- ^ a b c Huang et al. 2008, p. 1459.
- ^ a b c Engel et al. 2012, p. 131.
- ^ a b Piao et al. 2020, p. 1.
- ^ Heine 2019, p. 586.
- ^ He, Wei; Liu, Jianguo; Huang, Yun; Cao, Li (2020). "Sea Level Change Controlled the Sedimentary Processes at the Makran Continental Margin Over the Past 13,000 yr". Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 125 (3): 9. Bibcode:2020JGRC..12515703H. doi:10.1029/2019JC015703. ISSN 2169-9291.
- ^ Hiner, Christine A.; Silveira, Emily; Arevalo, Andrea; Murrieta, Rosa; Lucero, Ricardo; Eeg, Holly; Palermo, Jennifer; Lachniet, Matthew S.; Anderson, William T.; Knell, Edward J.; Kirby, Matthew E. (2015). "Evidence for insolation and Pacific forcing of late glacial through Holocene climate in the Central Mojave Desert (Silver Lake, CA)". Quaternary Research. 84 (2): 9. Bibcode:2015QuRes..84..174K. doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2015.07.003. ISSN 1096-0287.
- ^ Huang et al. 2008, p. 1461.
- ^ a b Flögel, S.; Beckmann, B.; Hofmann, P.; Bornemann, A.; Westerhold, T.; Norris, R.D.; Dullo, C.; Wagner, T. (September 2008). "Evolution of tropical watersheds and continental hydrology during the Late Cretaceous greenhouse; impact on marine carbon burial and possible implications for the future". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 274 (1–2): 10. Bibcode:2008E&PSL.274....1F. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2008.06.011. ISSN 0012-821X.
- ^ a b c d e f Usai, Donatella (2 June 2016). A Picture of Prehistoric Sudan. 1. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935413.013.56.
- ^ Liu et al. 2017, p. 127.
- ^ Coussin, Vincent; Penaud, Aurelie; Combourieu-Nebout, Nathalie; Peyron, Odile; Miras, Yannick; Sicre, Marie-Alexandrine; Babonneau, Nathalie; Cattaneo, Antonio (1 May 2020). Holocene Paleoenvironments in the Western Mediterranean Sea: palynological evidences on the Algerian coast and climatic reconstructions. 22nd EGU General Assembly. Egu General Assembly Conference Abstracts. 22. p. 17688. Bibcode:2020EGUGA..2217688C.
- ^ a b Wu et al. 2017, p. 95.
- ^ a b Stojanowski, Carver & Miller 2014, p. 80.
- ^ Chiotis 2018, p. 187.
- ^ a b c d Phelps et al. 2020, p. 1120.
- ^ a b Bristow et al. 2018, p. 182.
- ^ Hély et al. 2009, p. 685.
- ^ Sylvestre et al. 2013, p. 224 (lower estimate).
- ^ Lézine 2017, p. 4 (upper estimate).
- ^ a b Baumhauer 2004, p. 291.
- ^ Watrin, Lézine & Hély 2009, p. 663.
- ^ Castañeda, Isla S.; Mulitza, Stefan; Schefuß, Enno; Santos, Raquel A. Lopes dos; Damsté, Jaap S. Sinninghe; Schouten, Stefan (1 December 2009). "Wet phases in the Sahara/Sahel region and human migration patterns in North Africa". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (48): 20160. Bibcode:2009PNAS..10620159C. doi:10.1073/pnas.0905771106. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 2776605. PMID 19910531.
- ^ Ruan, Y.; Mohtadi, M.; Dupont, L. M.; Hebbeln, D.; Kaars, S.; Hopmans, E. C.; Schouten, S.; Hyer, E. J.; Schefuß, E. (November 2020). "Interaction of Fire, Vegetation, and Climate in Tropical Ecosystems: A Multiproxy Study Over the Past 22,000 Years". Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 34 (11): 11. Bibcode:2020GBioC..3406677R. doi:10.1029/2020GB006677.
- ^ Watrin, Lézine & Hély 2009, p. 668.
- ^ Lézine 2017, p. 5.
- ^ Watrin, Lézine & Hély 2009, p. 667.
- ^ Ewédjè, Eben-Ezer Baba Kayode; Jansen, Simon; Koffi, Guillaume Kouame; Staquet, Adrien; Piñeiro, Rosalia; Essaba, Rodolphe Abessole; Obiang, Nestor Laurier Engone; Daïnou, Kasso; Biwolé, Achille Bernand; Doucet, Jean-Louis; Hardy, Olivier J. (June 2020). "Species delimitation in the African tree genus Lophira (Ochnaceae) reveals cryptic genetic variation" (PDF). Conservation Genetics. 21 (3): 502. doi:10.1007/s10592-020-01265-7. S2CID 212732469.
- ^ a b Sochor, M.; Manning, J. C.; Šarhanová, P.; van Herwijnen, Z.; Lebeda, A.; Doležalová, I. (1 August 2020). "Lactuca dregeana DC. (Asteraceae: Chicorieae) – A South African crop relative under threat from hybridization and climate change". South African Journal of Botany. 132: 153. doi:10.1016/j.sajb.2020.04.012. ISSN 0254-6299.
- ^ Linstädter & Kröpelin 2004, p. 762.
- ^ Brookes 2003, p. 163.
- ^ a b White et al. 2011, p. 458.
- ^ a b Sha et al. 2019, p. 2.
- ^ Prasad & Negendank 2004, p. 225.
- ^ a b c White et al. 2011, p. 460.
- ^ Hopcroft et al. 2017, p. 6808.
- ^ a b Cole et al. 2009, p. 257.
- ^ a b Neer et al. 2020, pp. 18–19.
- ^ a b c d Stivers et al. 2008, p. 4.
- ^ a b c Neer et al. 2020, p. 23.
- ^ a b Stivers et al. 2008, p. 11.
- ^ a b Neer et al. 2020, pp. 16–17.
- ^ a b c d Metcalfe & Nash 2012, p. 100.
- ^ a b c Neer et al. 2020, p. 15.
- ^ a b Petit-Maire 1989, p. 641.
- ^ a b c Mercuri et al. 2018, p. 221.
- ^ Neer et al. 2020, p. 16.
- ^ Pachur & Altmann 2006, p. 528.
- ^ Gross et al. 2014, p. 14472.
- ^ Neer et al. 2020, p. 17.
- ^ Blanchet, Contoux & Leduc 2015, p. 222.
- ^ Cooper, Alan; Llamas, Bastien; Breen, James; Burns, James A.; Kosintsev, Pavel; Jahren, A. Hope; Shute, Elen; Zazula, Grant D.; Wooller, Matthew J.; Rabanus-Wallace, M. Timothy (May 2017). "Megafaunal isotopes reveal role of increased moisture on rangeland during late Pleistocene extinctions". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 1 (5): 4. doi:10.1038/s41559-017-0125. ISSN 2397-334X. PMID 28812683. S2CID 4473573.
- ^ Mouline, Karine; Granjon, Laurent; Galan, Maxime; Tatard, Caroline; Abdoullaye, Doukary; Atteyine, Solimane Ag; Duplantier, Jean-Marc; Cosson, Jean-François (2008). "Phylogeography of a Sahelian rodent species Mastomys huberti: a Plio-Pleistocene story of emergence and colonization of humid habitats". Molecular Ecology. 17 (4): 1036–1053. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03610.x. ISSN 1365-294X. PMID 18261047. S2CID 24332384.
- ^ Bard 2013, p. 809.
- ^ a b c d e Bristow et al. 2018, p. 183.
- ^ Armitage, Bristow & Drake 2015, p. 8544.
- ^ a b Drake & Bristow 2006, p. 906.
- ^ Sepulchre et al. 2008, p. 43.
- ^ Pachur & Altmann 2006, p. 26.
- ^ Jewell, Amy M.; Drake, Nick; Crocker, Anya J.; Bakker, Natalie L.; Kunkelova, Tereza; Bristow, Charlie S.; Cooper, Matthew J.; Milton, J. Andrew; Breeze, Paul S.; Wilson, Paul A. (15 January 2021). "Three North African dust source areas and their geochemical fingerprint". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 554: 8. Bibcode:2021E&PSL.55416645J. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2020.116645. ISSN 0012-821X.
- ^ a b Sylvestre et al. 2013, pp. 232–233.
- ^ a b Heine 2019, p. 515.
- ^ Pachur & Altmann 2006, p. 23.
- ^ Runge 2010, p. 239.
- ^ Lézine, Duplessy & Cazet 2005, p. 234.
- ^ Martin, Damodaran & D'Souza 2019, p. 102.
- ^ a b Quade et al. 2018, p. 2.
- ^ a b Runge 2010, p. 238.
- ^ a b Duringer, Philippe; Marsaleix, Patrick; Moussa, Abderamane; Roquin, Claude; Denamiel, Cléa; Ghienne, Jean-François; Schuster, Mathieu; Bouchette, Frédéric (2010). "Hydrodynamics in Holocene Lake Mega-Chad". Quaternary Research. 73 (2): 226. Bibcode:2010QuRes..73..226B. doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2009.10.010. ISSN 1096-0287.
- ^ Quade et al. 2018, p. 19.
- ^ Pachur & Altmann 2006, p. 83.
- ^ Vahrenholt & Lüning 2019, pp. 518–519.
- ^ Petit-Maire 1989, p. 645.
- ^ Wendorf, Karlén & Schild 2007, p. 196.
- ^ a b Hillaire-Marcel, Claude; Casanova, Joël; Lézine, Anne-Marie (1 March 1990). "Across an early Holocene humid phase in western Sahara:Pollen and isotope stratigraphy". Geology. 18 (3): 264. Bibcode:1990Geo....18..264L. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1990)018<0264:AAEHHP>2.3.CO;2. ISSN 0091-7613.
- ^ Gasse 2000, p. 204.
- ^ a b Gasse & Van Campo 1994, p. 447.
- ^ Baumhauer & Runge 2009, p. 152.
- ^ a b Pachur & Altmann 2006, p. 246.
- ^ Jahns 1995, p. 23.
- ^ a b c McCool 2019, p. 6.
- ^ Wendorf, Karlén & Schild 2007, p. 206.
- ^ McGee & deMenocal 2017, p. 11.
- ^ McGee & deMenocal 2017, p. 12.
- ^ a b Wendorf, Karlén & Schild 2007, pp. 206–207.
- ^ Wendorf, Karlén & Schild 2007, p. 215.
- ^ Wendorf, Karlén & Schild 2007, p. 216.
- ^ a b Bubenzer, Olaf; Bolten, Andreas (December 2008). "The use of new elevation data (SRTM/ASTER) for the detection and morphometric quantification of Pleistocene megadunes (draa) in the eastern Sahara and the southern Namib". Geomorphology. 102 (2): 225. Bibcode:2008Geomo.102..221B. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2008.05.003. ISSN 0169-555X.
- ^ Pachur & Altmann 2006, p. 80.
- ^ a b Heine 2019, p. 516.
- ^ Colin et al. 2020, p. 44.
- ^ a b Franz, Gerhard; Breitkreuz, Christoph; Coyle, David A.; El Hur, Bushra; Heinrich, Wilhelm; Paulick, Holger; Pudlo, Dieter; Smith, Robyn; Steiner, Gesine (August 1997). "The alkaline Meidob volcanic field (Late Cenozoic, northwest Sudan)". Journal of African Earth Sciences. 25 (2): 7. Bibcode:1997JAfES..25..263F. doi:10.1016/S0899-5362(97)00103-6. ISSN 1464-343X.
- ^ Wendorf, Karlén & Schild 2007, p. 204.
- ^ a b Lenhardt, Nils; Borah, Suranjana B.; Lenhardt, Sukanya Z.; Bumby, Adam J.; Ibinoof, Montasir A.; Salih, Salih A. (May 2018). "The monogenetic Bayuda Volcanic Field, Sudan – New insights into geology and volcanic morphology". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 356: 222. Bibcode:2018JVGR..356..211L. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2018.03.010. ISSN 0377-0273.
- ^ Armitage, S.J.; Pinder, R.C. (April 2017). "Testing the applicability of optically stimulated luminescence dating to Ocean Drilling Program cores". Quaternary Geochronology. 39: 125. doi:10.1016/j.quageo.2017.02.008. ISSN 1871-1014.
- ^ Heine 2019, p. 381.
- ^ a b Lecomte, Frédéric; Dodson, Julian J.; Guinand, Bruno; Durand, Jean-Dominique (9 October 2013). "Pelagic Life and Depth: Coastal Physical Features in West Africa Shape the Genetic Structure of the Bonga Shad, Ethmalosa fimbriata". PLOS ONE. 8 (10): 2. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...877483D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0077483. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3793960. PMID 24130890.
- ^ Lewin, John; Ashworth, Philip J.; Strick, Robert J. P. (February 2017). "Spillage sedimentation on large river floodplains: Spillage sedimentation on large river floodplains". Earth Surface Processes and Landforms. 42 (2): 301. doi:10.1002/esp.3996. S2CID 53535390.
- ^ a b c Wu et al. 2017, p. 96.
- ^ Ramos, Ramil & Sanz 2017, p. 95.
- ^ Bendaoud et al. 2019, p. 514.
- ^ Ramos, Ramil & Sanz 2017, p. 101.
- ^ Wu et al. 2017, p. 106.
- ^ a b c White et al. 2011, p. 459.
- ^ Quade et al. 2018, p. 18.
- ^ Kindermann & Classen 2010, p. 27.
- ^ Perego, Zerboni & Cremaschi 2011, p. 472.
- ^ a b Zerboni & Gatto 2015, p. 309.
- ^ Neer et al. 2020, p. 5.
- ^ Maley 2000, p. 125.
- ^ Drake & Bristow 2006, p. 909.
- ^ a b Neer et al. 2020, p. 28.
- ^ Sparavigna, Amelia Carolina (9 January 2013). "Neolithic Mounds of Tassili and Amguid in the Satellite Google Maps". Archaeogate. Social Science Research Network: 3. SSRN 2776906.
- ^ Zaki, Abdallah S.; King, Georgina E.; Haghipour, Negar; Herman, Frédéric; Giegengack, Robert; Schuster, Mathieu; Gupta, Sanjeev; Watkins, Stephen E.; Khairy, Hossam; Ahmed, Salah; Eltayeb, Saleh A.; El-wakil, Mostafa; Castelltort, Sébastien (1 May 2020). New palaeoclimate record from ancient river channels in the eastern Sahara: Implications for climate impact on human dispersals during the late Quaternary. 22nd EGU General Assembly. Egu General Assembly Conference Abstracts. 22. p. 12189. Bibcode:2020EGUGA..2212189Z.
- ^ a b c d e Maslin, Manning & Brierley 2018, p. 1.
- ^ a b c Lernia et al. 2017, p. 1.
- ^ Riemer 2006, p. 555.
- ^ a b Stojanowski, Carver & Miller 2014, pp. 80–82.
- ^ Coutros 2019, p. 6.
- ^ Mercuri, Anna Maria; Sadori, Laura (2014), Goffredo, Stefano; Dubinsky, Zvy (eds.), "Mediterranean Culture and Climatic Change: Past Patterns and Future Trends", The Mediterranean Sea, Springer Netherlands, p. 519, doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6704-1_30, ISBN 9789400767034
- ^ a b Cremaschi et al. 2010, p. 88.
- ^ a b Cremaschi et al. 2010, p. 91.
- ^ Lernia et al. 2013, p. 122.
- ^ Chiotis 2018, p. 16.
- ^ Hoelzmann et al. 2001, p. 210.
- ^ a b c d e Smith 2018, p. 243.
- ^ Phillipps et al. 2012, p. 71.
- ^ McCool 2019, p. 17.
- ^ White et al. 2011, pp. 460–461.
- ^ Tafuri et al. 2006, p. 390.
- ^ Riemer 2006, p. 556.
- ^ a b c Brooks et al. 2007, p. 260.
- ^ Phelps et al. 2020, p. 1121.
- ^ a b c Zerboni & Nicoll 2019, p. 24.
- ^ Lernia et al. 2012, pp. 391–392.
- ^ Lernia et al. 2013, p. 121.
- ^ Breunig, Neumann & Van Neer 1996, p. 116.
- ^ Breunig, Neumann & Van Neer 1996, p. 117.
- ^ McDonald, Mary M. A. (1 September 2020). "The Mid-Holocene bifacial projectile points from Dakhleh Oasis, Egypt: Implications concerning origins of the knapping tradition, changing hunting patterns, the local neolithic, and African cultural independence". Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 59: 6. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2020.101199. ISSN 0278-4165.
- ^ Lernia et al. 2013, pp. 123–124.
- ^ Stojanowski, Christopher M. (30 November 2018), "Persistence or Pastoralism: The Challenges of Studying Hunter-Gatherer Resilience in Africa", in Temple, Daniel H.; Stojanowski, Christopher M. (eds.), Hunter-Gatherer Adaptation and Resilience (1 ed.), Cambridge University Press, p. 195, doi:10.1017/9781316941256.009, ISBN 9781316941256, retrieved 22 July 2019
- ^ Lézine 2017, p. 3.
- ^ Lernia et al. 2017, p. 5.
- ^ Scarcelli, Nora; Cubry, Philippe; Akakpo, Roland; Thuillet, Anne-Céline; Obidiegwu, Jude; Baco, Mohamed N.; Otoo, Emmanuel; Sonké, Bonaventure; Dansi, Alexandre; Djedatin, Gustave; Mariac, Cédric; Couderc, Marie; Causse, Sandrine; Alix, Karine; Chaïr, Hâna; François, Olivier; Vigouroux, Yves (1 May 2019). "Yam genomics supports West Africa as a major cradle of crop domestication". Science Advances. 5 (5): 4. Bibcode:2019SciA....5.1947S. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aaw1947. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 6527260. PMID 31114806.
- ^ a b Lernia et al. 2012, p. 390.
- ^ Marinova, Margarita M.; Meckler, A. Nele; McKay, Christopher P. (January 2014). "Holocene freshwater carbonate structures in the hyper-arid Gebel Uweinat region of the Sahara Desert (Southwestern Egypt)". Journal of African Earth Sciences. 89: 54. Bibcode:2014JAfES..89...50M. doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2013.10.003. ISSN 1464-343X.
- ^ Olsen 2017, p. 107.
- ^ Olsen 2017, p. 93.
- ^ Pachur & Altmann 2006, p. 533.
- ^ Soriano et al. 2009, p. 8.
- ^ a b Grillo, Katherine M.; McKeeby, Zachary; Hildebrand, Elisabeth A. (12 November 2020). ""Nderit Ware" and the origins of pastoralist pottery in eastern Africa". Quaternary International: 2. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2020.06.032. ISSN 1040-6182.
- ^ a b c Cremaschi & Zerboni 2009, p. 690.
- ^ Pirie et al. 2009, p. 930.
- ^ Brooks et al. 2007, p. 259.
- ^ Calderón, Rosario; Pereira, Luisa; Baali, Abdellatif; Melhaoui, Mohammed; Oliveira, Marisa; Rito, Teresa; Rodríguez, Juan N.; Novelletto, Andrea; Dugoujon, Jean M.; Soares, Pedro; Hernández, Candela L. (28 October 2015). "Early Holocenic and Historic mtDNA African Signatures in the Iberian Peninsula: The Andalusian Region as a Paradigm". PLOS ONE. 10 (10): 16. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1039784H. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0139784. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4624789. PMID 26509580.
- ^ Haber, Marc; Mezzavilla, Massimo; Bergström, Anders; Prado-Martinez, Javier; Hallast, Pille; Saif-Ali, Riyadh; Al-Habori, Molham; Dedoussis, George; Zeggini, Eleftheria; Blue-Smith, Jason; Wells, R. Spencer; Xue, Yali; Zalloua, Pierre A.; Tyler-Smith, Chris (1 December 2016). "Chad Genetic Diversity Reveals an African History Marked by Multiple Holocene Eurasian Migrations". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 99 (6): 1316–1324. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2016.10.012. ISSN 0002-9297. PMC 5142112. PMID 27889059.
- ^ a b c Blümel 2002, p. 12.
- ^ Lancaster 2020, p. 116.
- ^ Martin, Damodaran & D'Souza 2019, p. 103.
- ^ Zerboni, Trombino & Cremaschi 2011, p. 321.
- ^ a b Zerboni, Trombino & Cremaschi 2011, p. 332.
- ^ Sponholz, Baumhauer & Felix-Henningsen 1993, pp. 97–98.
- ^ Baumhauer 2004, p. 296.
- ^ Kendall 2020, p. 182.
- ^ Heine 2019, p. 118.
- ^ Sponholz, Baumhauer & Felix-Henningsen 1993, p. 103.
- ^ Perego, Zerboni & Cremaschi 2011, p. 466.
- ^ Eggermont et al. 2008, p. 2411.
- ^ Cremaschi et al. 2010, p. 87.
- ^ Pachur & Altmann 2006, p. 153.
- ^ Bouchez, Camille; Deschamps, Pierre; Goncalves, Julio; Hamelin, Bruno; Mahamat Nour, Abdallah; Vallet-Coulomb, Christine; Sylvestre, Florence (16 May 2019). "Water transit time and active recharge in the Sahel inferred by bomb-produced 36 Cl". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 3. Bibcode:2019NatSR...9.7465B. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-43514-x. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 6522497. PMID 31097734.
- ^ a b Pachur & Altmann 2006, p. 2.
- ^ a b McCool 2019, p. 8.
- ^ Hély et al. 2009, p. 680.
- ^ Goudie, Andrew S.; Middleton, Nicholas J. (2006), "Quaternary Dust Loadings", Desert Dust in the Global System, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, p. 202, doi:10.1007/3-540-32355-4_9, ISBN 9783540323549
- ^ Muhs et al. 2013, p. 43.
- ^ a b Kohn, Marion; Steinke, Stephan; Baumann, Karl-Heinz; Donner, Barbara; Meggers, Helge; Zonneveld, Karin A.F. (March 2011). "Stable oxygen isotopes from the calcareous-walled dinoflagellate Thoracosphaera heimii as a proxy for changes in mixed layer temperatures off NW Africa during the last 45,000yr". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 302 (3–4): 319. Bibcode:2011PPP...302..311K. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2011.01.019. ISSN 0031-0182.
- ^ a b Zarriess, Michelle; Mackensen, Andreas (September 2010). "The tropical rainbelt and productivity changes off northwest Africa: A 31,000-year high-resolution record". Marine Micropaleontology. 76 (3–4): 87. Bibcode:2010MarMP..76...76Z. doi:10.1016/j.marmicro.2010.06.001. ISSN 0377-8398.
- ^ a b Haslett, Simon K.; Smart, Christopher W. (2006). "Late Quaternary upwelling off tropical NW Africa: new micropalaeontological evidence from ODP Hole 658C". Journal of Quaternary Science. 21 (3): 267. Bibcode:2006JQS....21..259H. doi:10.1002/jqs.970. ISSN 1099-1417.
- ^ a b Haslett & Davies 2006, p. 37.
- ^ Matter et al. 2016, p. 88.
- ^ Radies et al. 2005, p. 111.
- ^ a b Damme, Kay Van; Benda, Petr; Damme, Dirk Van; Geest, Peter De; Hajdas, Irka (26 August 2018). "The first vertebrate fossil from Socotra Island (Yemen) is an early Holocene Egyptian fruit bat". Journal of Natural History. 52 (31–32): 2017. doi:10.1080/00222933.2018.1510996. ISSN 0022-2933. S2CID 92040903.
- ^ Engel, Max; Rückmann, Stefanie; Drechsler, Philipp; Brill, Dominik; Opitz, Stephan; Fassbinder, Jörg W.; Pint, Anna; Peis, Kim; Wolf, Dennis; Gerber, Christoph; Pfeiffer, Kristina; Eichmann, Ricardo; Brückner, Helmut (9 January 2020). "Sediment-filled karst depressions and riyad – key archaeological environments of south Qatar". E&G Quaternary Science Journal. 68 (2): 229. Bibcode:2020EGQSJ..68..215E. doi:10.5194/egqsj-68-215-2020. ISSN 0424-7116.
- ^ Vahrenholt & Lüning 2019, p. 524.
- ^ a b Radies et al. 2005, p. 122.
- ^ Kocurek et al. 2020, p. 4.
- ^ a b Vahrenholt & Lüning 2019, p. 527.
- ^ a b Matter et al. 2016, p. 99.
- ^ Petraglia & Rose 2010, p. 28.
- ^ Matter et al. 2016, p. 89.
- ^ Kennett & Kennett 2007, p. 236.
- ^ Kocurek et al. 2020, p. 11.
- ^ Kendall 2020, p. 24.
- ^ Petraglia & Rose 2010, p. 219.
- ^ Vahrenholt & Lüning 2019, pp. 525–527.
- ^ a b c Lézine et al. 2010, p. 427.
- ^ Renaud et al. 2010, p. 230.
- ^ Kennett & Kennett 2007, p. 237.
- ^ Groucutt et al. 2020, p. 1768.
- ^ Heine 2019, p. 566.
- ^ Matter et al. 2016, p. 98.
- ^ Lézine et al. 2010, p. 426.
- ^ Rojas et al. 2019, p. 146.
- ^ Prasad & Negendank 2004, p. 213.
- ^ Groucutt et al. 2020, p. 1776.
- ^ Rojas et al. 2019, p. 145.
- ^ Renaud et al. 2010, p. 228.
- ^ Matter et al. 2016, pp. 89, 98.
- ^ Hamdan et al. 2020, p. 16.
- ^ Hamdan et al. 2020, p. 473.
- ^ Hamdan et al. 2020, p. 15.
- ^ Hamdan et al. 2020, p. 14.
- ^ Ullmann, Tobias; Nill, Leon; Schiestl, Robert; Trappe, Julian; Lange-Athinodorou, Eva; Baumhauer, Roland; Meister, Julia (9 December 2020). "Mapping buried paleogeographical features of the Nile Delta (Egypt) using the Landsat archive". E&G Quaternary Science Journal. 69 (2): 227. doi:10.5194/egqsj-69-225-2020. ISSN 0424-7116.
- ^ Gasse, Françoise (January 2005). "Continental palaeohydrology and palaeoclimate during the Holocene". Comptes Rendus Geoscience. 337 (1–2): 81. Bibcode:2005CRGeo.337...79G. doi:10.1016/j.crte.2004.10.006. ISSN 1631-0713.
- ^ Mercuri et al. 2018, p. 226.
- ^ a b c Morrissey & Scholz 2014, p. 98.
- ^ Graham, Angus; Strutt, Kristian D.; Peeters, Jan; Toonen, Willem H. J.; Pennington, Benjamin T.; Emery, Virginia L.; Barker, Dominic S.; Johansson, Carolin (30 June 2017). "Theban Harbours and Waterscapes Survey, Spring 2016". The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 102 (1): 19. doi:10.1177/030751331610200103. S2CID 194765922.
- ^ Wendorf, Karlén & Schild 2007, p. 205.
- ^ Hoelzmann et al. 2001, p. 212.
- ^ a b Morrissey & Scholz 2014, p. 96.
- ^ Blanchet et al. 2013, p. 105.
- ^ Gasse 2000, p. 189.
- ^ Garcin et al. 2017, p. 60.
- ^ Junginger et al. 2014, p. 2.
- ^ a b van der Lubbe et al. 2017, p. 8.
- ^ Nutz, A.; Schuster, M.; Barboni, D.; Gassier, G.; Van Bocxlaer, B.; Robin, C.; Ragon, T.; Ghienne, J. -F.; Rubino, J. -L. (1 December 2020). "Plio-Pleistocene sedimentation in West Turkana (Turkana Depression, Kenya, East African Rift System): Paleolake fluctuations, paleolandscapes and controlling factors". Earth-Science Reviews. 211: 22. Bibcode:2020ESRv..21103415N. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103415. ISSN 0012-8252.
- ^ Beck et al. 2019, p. 20.
- ^ a b Bloszies, Forman & Wright 2015, p. 66.
- ^ a b van der Lubbe et al. 2017, p. 3.
- ^ Smith 2018, p. 249.
- ^ Khalidi et al. 2020, p. 1.
- ^ Khalidi et al. 2020, p. 4.
- ^ Khalidi et al. 2020, p. 3.
- ^ a b Khalidi et al. 2020, p. 17.
- ^ Awaleh, Mohamed Osman; Boschetti, Tiziano; Adaneh, Abdillahi Elmi; Daoud, Mohamed Ahmed; Ahmed, Moussa Mahdi; Dabar, Omar Assowe; Soubaneh, Youssouf Djibril; Kawalieh, Ali Dirir; Kadieh, Ibrahim Houssein (1 July 2020). "Hydrochemistry and multi-isotope study of the waters from Hanlé-Gaggadé grabens (Republic of Djibouti, East African Rift System): A low-enthalpy geothermal resource from a transboundary aquifer". Geothermics. 86: 15. doi:10.1016/j.geothermics.2020.101805. ISSN 0375-6505.
- ^ Khalidi et al. 2020, p. 2.
- ^ Khalidi et al. 2020, p. 18.
- ^ Khalidi et al. 2020, p. 19.
- ^ Roubeix & Chalié 2018, p. 100.
- ^ Gasse & Van Campo 1994, p. 445.
- ^ a b Hamdan et al. 2020, p. 471.
- ^ Loakes, Katie (2 January 2017). "Late Quaternary palaeolimnology and environmental change in the South Wollo Highlands". Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa. 52 (1): 131. doi:10.1080/0067270X.2016.1259821. ISSN 0067-270X. S2CID 163784238.
- ^ Hoelzmann & Holmes 2017, p. 17.
- ^ Riedl, Simon; Melnick, Daniel; Mibei, Geoffrey K.; Njue, Lucy; Strecker, Manfred R. (2020). "Continental rifting at magmatic centres: structural implications from the Late Quaternary Menengai Caldera, central Kenya Rift". Journal of the Geological Society. 177 (1): 12. Bibcode:2020JGSoc.177..153R. doi:10.1144/jgs2019-021. S2CID 202898410.
- ^ Dommain, René; Riedl, Simon; Olaka, Lydia; deMenocal, Peter; Deino, Alan; Potts, Richard; Strecker, Manfred (1 May 2020). Hydrological basin connectivity in a low-latitude rift: the impact of the Holocene African Humid Period (AHP) on fluvial activity and species dispersal in the Kenya Rift, East African Rift System (EARS). 22nd EGU General Assembly. Egu General Assembly Conference Abstracts. 22. p. 9323. Bibcode:2020EGUGA..22.9323D.
- ^ Runge, Jürgen (12 October 2017). Runge, Jürgen; Eisenberg, Joachim (eds.). The African Neogene – Climate, Environments and People (1 ed.). CRC Press. p. 145. doi:10.1201/9781315161808. ISBN 9781315161808.
- ^ Jackson, M. S.; Kelly, M. A.; Russell, J. M.; Doughty, A. M.; Howley, J. A.; Chipman, J. W.; Cavagnaro, D. A.; Baber, M. B.; Zimmerman, S. R. H.; Nakileza, B. (1 September 2020). "Glacial fluctuations in tropical Africa during the last glacial termination and implications for tropical climate following the Last Glacial Maximum". Quaternary Science Reviews. 243: 51. Bibcode:2020QSRv..24306455J. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2020.106455. ISSN 0277-3791.
- ^ Beer et al. 2002, p. 593.
- ^ Gabrielli, P.; Hardy, D.R.; Kehrwald, N.; Davis, M.; Cozzi, G.; Turetta, C.; Barbante, C.; Thompson, L.G. (June 2014). "Deglaciated areas of Kilimanjaro as a source of volcanic trace elements deposited on the ice cap during the late Holocene". Quaternary Science Reviews. 93: 3. Bibcode:2014QSRv...93....1G. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.03.007. ISSN 0277-3791.
- ^ Zech, Michael (December 2006). "Evidence for Late Pleistocene climate changes from buried soils on the southern slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 242 (3–4): 310. Bibcode:2006PPP...242..303Z. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.06.008. ISSN 0031-0182.
- ^ Kervyn, M.; Macheyeki, A.; Kwelwa, S.; Delvaux, D.; Delcamp, A. (1 January 2016). "Sector collapse events at volcanoes in the North Tanzanian divergence zone and their implications for regional tectonics". GSA Bulletin. 128 (1–2): 15. doi:10.1130/B31119.1. ISSN 0016-7606.
- ^ Garcin et al. 2017, p. 67.
- ^ Garcin et al. 2017, p. 68.
- ^ a b Bastian, Luc; Vigier, Nathalie; Revel, Marie; Yirgu, Gezahegn; Ayalew, Dereje; Pik, Raphaël (20 July 2019). "Chemical erosion rates in the upper Blue Nile Basin and related atmospheric CO2 consumption". Chemical Geology. 518: 29. Bibcode:2019ChGeo.518...19B. doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2019.03.033. ISSN 0009-2541.
- ^ a b Barker et al. 2002, p. 303.
- ^ a b Wang et al. 2019, p. 146.
- ^ a b c Russell & Ivory 2018, p. 7.
- ^ a b Russell & Ivory 2018, p. 8.
- ^ Jahns 1995, p. 28.
- ^ Beck et al. 2019, p. 31.
- ^ a b Russell & Ivory 2018, p. 12.
- ^ Rojas et al. 2019, p. 147.
- ^ Kuzmicheva et al. 2017, p. 80.
- ^ a b c Russell & Ivory 2018, p. 9.
- ^ Tierney et al. 2011, p. 106.
- ^ Stinchcomb, Gary; Quade, Jay; Levin, Naomi; Iverson, Nels; Dunbar, Nelia; McIntosh, William; Arnold, Lee J.; Duval, Mathieu; Grün, Rainer; Bynum, Kevin; White, Marie; Gilbert, Henry; Rogers, Michael J.; Semaw, Sileshi (2020). FLUVIAL RESPONSE AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS DURING THE MIDDLE TO LATE PLEISTOCENE AND AFRICAN HUMID PERIOD IN ETHIOPIA (Report). Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs. p. 357299. doi:10.1130/abs/2020AM-357299.
- ^ a b Junginger & Trauth 2013, p. 186.
- ^ Junginger & Trauth 2013, p. 174.
- ^ White et al. 2011, p. 461.
- ^ Müller, Ulrich C.; Pross, Jörg; Tzedakis, Polychronis C.; Gamble, Clive; Kotthoff, Ulrich; Schmiedl, Gerhard; Wulf, Sabine; Christanis, Kimon (February 2011). "The role of climate in the spread of modern humans into Europe". Quaternary Science Reviews. 30 (3–4): 273–279. Bibcode:2011QSRv...30..273M. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.11.016. ISSN 0277-3791.
- ^ Hoelzmann & Holmes 2017, p. 12.
- ^ McGee & deMenocal 2017, p. 10.
- ^ McGee & deMenocal 2017, p. 19.
- ^ Daniau et al. 2019, p. 23.
- ^ Nguetsop, Victor François; Bentaleb, Ilham; Favier, Charly; Bietrix, Sophie; Martin, Céline; Servant-Vildary, Simone; Servant, Michel (July 2013). "A late Holocene palaeoenvironmental record from Lake Tizong, northern Cameroon using diatom and carbon stable isotope analyses". Quaternary Science Reviews. 72: 50. Bibcode:2013QSRv...72...49N. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.04.005. ISSN 0277-3791.
- ^ Lézine, Anne-Marie; Izumi, Kenji; Kageyama, Masa; Achoundong, Gaston (11 January 2019). "A 90,000-year record of Afromontane forest responses to climate change" (PDF). Science. 363 (6423): 177–181. Bibcode:2019Sci...363..177L. doi:10.1126/science.aav6821. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 30630932. S2CID 57825928.
- ^ Hély et al. 2009, p. 683.
- ^ Tropical rainforest responses to climatic change. Environmental Sciences (2nd ed.). Springer. 2011. p. 166. ISBN 978-3-642-05383-2.
- ^ Ifo, Suspense A.; Bocko, Yannick E.; Page, Susan E.; Mitchard, Edward T. A.; Lawson, Ian T.; Lewis, Simon L.; Dargie, Greta C. (February 2017). "Age, extent and carbon storage of the central Congo Basin peatland complex" (PDF). Nature. 542 (7639): 86–90. Bibcode:2017Natur.542...86D. doi:10.1038/nature21048. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 28077869. S2CID 205253362.
- ^ Dargie, Greta C.; Lawson, Ian T.; Rayden, Tim J.; Miles, Lera; Mitchard, Edward T. A.; Page, Susan E.; Bocko, Yannick E.; Ifo, Suspense A.; Lewis, Simon L. (1 April 2019). "Congo Basin peatlands: threats and conservation priorities". Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change. 24 (4): 673. doi:10.1007/s11027-017-9774-8. ISSN 1573-1596. S2CID 21705940.
- ^ La Roche, Francisco; Genise, Jorge F.; Castillo, Carolina; Quesada, María Luisa; García-Gotera, Cristo M.; De la Nuez, Julio (September 2014). "Fossil bee cells from the Canary Islands. Ichnotaxonomy, palaeobiology and palaeoenvironments of Palmiraichnus castellanosi". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 409: 262. Bibcode:2014PPP...409..249L. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2014.05.012. ISSN 0031-0182.
- ^ Rodríguez-Berriguete, Álvaro; Alonso-Zarza, Ana María (1 March 2019). "Controlling factors and implications for travertine and tufa deposition in a volcanic setting". Sedimentary Geology. 381: 25–26. Bibcode:2019SedG..381...13R. doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2018.12.001. ISSN 0037-0738.
- ^ Morinha, Francisco; Milá, Borja; Dávila, José A.; Fargallo, Juan A.; Potti, Jaime; Blanco, Guillermo (December 2020). "The ghost of connections past: A role for mainland vicariance in the isolation of an insular population of the red‐billed chough (Aves: Corvidae)". Journal of Biogeography. 47 (12): 2578. doi:10.1111/jbi.13977.
- ^ Sha et al. 2019, p. 8.
- ^ Bendaoud et al. 2019, p. 515.
- ^ Zielhofer, Christoph; Faust, Dominik (March 2008). "Mid- and Late Holocene fluvial chronology of Tunisia". Quaternary Science Reviews. 27 (5–6): 586. Bibcode:2008QSRv...27..580Z. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2007.11.019. ISSN 0277-3791.
- ^ Stoetzel, Emmanuelle (1 December 2017). "Adaptations and Dispersals of Anatomically Modern Humans in the Changing Environments of North Africa: the Contribution of Microvertebrates". African Archaeological Review. 34 (4): 9. doi:10.1007/s10437-017-9272-0. ISSN 1572-9842. S2CID 165916003.
- ^ a b c Zielhofer et al. 2016, p. 858.
- ^ Zielhofer, Christoph; Köhler, Anne; Mischke, Steffen; Benkaddour, Abdelfattah; Mikdad, Abdeslam; Fletcher, William J. (20 March 2019). "Western Mediterranean hydro-climatic consequences of Holocene ice-rafted debris (Bond) events". Climate of the Past. 15 (2): 471. Bibcode:2019CliPa..15..463Z. doi:10.5194/cp-15-463-2019. ISSN 1814-9324.
- ^ Yanes, Yurena; Romanek, Christopher S.; Molina, Fernando; Cámara, Juan Antonio; Delgado, Antonio (November 2011). "Holocene paleoenvironment (∼7200–4000 cal BP) of the Los Castillejos archaeological site (SE Spain) inferred from the stable isotopes of land snail shells". Quaternary International. 244 (1): 73–74. Bibcode:2011QuInt.244...67Y. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.04.031. ISSN 1040-6182.
- ^ Censi, P.; Incarbona, A.; Oliveri, E.; Bonomo, S.; Tranchida, G. (June 2010). "Yttrium and REE signature recognized in Central Mediterranean Sea (ODP Site 963) during the MIS 6–MIS 5 transition". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 292 (1–2): 206. Bibcode:2010PPP...292..201C. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.03.045. ISSN 0031-0182.
- ^ a b Spötl, Christoph; Nicolussi, Kurt; Patzelt, Gernot; Boch, Ronny (April 2010). "Humid climate during deposition of sapropel 1 in the Mediterranean Sea: Assessing the influence on the Alps". Global and Planetary Change. 71 (3–4): 242. Bibcode:2010GPC....71..242S. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2009.10.003. ISSN 0921-8181.
- ^ Segadelli, Stefano; Grazzini, Federico; Rossi, Veronica; Aguzzi, Margherita; Marvelli, Silvia; Marchesini, Marco; Chelli, Alessandro; Francese, Roberto; De Nardo, Maria Teresa; Nanni, Sandro (19 August 2020). "Changes in high-intensity precipitation on the northern Apennines (Italy) as revealed by multidisciplinary data over the last 9000 years". Climate of the Past. 16 (4): 1555. Bibcode:2020CliPa..16.1547S. doi:10.5194/cp-16-1547-2020. ISSN 1814-9324.
- ^ Incarbona, Alessandro; Zarcone, Giuseppe; Agate, Mauro; Bonomo, Sergio; Stefano, Enrico; Masini, Federico; Russo, Fabio; Sineo, Luca (2010). "A multidisciplinary approach to reveal the Sicily Climate and Environment over the last 20 000 years". Open Geosciences. 2 (2): 71. Bibcode:2010CEJG....2...71I. doi:10.2478/v10085-010-0005-8. ISSN 2391-5447. S2CID 128477875.
- ^ Jiménez-Moreno, Gonzalo; Anderson, R. Scott; Ramos-Román, María J.; Camuera, Jon; Mesa-Fernández, Jose Manuel; García-Alix, Antonio; Jiménez-Espejo, Francisco J.; Carrión, José S.; López-Avilés, Alejandro (15 August 2020). "The Holocene Cedrus pollen record from Sierra Nevada (S Spain), a proxy for climate change in N Africa". Quaternary Science Reviews. 242: 13. Bibcode:2020QSRv..24206468J. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2020.106468. ISSN 0277-3791.
- ^ Hamann et al. 2017, p. 453.
- ^ Williams et al. 2010, p. 1117.
- ^ a b Hamann et al. 2017, p. 461.
- ^ a b Fontaine, M.C. (1 January 2016). Harbour Porpoises, Phocoena phocoena, in the Mediterranean Sea and Adjacent Regions: Biogeographic Relicts of the Last Glacial Period. Advances in Marine Biology. 75. pp. 333–358. doi:10.1016/bs.amb.2016.08.006. ISBN 9780128051528. ISSN 0065-2881. PMID 27770989.
- ^ Rüggeberg, Andres; Foubert, Anneleen (2019), Orejas, Covadonga; Jiménez, Carlos (eds.), "25 Cold-Water Corals and Mud Volcanoes: Life on a Dynamic Substrate", Mediterranean Cold-Water Corals: Past, Present and Future: Understanding the Deep-Sea Realms of Coral, Coral Reefs of the World, Springer International Publishing, p. 267, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-91608-8_25, ISBN 978-3-319-91608-8
- ^ Vahrenholt & Lüning 2019, p. 522.
- ^ Kiro, Yael; Goldstein, Steven L.; Garcia-Veigas, Javier; Levy, Elan; Kushnir, Yochanan; Stein, Mordechai; Lazar, Boaz (April 2017). "Relationships between lake-level changes and water and salt budgets in the Dead Sea during extreme aridities in the Eastern Mediterranean". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 464: 221. Bibcode:2017E&PSL.464..211K. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2017.01.043. ISSN 0012-821X.
- ^ a b Reimer et al. 2010, p. 36.
- ^ a b Sletten, Hillary R.; Railsback, L. Bruce; Liang, Fuyuan; Brook, George A.; Marais, Eugene; Hardt, Benjamin F.; Cheng, Hai; Edwards, R. Lawrence (April 2013). "A petrographic and geochemical record of climate change over the last 4600 years from a northern Namibia stalagmite, with evidence of abruptly wetter climate at the beginning of southern Africa's Iron Age". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 376: 158. Bibcode:2013PPP...376..149S. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2013.02.030. ISSN 0031-0182.
- ^ Reimer et al. 2010, p. 40.
- ^ Ramisch, Arne; Bens, Oliver; Buylaert, Jan-Pieter; Eden, Marie; Heine, Klaus; Hürkamp, Kerstin; Schwindt, Daniel; Völkel, Jörg (March 2017). "Fluvial landscape development in the southwestern Kalahari during the Holocene – Chronology and provenance of fluvial deposits in the Molopo Canyon" (PDF). Geomorphology. 281: 104. Bibcode:2017Geomo.281...94R. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.12.021. ISSN 0169-555X.
- ^ Bäumle, Roland; Himmelsbach, Thomas (1 March 2018). "Erkundung tiefer, bislang unbekannter semi-fossiler Grundwasserleiter im Kalahari-Becken (südliches Afrika)". Grundwasser (in German). 23 (1): 34. Bibcode:2018Grund..23...29B. doi:10.1007/s00767-017-0378-8. ISSN 1432-1165. S2CID 133707017.
- ^ Lubbe, H. J. L. van der; Frank, Martin; Tjallingii, Rik; Schneider, Ralph R. (2016). "Neodymium isotope constraints on provenance, dispersal, and climate-driven supply of Zambezi sediments along the Mozambique Margin during the past ∼45,000 years" (PDF). Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 17 (1): 195. Bibcode:2016GGG....17..181V. doi:10.1002/2015GC006080. ISSN 1525-2027.
- ^ Heine 2019, p. 441.
- ^ Wang et al. 2019, p. 151.
- ^ Burrough & Thomas 2013, p. 43.
- ^ Battarbee, Gasse & Stickley 2004, p. 572.
- ^ Heine 2019, p. 528.
- ^ Fitchett, Jennifer M.; Grab, Stefan W.; Bamford, Marion K.; Mackay, Anson W. (2 September 2017). "Late Quaternary research in southern Africa: progress, challenges and future trajectories" (PDF). Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa. 72 (3): 284. doi:10.1080/0035919X.2017.1297966. ISSN 0035-919X. S2CID 131918185.
- ^ Pausata et al. 2020, p. 238.
- ^ Dixit et al. 2018, p. 233.
- ^ Lézine, Duplessy & Cazet 2005, pp. 226–227.
- ^ Pachur & Altmann 2006, p. 564.
- ^ Heine 2019, p. 520.
- ^ Quade et al. 2018, p. 16.
- ^ Hoelzmann & Holmes 2017, p. 15.
- ^ Hoelzmann & Holmes 2017, pp. 16–18.
- ^ Junginger & Trauth 2013, p. 178.
- ^ a b Baumhauer & Runge 2009, p. 29.
- ^ Baumhauer & Runge 2009, p. 11.
- ^ a b Engel et al. 2012, p. 139.
- ^ Radies et al. 2005, p. 123.
- ^ Donnelly et al. 2017, p. 6223.
- ^ Gaetani et al. 2017, p. 7639.
- ^ a b c d Pausata et al. 2020, p. 242.
- ^ a b Donnelly et al. 2017, p. 6225.
- ^ Hayes & Wallace 2019, p. 6.
- ^ Toomey et al. 2013, p. 31.
- ^ a b Gaetani et al. 2017, p. 7640.
- ^ Donnelly et al. 2017, p. 6224.
- ^ a b Hayes & Wallace 2019, p. 5.
- ^ Hayes & Wallace 2019, p. 7.
- ^ Toomey et al. 2013, p. 39.
- ^ Liu et al. 2017, p. 2.
- ^ a b Piao et al. 2020, p. 2.
- ^ Liu et al. 2017, p. 3.
- ^ Pausata et al. 2020, p. 241.
- ^ Liu et al. 2017, p. 9.
- ^ Piao et al. 2020, p. 5.
- ^ a b Sun et al. 2019, p. 9877.
- ^ Sun et al. 2019, pp. 9874–9875.
- ^ Piao et al. 2020, p. 6.
- ^ Sun et al. 2019, p. 9873.
- ^ Piao et al. 2020, p. 7.
- ^ Sun et al. 2019, p. 9871.
- ^ Sun et al. 2020, p. 239.
- ^ Sun et al. 2020, p. 234.
- ^ Sun et al. 2020, p. 236.
- ^ Sun et al. 2020, p. 233.
- ^ Sun et al. 2020, p. 229.
- ^ Sun et al. 2020, p. 238.
- ^ a b Niedermeyer et al. 2010, p. 3003.
- ^ Menocal et al. 2000, pp. 354–355.
- ^ Cohen et al. 2008, p. 252.
- ^ a b c Junginger et al. 2014, p. 14.
- ^ Wendorf, Karlén & Schild 2007, p. 191.
- ^ a b Bloszies, Forman & Wright 2015, p. 65.
- ^ Talbot et al. 2007, pp. 9–10.
- ^ Zielhofer et al. 2016, p. 857.
- ^ Muhs et al. 2013, p. 34.
- ^ Talbot et al. 2007, p. 10.
- ^ Morrill, Overpeck & Cole 2016, p. 469.
- ^ Ghosh, Sambit; Sanyal, Prasanta; Roy, Sohom; Bhushan, Ravi; Sati, SP; Philippe, Anne; Juyal, Navin (1 July 2020). "Early Holocene Indian summer monsoon and its impact on vegetation in the Central Himalaya: Insight from δD and δ13C values of leaf wax lipid". The Holocene. 30 (7): 1070. Bibcode:2020Holoc..30.1063G. doi:10.1177/0959683620908639. ISSN 0959-6836. S2CID 219020685.
- ^ Zerboni & Gatto 2015, p. 310.
- ^ Zerboni & Nicoll 2019, p. 31.
- ^ a b c d Menocal et al. 2000, p. 355.
- ^ Zielhofer et al. 2016, p. 851.
- ^ a b Caballero, Margarita; Zawisza, Edyta; Hernández, Martín; Lozano-García, Socorro; Ruiz-Córdova, Juan Pablo; Waters, Matthew N; Ortega Guerrero, Beatriz (1 June 2020). "The Holocene history of a tropical high-altitude lake in central Mexico". The Holocene. 30 (6): 866. Bibcode:2020Holoc..30..865C. doi:10.1177/0959683620902226. ISSN 0959-6836. S2CID 213398634.
- ^ Lubell, David; Jackes, Mary (1 June 2008). "Early and Middle Holocene Environments and Capsian Cultural Change: Evidence from the Télidjène Basin, Eastern Algeria". African Archaeological Review. 25 (1–2): 53. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.518.2283. doi:10.1007/s10437-008-9024-2. ISSN 1572-9842. S2CID 53678760.
- ^ Stivers et al. 2008, p. 1.
- ^ Cremaschi et al. 2010, p. 89.
- ^ a b Blanchet et al. 2013, p. 108.
- ^ a b Peck et al. 2015, p. 141.
- ^ a b c d Zielhofer et al. 2017, p. 131.
- ^ Garcin, Yannick; Vincens, Annie; Williamson, David; Guiot, Joël; Buchet, Guillaume (2006). "Wet phases in tropical southern Africa during the last glacial period". Geophysical Research Letters. 33 (7): 3. Bibcode:2006GeoRL..33.7703G. doi:10.1029/2005GL025531. ISSN 1944-8007.
- ^ Lézine, Duplessy & Cazet 2005, p. 236.
- ^ Schuster & Nutz 2016, p. 1615.
- ^ a b Junginger et al. 2014, pp. 98–99.
- ^ Beck et al. 2019, p. 28.
- ^ Nickolaus, Peter; Markowska, Monika; Vonhof, Hubert; Bocherens, Hervé; Martin, Ashley; Zinaye, Bahru; Fischer, Markus; Asrat, Asfawossen; Junginger, Annett (1 May 2020). Insights into the African Humid Period from fossil stromatolites and Etheria elliptica shells from the Chew Bahir Basin, southern Ethiopia. 22nd EGU General Assembly. Egu General Assembly Conference Abstracts. 22. p. 18611. Bibcode:2020EGUGA..2218611N.
- ^ Schuster & Nutz 2016, pp. 1614–1615.
- ^ Sylvestre et al. 2013, p. 237.
- ^ Wendorf, Karlén & Schild 2007, p. 197.
- ^ Wendorf, Karlén & Schild 2007, p. 203.
- ^ Said 1993, p. 131.
- ^ Lézine, A. -M.; Izumi, K.; Achoundong, G. (13 December 2020). "Mbi Crater (Cameroon) illustrates the relations between mountain and lowland forests over the past 15,000 years in western equatorial Africa". Quaternary International: 8. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2020.12.014. ISSN 1040-6182.
- ^ Heine 2019, p. 624.
- ^ Chiotis 2018, p. 18.
- ^ Coutros 2019, pp. 7–8.
- ^ Zerboni & Gatto 2015, p. 312.
- ^ Huang et al. 2008, p. 1460.
- ^ Dawelbeit, Jaillard & Eisawi 2019, p. 13.
- ^ Krüger et al. 2017, p. 10.
- ^ Armitage, Bristow & Drake 2015, p. 8547.
- ^ Sylvestre et al. 2013, p. 223.
- ^ Nogué, Sandra; Nascimento, Lea de; Fernández‐Palacios, José María; Whittaker, Robert J.; Willis, Kathy J. (2013). "The ancient forests of La Gomera, Canary Islands, and their sensitivity to environmental change". Journal of Ecology. 101 (2): 374. doi:10.1111/1365-2745.12051. ISSN 1365-2745.
- ^ Vaezi, Alireza; Ghazban, Fereydoun; Tavakoli, Vahid; Routh, Joyanto; Beni, Abdolmajid Naderi; Bianchi, Thomas S.; Curtis, Jason H.; Kylin, Henrik (15 January 2019). "A Late Pleistocene-Holocene multi-proxy record of climate variability in the Jazmurian playa, southeastern Iran". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 514: 763–764. Bibcode:2019PPP...514..754V. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2018.09.026. ISSN 0031-0182.
- ^ Castilla-Beltrán, Alvaro; Duarte, Ivani; de Nascimento, Lea; Fernández-Palacios, José María; Romeiras, Maria; Whittaker, Robert J.; Jambrina-Enríquez, Margarita; Mallol, Carolina; Cundy, Andrew B.; Edwards, Mary; Nogué, Sandra (1 February 2020). "Using multiple palaeoecological indicators to guide biodiversity conservation in tropical dry islands: The case of São Nicolau, Cabo Verde". Biological Conservation. 242: 6. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2019.108397. ISSN 0006-3207.
- ^ Blümel 2002, p. 11.
- ^ a b Magny & Haas 2004, p. 425.
- ^ Hou & Wu 2020, p. 13.
- ^ Mooney, Scott D.; Black, Manu P. (1 March 2006). "Holocene fire history from the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area, New South Wales, Australia: the climate, humans and fire nexus". Regional Environmental Change. 6 (1–2): 48–49. Bibcode:2013REC..2013....1J. doi:10.1007/s10113-005-0003-8. ISSN 1436-378X. S2CID 154477236.
- ^ Wu, Jiaying; Porinchu, David F.; Campbell, Nicole L.; Mordecai, Taylor M.; Alden, Evan C. (15 March 2019). "Holocene hydroclimate and environmental change inferred from a high-resolution multi-proxy record from Lago Ditkebi, Chirripó National Park, Costa Rica". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 518: 184. Bibcode:2019PPP...518..172W. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2019.01.004. ISSN 0031-0182.
- ^ Zolitschka, Bernd; Fey, Michael; Janssen, Stephanie; Maidana, Nora I; Mayr, Christoph; Wulf, Sabine; Haberzettl, Torsten; Corbella, Hugo; Lücke, Andreas; Ohlendorf, Christian; Schäbitz, Frank (20 December 2018). "Southern Hemispheric Westerlies control sedimentary processes of Laguna Azul (south-eastern Patagonia, Argentina)". The Holocene. 29 (3): 414. doi:10.1177/0959683618816446. S2CID 134667787.
- ^ Hou & Wu 2020, pp. 1–2.
- ^ a b Lebamba et al. 2016, p. 130.
- ^ Beer et al. 2002, p. 592.
- ^ Wendorf, Karlén & Schild 2007, p. 201.
- ^ Liu et al. 2014, p. 2024.
- ^ a b Sylvestre et al. 2013, p. 224.
- ^ Zielhofer et al. 2017, p. 120.
- ^ Hély et al. 2009, p. 673.
- ^ Pausata et al. 2020, pp. 238–239.
- ^ Heine 2019, p. 512.
- ^ Metcalfe & Nash 2012, p. 101.
- ^ Roubeix & Chalié 2018, p. 99.
- ^ Roubeix & Chalié 2018, p. 3.
- ^ Wong 2020, p. 1.
- ^ Jung et al. 2004, p. 35.
- ^ a b c Claussen et al. 1999, p. 2037.
- ^ Jung et al. 2004, pp. 34–35.
- ^ Metcalfe & Nash 2012, p. 112.
- ^ Roubeix & Chalié 2018, pp. 11–12.
- ^ a b Colin et al. 2020, p. 1.
- ^ Colin et al. 2020, p. 20.
- ^ Bristow et al. 2018, p. 194.
- ^ a b Schefuß et al. 2017, p. 6.
- ^ Bristow et al. 2018, p. 186.
- ^ Hoelzmann & Holmes 2017, pp. 26–27.
- ^ Drake & Bristow 2006, p. 908.
- ^ Kindermann & Classen 2010, p. 21.
- ^ McGee & deMenocal 2017, p. 15.
- ^ a b Mercuri et al. 2018, p. 222.
- ^ a b c d e Lézine 2009, p. 751.
- ^ Petit-Maire 1989, p. 649.
- ^ Zerboni, Andrea; Mori, Lucia; Bosi, Giovanna; Buldrini, Fabrizio; Bernasconi, Andrea; Gatto, Maria Carmela; Mercuri, Anna Maria (September 2017). "Domestic firing activities and fuel consumption in a Saharan oasis: Micromorphological and archaeobotanical evidence from the Garamantian site of Fewet (Central Sahara, SW Libya)". Journal of Arid Environments. 144: 124. Bibcode:2017JArEn.144..123Z. doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2017.03.012. hdl:11380/1135660. ISSN 0140-1963.
- ^ Pachur & Altmann 2006, p. 34.
- ^ Pennington et al. 2019, p. 116.
- ^ Eggermont et al. 2008, p. 2423.
- ^ Lézine 2009, p. 753.
- ^ a b Cole et al. 2009, p. 264.
- ^ Krinner et al. 2012, p. 2.
- ^ Zerboni & Nicoll 2019, pp. 24–25.
- ^ Olsen 2017, p. 91.
- ^ Roubeix & Chalié 2018, p. 13.
- ^ Kennett & Kennett 2007, p. 240.
- ^ Kuzmicheva et al. 2017, pp. 81–82.
- ^ a b Russell & Ivory 2018, p. 10.
- ^ Junginger et al. 2014, pp. 14–15.
- ^ Pennington et al. 2019, p. 115.
- ^ van der Lubbe et al. 2017, p. 1.
- ^ Berke et al. 2012, p. 99.
- ^ a b Berke et al. 2012, p. 100.
- ^ a b Berke et al. 2012, p. 103.
- ^ Morrissey & Scholz 2014, p. 89.
- ^ Santisteban et al. 2019, p. 13.
- ^ Costas, Susana; Jerez, Sonia; Trigo, Ricardo M.; Goble, Ronald; Rebêlo, Luís (May 2012). "Sand invasion along the Portuguese coast forced by westerly shifts during cold climate events" (PDF). Quaternary Science Reviews. 42: 24. Bibcode:2012QSRv...42...15C. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.03.008. hdl:10400.9/1848. ISSN 0277-3791.
- ^ Santisteban et al. 2019, p. 12.
- ^ Zielhofer et al. 2017, p. 132.
- ^ a b Sangen 2012, p. 215.
- ^ Servant, Buchet & Vincens 2010, p. 291.
- ^ a b c Lebamba et al. 2016, p. 136.
- ^ Pirie et al. 2009, p. 924.
- ^ Niedermeyer et al. 2010, p. 3002.
- ^ a b c Lézine et al. 2013, p. 329.
- ^ Lézine et al. 2013, p. 328.
- ^ Lézine 2017, p. 20.
- ^ Hipondoka, M.H.T.; Mauz, B.; Kempf, J.; Packman, S.; Chiverrell, R.C.; Bloemendal, J. (January 2014). "Chronology of sand ridges and the Late Quaternary evolution of the Etosha Pan, Namibia". Geomorphology. 204: 561–562. Bibcode:2014Geomo.204..553H. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.08.034. ISSN 0169-555X.
- ^ a b Forman, Wright & Bloszies 2014, p. 85.
- ^ a b c Meeker, L. David; Cumming, Brian F.; Stager, J. Curt (2003). "A 10,000-year high-resolution diatom record from Pilkington Bay, Lake Victoria, East Africa". Quaternary Research. 59 (2): 180. Bibcode:2003QuRes..59..172S. doi:10.1016/S0033-5894(03)00008-5. ISSN 1096-0287.
- ^ Krinner et al. 2012, pp. 1–2.
- ^ a b Servant, Buchet & Vincens 2010, p. 282.
- ^ Brooks et al. 2007, p. 257.
- ^ Ganopolski et al. 2009, p. 458.
- ^ Ganopolski et al. 2009, p. 466.
- ^ a b c Menocal 2015, p. 2.
- ^ Guilderson et al. 2001, p. 197.
- ^ Vincenzo & Massimo 2015, p. 15.
- ^ Vincenzo & Massimo 2015, p. 13.
- ^ a b Schefuß et al. 2017, p. 9.
- ^ Schuster & Nutz 2016, p. 1616.
- ^ Russell & Ivory 2018, p. 11.
- ^ Lebamba et al. 2016, p. 137.
- ^ Lézine et al. 2013, p. 334.
- ^ Sachse et al. 2018, p. 3261.
- ^ Daniau et al. 2019, p. 24.
- ^ a b Lézine 2017, p. 19.
- ^ Sachse et al. 2018, p. 3262.
- ^ Claussen et al. 1999, p. 2040.
- ^ Maslin, Manning & Brierley 2018, p. 4.
- ^ Maslin, Manning & Brierley 2018, p. 5.
- ^ Coutros 2019, p. 8.
- ^ Zerboni & Nicoll 2019, p. 32.
- ^ Pausata et al. 2020, p. 239.
- ^ a b Reimer et al. 2010, p. 41.
- ^ Morrill, Overpeck & Cole 2016, p. 473.
- ^ Fedotov, A.P; Chebykin, E.P; Yu, Semenov M; Vorobyova, S.S; Yu, Osipov E; Golobokova, L.P; Pogodaeva, T.V; Zheleznyakova, T.O; Grachev, M.A; Tomurhuu, D; Oyunchimeg, Ts; Narantsetseg, Ts; Tomurtogoo, O; Dolgikh, P.T; Arsenyuk, M.I; De Batist, M (July 2004). "Changes in the volume and salinity of Lake Khubsugul (Mongolia) in response to global climate changes in the upper Pleistocene and the Holocene". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 209 (1–4): 256. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2003.12.022. ISSN 0031-0182.
- ^ Marsicek et al. 2013, p. 130.
- ^ Aharon, Paul; Dhungana, Rajesh (August 2017). "Ocean-atmosphere interactions as drivers of mid-to-late Holocene rapid climate changes: Evidence from high-resolution stalagmite records at DeSoto Caverns, Southeast USA". Quaternary Science Reviews. 170: 78. Bibcode:2017QSRv..170...69A. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.06.023. ISSN 0277-3791.
- ^ Wahl, David; Byrne, Roger; Anderson, Lysanna (November 2014). "An 8700 year paleoclimate reconstruction from the southern Maya lowlands". Quaternary Science Reviews. 103: 21. Bibcode:2014QSRv..103...19W. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.08.004. ISSN 0277-3791.
- ^ Rowe, Harold D; Guilderson, Thomas P; Dunbar, Robert B; Southon, John R; Seltzer, Geoffrey O; Mucciarone, David A; Fritz, Sherilyn C; Baker, Paul A (September 2003). "Late Quaternary lake-level changes constrained by radiocarbon and stable isotope studies on sediment cores from Lake Titicaca, South America". Global and Planetary Change. 38 (3–4): 287. Bibcode:2003GPC....38..273R. doi:10.1016/S0921-8181(03)00031-6. ISSN 0921-8181.
- ^ Shuman, Bryan N.; Serravezza, Marc (October 2017). "Patterns of hydroclimatic change in the Rocky Mountains and surrounding regions since the last glacial maximum". Quaternary Science Reviews. 173: 74. Bibcode:2017QSRv..173...58S. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.08.012. ISSN 0277-3791.
- ^ Shinker, Jacqueline J.; Powers, Kristine; Hougardy, Devin D.; Carter, Grace E.; Shuman, Bryan N. (1 March 2014). "A north–south moisture dipole at multi-century scales in the Central and Southern Rocky Mountains, U.S.A., during the late Holocene". Rocky Mountain Geology. 49 (1): 45. doi:10.2113/gsrocky.49.1.33. ISSN 1555-7332.
- ^ McGee & deMenocal 2017, p. 26.
- ^ a b Pirie et al. 2009, p. 931.
- ^ Lernia et al. 2013, p. 120.
- ^ Andersen, Gidske L.; Krzywinski, Knut; Talib, Mohamed; Saadallah, Ahmed E.M.; Hobbs, Joseph J.; Pierce, Richard H. (July 2014). "Traditional nomadic tending of trees in the Red Sea Hills". Journal of Arid Environments. 106: 36. Bibcode:2014JArEn.106...36A. doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2014.02.009. ISSN 0140-1963.
- ^ Tafuri et al. 2006, p. 392.
- ^ Schuster & Nutz 2016, p. 1609.
- ^ Junginger & Trauth 2013, p. 176.
- ^ Junginger & Trauth 2013, p. 175.
- ^ Redford, Donald B. (1992). Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in ancient times. Internet Archive. Princeton University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-691-03606-9.
- ^ Kuper 2006, p. 415.
- ^ a b Linstädter & Kröpelin 2004, p. 764.
- ^ Mercuri et al. 2018, p. 228.
- ^ Brooks et al. 2007, pp. 262–263.
- ^ Magny & Haas 2004, p. 428.
- ^ a b Cremaschi & Zerboni 2009, p. 700.
- ^ Pennington et al. 2019, pp. 115–116.
- ^ Castañeda et al. 2016, p. 47.
- ^ Wong 2020, p. 2.
- ^ a b Bar-Matthews, Miryam; Ayalon, Avner; Gilmour, Mabs; Matthews, Alan; Hawkesworth, Chris J. (September 2003). "Sea–land oxygen isotopic relationships from planktonic foraminifera and speleothems in the Eastern Mediterranean region and their implication for paleorainfall during interglacial intervals". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 67 (17): 3195. Bibcode:2003GeCoA..67.3181B. doi:10.1016/S0016-7037(02)01031-1. ISSN 0016-7037.
- ^ Cremaschi & Zerboni 2009, p. 699.
- ^ Sachse et al. 2018, p. 3264.
- ^ a b Brooks et al. 2007, p. 261.
- ^ Tafuri et al. 2006, p. 399.
- ^ Brooks et al. 2007, p. 262.
- ^ Miller, Jennifer M.; Sawchuk, Elizabeth A. (27 November 2019). "Ostrich eggshell bead diameter in the Holocene: Regional variation with the spread of herding in eastern and southern Africa". PLOS ONE. 14 (11): 2. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1425143M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0225143. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 6880992. PMID 31774851.
- ^ Sawchuk, Elizabeth A.; Pfeiffer, Susan; Klehm, Carla E.; Cameron, Michelle E.; Hill, Austin C.; Janzen, Anneke; Grillo, Katherine M.; Hildebrand, Elisabeth A. (1 November 2019). "The bioarchaeology of mid-Holocene pastoralist cemeteries west of Lake Turkana, Kenya". Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. 11 (11): 6222. doi:10.1007/s12520-019-00914-4. ISSN 1866-9565. PMC 6941650. PMID 31956376.
- ^ Smith, Alison J. (27 July 2016). "Century-scale Holocene processes as a source of natural selection pressure in human evolution: Holocene climate and the Human Genome Project". The Holocene. 17 (5): 692–693. Bibcode:2007Holoc..17..689S. doi:10.1177/0959683607079003. S2CID 85435419.
- ^ Spinage 2012, p. 58.
- ^ Médail et al. 2013, p. 2.
- ^ Boratyński, Adam; Ok, Tolga; Boratyńska, Krystyna; Dagher-Kharrat, Magda Bou; Romo, Angel; Dering, Monika; Sękiewicz, Katarzyna (28 September 2018). "Phylogenetic and biogeographic insights into long-lived Mediterranean Cupressus taxa with a schizo-endemic distribution and Tertiary origin". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 188 (2): 15. doi:10.1093/botlinnean/boy049. ISSN 0024-4074.
- ^ Escoriza, Daniel; Bakhouche, Badis (2017). "11. Genus Malpolon: New distribution area in Algeria". The Herpetological Bulletin (140): 35.
- ^ Blick, Theo; Seiter, Michael (7 September 2016). "Whip spiders (Amblypygi, Arachnida) of the Western Palaearctic—a review". Zootaxa. 4161 (4): 588–589. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4161.4.11. ISSN 1175-5334. PMID 27615955 – via ResearchGate.
- ^ Faith, J. Tyler (January 2014). "Late Pleistocene and Holocene mammal extinctions on continental Africa". Earth-Science Reviews. 128: 115. Bibcode:2014ESRv..128..105F. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.10.009. ISSN 0012-8252.
- ^ Vilhelmsen, Lars (7 March 2005). "Chalinus albitibialis, a new species of Orussidae (Insecta, Hymenoptera) from Morocco". Zootaxa. 880 (1): 6. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.880.1.1. ISSN 1175-5334.
- ^ Hassanin, Alexandre; Ropiquet, Anne; Gourmand, Anne-Laure; Chardonnet, Bertrand; Rigoulet, Jacques (March 2007). "Mitochondrial DNA variability in Giraffa camelopardalis: consequences for taxonomy, phylogeography and conservation of giraffes in West and central Africa". Comptes Rendus Biologies. 330 (3): 265–74. doi:10.1016/j.crvi.2007.02.008. ISSN 1631-0691. PMID 17434121.
- ^ Gross et al. 2014, p. 14473.
- ^ Holl, Augustin F. C. (1 September 2020). "Dark Side Archaeology: Climate Change and Mid-Holocene Saharan Pastoral Adaptation". African Archaeological Review. 37 (3): 491–495. doi:10.1007/s10437-020-09406-6. ISSN 1572-9842. PMC 7445821. PMID 32863519.
- ^ Lyam, Paul T.; Duque-Lazo, Joaquin; Schnitzler, Jan; Hauenschild, Frank; Muellner-Riehl, Alexandra N. (2020). "Testing the forest refuge hypothesis in sub-Saharan Africa using species distribution modeling for a key savannah tree species, Senegalia senegal (L.) Britton". Frontiers of Biogeography. 12 (4): 10. doi:10.21425/F5FBG48689.
- ^ Salzmann, Ulrich; Hoelzmann, Philipp (1 February 2005). "The Dahomey Gap: an abrupt climatically induced rain forest fragmentation in West Africa during the late Holocene". The Holocene. 15 (2): 190. Bibcode:2005Holoc..15..190S. doi:10.1191/0959683605hl799rp. ISSN 0959-6836. S2CID 129839236.
- ^ Hély et al. 2009, p. 684.
- ^ White et al. 2011, p. 472.
- ^ Heine 2019, p. 654.
- ^ Adkins, Menocal & Eshel 2006, p. 2.
- ^ Lancaster 2020, p. 115.
- ^ Zielhofer et al. 2017, p. 119.
- ^ D'Odorico, Paolo; Porporato, Amilcare, eds. (2006). Dryland Ecohydrology. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 589. doi:10.1007/1-4020-4260-4. ISBN 978-1-4020-4259-1.
- ^ Muschitiello et al. 2015, p. 93.
- ^ Muschitiello et al. 2015, pp. 94–95.
- ^ Muschitiello et al. 2015, p. 96.
- ^ a b Hoelzmann & Holmes 2017, p. 5.
- ^ Baumhauer & Runge 2009, p. 25.
- ^ Gasse 2000, p. 190.
- ^ Lézine, Duplessy & Cazet 2005, p. 225.
- ^ Pausata et al. 2020, p. 235.
- ^ a b c Pausata et al. 2020, p. 236.
- ^ Pausata et al. 2020, p. 240.
- ^ a b Junginger et al. 2014, p. 4.
- ^ Forman, Wright & Bloszies 2014, p. 88.
- ^ Lézine et al. 2017, p. 69.
- ^ Spinage 2012, p. 60.
- ^ a b Brooks et al. 2007, p. 267.
- ^ Donnelly et al. 2017, p. 6221.
- ^ IPCC 2014, pp. 16–17.
- ^ a b IPCC 2014, p. 11.
- ^ a b "Impacts of 1.5°C of Global Warming on Natural and Human Systems". IPCC. 23 May 2019. p. 197. Retrieved 29 December 2018.
- ^ Petoukhov et al. 2003, p. 100.
- ^ a b c d Pausata et al. 2020, p. 244.
- ^ Petoukhov et al. 2003, p. 114.
- ^ Petoukhov et al. 2003, p. 113.
- ^ Pausata et al. 2020, p. 245.
- ^ Lu, Zhengyao; Zhang, Qiong; Miller, Paul A.; Zhang, Qiang; Berntell, Ellen; Smith, Benjamin (11 December 2020). "Impacts of large‐scale Sahara solar farms on global climate and vegetation cover". Geophysical Research Letters. 48 (2): 2–3. doi:10.1029/2020GL090789. ISSN 1944-8007.
- ^ Brooks et al. 2007, p. 268.
- ^ Brooks et al. 2007, p. 269.
Sources
- Adkins, Jess; Menocal, Peter de; Eshel, Gidon (1 December 2006). "The "African humid period" and the record of marine upwelling from excess 230Th in Ocean Drilling Program Hole 658C" (PDF). Paleoceanography. 21 (4): PA4203. Bibcode:2006PalOc..21.4203A. doi:10.1029/2005PA001200. ISSN 1944-9186.
- Armitage, Simon J.; Bristow, Charlie S.; Drake, Nick A. (29 June 2015). "West African monsoon dynamics inferred from abrupt fluctuations of Lake Mega-Chad". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 112 (28): 8543–8548. Bibcode:2015PNAS..112.8543A. doi:10.1073/pnas.1417655112. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 4507243. PMID 26124133.
- Bard, Edouard (15 November 2013). "Out of the African Humid Period". Science. 342 (6160): 808–809. Bibcode:2013Sci...342..808B. doi:10.1126/science.1246519. ISSN 1095-9203. PMID 24233711. S2CID 206552609.
- Barker, Philip; Telford, Richard; Gasse, Françoise; Thevenon, Florian (November 2002). "Late Pleistocene and Holocene palaeohydrology of Lake Rukwa, Tanzania, inferred from diatom analysis". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 187 (3–4): 295–305. Bibcode:2002PPP...187..295B. doi:10.1016/S0031-0182(02)00482-0.
- Battarbee, Richard W.; Gasse, Françoise; Stickley, Catherine E. (2004). Past climate variability through Europe and Africa. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-2121-3.
- Baumhauer, Roland (2004). "Die spätpleistozänen und holozänen Paläoseen in der zentralen Sahara - neue Ergebnisse aus der Téneré, dem Erg de Téneré und dem Erg de Fachi-Bilma, NE-Niger". Die Erde (in German). 135 (Heft 3–4): 289–313.
- Baumhauer, Roland; Runge, Jörgen, eds. (27 February 2009). Holocene Palaeoenvironmental History of the Central Sahara: Palaeoecology of Africa. An International Yearbook of Landscape Evolution and Palaeoenvironments. 29 (1 ed.). CRC Press. doi:10.1201/9780203874899. ISBN 9780429206788.
- Beck, Catherine C.; Allen, Mary Margaret; Feibel, Craig S.; Beverly, Emily J.; Stone, Jeffery R.; Wegter, Bruce; Wilson, Charles L. (1 June 2019). "Living in a swampy paradise: Paleoenvironmental reconstruction of an African Humid Period lacustrine margin, West Turkana, Kenya". Journal of African Earth Sciences. 154: 20–34. Bibcode:2019JAfES.154...20B. doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.03.007. ISSN 1464-343X.
- Beer, Jürg; Hardy, Douglas R.; Mikhalenko, Vladimir N.; Lin, Ping-Nan; Mashiotta, Tracy A.; Zagorodnov, Victor S.; Brecher, Henry H.; Henderson, Keith A.; Davis, Mary E.; Mosley-Thompson, Ellen; Thompson, Lonnie G. (18 October 2002). "Kilimanjaro Ice Core Records: Evidence of Holocene Climate Change in Tropical Africa". Science. 298 (5593): 589–593. Bibcode:2002Sci...298..589T. doi:10.1126/science.1073198. ISSN 1095-9203. PMID 12386332. S2CID 32880316.
- Bendaoud, Abderrahmane; Hamimi, Zakaria; Hamoudi, Mohamed; Djemai, Safouane; Zoheir, Basem, eds. (2019). The Geology of the Arab World---An Overview. Springer Geology. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-96794-3. ISBN 978-3-319-96793-6. S2CID 199493195.
- Berke, Melissa A.; Johnson, Thomas C.; Werne, Josef P.; Schouten, Stefan; Sinninghe Damsté, Jaap S. (October 2012). "A mid-Holocene thermal maximum at the end of the African Humid Period". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 351–352: 95–104. Bibcode:2012E&PSL.351...95B. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2012.07.008. ISSN 0012-821X.
- Blanchet, C. L.; Contoux, C.; Leduc, G. (15 December 2015). "Runoff and precipitation dynamics in the Blue and White Nile catchments during the mid-Holocene: A data-model comparison". Quaternary Science Reviews. 130: 222–230. Bibcode:2015QSRv..130..222B. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.07.014. ISSN 0277-3791.
- Blanchet, Cécile L.; Tjallingii, Rik; Frank, Martin; Lorenzen, Janne; Reitz, Anja; Brown, Kevin; Feseker, Tomas; Brückmann, Warner (February 2013). "High- and low-latitude forcing of the Nile River regime during the Holocene inferred from laminated sediments of the Nile deep-sea fan". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 364: 98–110. Bibcode:2013E&PSL.364...98B. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2013.01.009. ISSN 0012-821X.
- Bloszies, C.; Forman, S.L.; Wright, D.K. (September 2015). "Water level history for Lake Turkana, Kenya in the past 15,000 years and a variable transition from the African Humid Period to Holocene aridity". Global and Planetary Change. 132: 64–76. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2015.06.006. ISSN 0921-8181.
- Blümel, Wolf Dieter (2002). "20000 Jahre Klimawandel und Kulturgeschichte – von der Eiszeit in die Gegenwart". Wechselwirkungen, Jahrbuch aus Lehre und Forschung der Universität Stuttgart (in German). doi:10.18419/opus-1619.
- Breunig, Peter; Neumann, Katharina; Van Neer, Wim (June 1996). "New research on the Holocene settlement and environment of the Chad Basin in Nigeria". African Archaeological Review. 13 (2): 111–145. doi:10.1007/BF01956304. S2CID 162196033.
- Bristow, Charlie S.; Holmes, Jonathan A.; Mattey, Dave; Salzmann, Ulrich; Sloane, Hilary J. (December 2018). "A late Holocene palaeoenvironmental 'snapshot' of the Angamma Delta, Lake Megachad at the end of the African Humid Period" (PDF). Quaternary Science Reviews. 202: 182–196. Bibcode:2018QSRv..202..182B. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.04.025. ISSN 0277-3791.
- Brookes, Ian A. (November 2003). "Geomorphic indicators of Holocene winds in Egypt's Western Desert". Geomorphology. 56 (1–2): 155–166. Bibcode:2003Geomo..56..155B. doi:10.1016/S0169-555X(03)00076-X. ISSN 0169-555X.
- Brooks, Nick; Chiapello, Isabelle; Lernia, Savino Di; Drake, Nick; Legrand, Michel; Moulin, Cyril; Prospero, Joseph (24 January 2007). "The climate-environment-society nexus in the Sahara from prehistoric times to the present day". The Journal of North African Studies. 10 (3–4): 253–292. doi:10.1080/13629380500336680. S2CID 145727673.
- IPCC (2014). "IPCC's Fifth Assessment Report: What's in it for Africa?" (PDF). CDKN.
- Burrough, S.L.; Thomas, D.S.G. (November 2013). "Central southern Africa at the time of the African Humid Period: a new analysis of Holocene palaeoenvironmental and palaeoclimate data". Quaternary Science Reviews. 80: 29–46. Bibcode:2013QSRv...80...29B. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.08.001. ISSN 0277-3791.
- Castañeda, Isla S.; Schouten, Stefan; Pätzold, Jürgen; Lucassen, Friedrich; Kasemann, Simone; Kuhlmann, Holger; Schefuß, Enno (March 2016). "Hydroclimate variability in the Nile River Basin during the past 28,000 years" (PDF). Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 438: 47–56. Bibcode:2016E&PSL.438...47C. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2015.12.014. ISSN 0012-821X.
- Chandan, Deepak; Peltier, W. Richard (16 November 2020). "African Humid Period Precipitation Sustained by Robust Vegetation, Soil, and Lake Feedbacks". Geophysical Research Letters. 47 (21): e88728. Bibcode:2020GeoRL..4788728C. doi:10.1029/2020GL088728.
- Chiotis, Eustathios (15 November 2018). Chiotis, Eustathios (ed.). Climate Changes in the Holocene: Impacts and Human Adaptation (1 ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press. doi:10.1201/9781351260244. ISBN 9781351260244.
- Claussen, Martin; Kubatzki, Claudia; Brovkin, Victor; Ganopolski, Andrey; Hoelzmann, Philipp; Pachur, Hans-Joachim (1999). "Simulation of an abrupt change in Saharan vegetation in the Mid-Holocene" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 26 (14): 2037–2040. Bibcode:1999GeoRL..26.2037C. doi:10.1029/1999GL900494. ISSN 1944-8007.
- Cohen, Andrew S.; Hopmans, Ellen C.; Damsté, Jaap S. Sinninghe; Huang, Yongsong; Russell, James M.; Tierney, Jessica E. (10 October 2008). "Northern Hemisphere Controls on Tropical Southeast African Climate During the Past 60,000 Years". Science. 322 (5899): 252–255. Bibcode:2008Sci...322..252T. doi:10.1126/science.1160485. ISSN 1095-9203. PMID 18787132. S2CID 7364713.
- Cole, Jennifer M.; Goldstein, Steven L.; Menocal, Peter B. de; Hemming, Sidney R.; Grousset, Francis E. (February 2009). "Contrasting compositions of Saharan dust in the eastern Atlantic Ocean during the last deglaciation and African Humid Period". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 278 (3–4): 257–266. Bibcode:2009E&PSL.278..257C. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2008.12.011. ISSN 0012-821X.
- Colin, Frédéric; Quiles, Anita; Schuster, Mathieu; Schwartz, Dominique; Duvette, Catherine; Marchand, Sylvie; Dorry, Mennat-Allah El; Heesch, Johan van (2020). "The End of the "green Oasis": Chronological Bayesian Modeling of Human and Environmental Dynamics in the Bahariya Area (Egyptian Sahara) from Pharaonic Third Intermediate Period to Medieval Times". Radiocarbon. 62: 25–49. doi:10.1017/RDC.2019.106. ISSN 0033-8222.
- Costa, Kassandra; Russell, James; Konecky, Bronwen; Lamb, Henry (January 2014). "Isotopic reconstruction of the African Humid Period and Congo Air Boundary migration at Lake Tana, Ethiopia". Quaternary Science Reviews. 83: 58–67. Bibcode:2014QSRv...83...58C. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.10.031. ISSN 0277-3791.
- Coutros, Peter R. (2019). "A fluid past: Socio-hydrological systems of the West African Sahel across the long durée". WIREs Water. 6 (5). doi:10.1002/wat2.1365. ISSN 2049-1948.
- Cremaschi, Mauro; Zerboni, Andrea (August 2009). "Early to Middle Holocene landscape exploitation in a drying environment: Two case studies compared from the central Sahara (SW Fezzan, Libya)". Comptes Rendus Geoscience. 341 (8–9): 689–702. Bibcode:2009CRGeo.341..689C. doi:10.1016/j.crte.2009.05.001. ISSN 1631-0713.
- Cremaschi, Mauro; Zerboni, Andrea; Spötl, Christoph; Felletti, Fabrizio (March 2010). "The calcareous tufa in the Tadrart Acacus Mt. (SW Fezzan, Libya)". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 287 (1–4): 81–94. Bibcode:2010PPP...287...81C. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.01.019. ISSN 0031-0182.
- Daniau, Anne-Laure; Desprat, Stéphanie; Aleman, Julie C.; Bremond, Laurent; Davis, Basil; Fletcher, William; Marlon, Jennifer R.; Marquer, Laurent; Montade, Vincent; Morales-Molino, César; Naughton, Filipa; Rius, Damien; Urrego, Dunia H. (1 June 2019). "Terrestrial plant microfossils in palaeoenvironmental studies, pollen, microcharcoal and phytolith. Towards a comprehensive understanding of vegetation, fire and climate changes over the past one million years" (PDF). Revue de Micropaléontologie. 63: 1–35. doi:10.1016/j.revmic.2019.02.001. hdl:10871/36362. ISSN 0035-1598.
- Dawelbeit, Ahmed; Jaillard, Etienne; Eisawi, Ali (1 December 2019). "Sedimentary and paleobiological records of the latest Pleistocene-Holocene climate evolution in the Kordofan region, Sudan". Journal of African Earth Sciences. 160: 103605. Bibcode:2019JAfES.16003605D. doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.103605. ISSN 1464-343X.
- Dixit, Vishal; Sherwood, Steven; Geoffroy, Olivier; Mantsis, Damianos (January 2018). "The Role of Nonlinear Drying above the Boundary Layer in the Mid-Holocene African Monsoon". Journal of Climate. 31 (1): 233–249. Bibcode:2018JCli...31..233D. doi:10.1175/jcli-d-17-0234.1.
- Donnelly, Jeffrey P.; Stager, J. Curt; Sushama, Laxmi; Zhang, Qiong; Diro, Gulilat T.; Chiacchio, Marc; Emanuel, Kerry A.; Pausata, Francesco S. R. (13 June 2017). "Tropical cyclone activity enhanced by Sahara greening and reduced dust emissions during the African Humid Period". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 114 (24): 6221–6226. Bibcode:2017PNAS..114.6221P. doi:10.1073/pnas.1619111114. ISSN 1091-6490. PMC 5474772. PMID 28559352.
- Drake, N.; Bristow, C. (1 September 2006). "Shorelines in the Sahara: geomorphological evidence for an enhanced monsoon from palaeolake Megachad". The Holocene. 16 (6): 901–911. Bibcode:2006Holoc..16..901D. doi:10.1191/0959683606hol981rr. S2CID 128565786.
- Eggermont, Hilde; Verschuren, Dirk; Fagot, Maureen; Rumes, Bob; Van Bocxlaer, Bert; Kröpelin, Stefan (December 2008). "Aquatic community response in a groundwater-fed desert lake to Holocene desiccation of the Sahara". Quaternary Science Reviews. 27 (25–26): 2411–2425. Bibcode:2008QSRv...27.2411E. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2008.08.028. ISSN 0277-3791.
- Engel, Max; Brückner, Helmut; Pint, Anna; Wellbrock, Kai; Ginau, Andreas; Voss, Peter; Grottker, Matthias; Klasen, Nicole; Frenzel, Peter (July 2012). "The early Holocene humid period in NW Saudi Arabia – Sediments, microfossils and palaeo-hydrological modelling". Quaternary International. 266: 131–141. Bibcode:2012QuInt.266..131E. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.04.028. ISSN 1040-6182.ar
- Forman, Steven L.; Wright, David K.; Bloszies, Christopher (August 2014). "Variations in water level for Lake Turkana in the past 8500 years near Mt. Porr, Kenya and the transition from the African Humid Period to Holocene aridity". Quaternary Science Reviews. 97: 84–101. Bibcode:2014QSRv...97...84F. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.05.005. ISSN 0277-3791.
- Gaetani, Marco; Messori, Gabriele; Zhang, Qiong; Flamant, Cyrille; Pausata, Francesco S. R. (October 2017). "Understanding the Mechanisms behind the Northward Extension of the West African Monsoon during the Mid-Holocene" (PDF). Journal of Climate. 30 (19): 7621–7642. Bibcode:2017JCli...30.7621G. doi:10.1175/jcli-d-16-0299.1.
- Ganopolski, A.; Chen, F.; Peng, Y.; Jin, L. (21 August 2009). "Modeling sensitivity study of the possible impact of snow and glaciers developing over Tibetan Plateau on Holocene African-Asian summer monsoon climate". Climate of the Past. 5 (3): 457–469. Bibcode:2009CliPa...5..457J. doi:10.5194/cp-5-457-2009. ISSN 1814-9324.
- Garcin, Yannick; Schildgen, Taylor F.; Torres Acosta, Verónica; Melnick, Daniel; Guillemoteau, Julien; Willenbring, Jane; Strecker, Manfred R. (February 2017). "Short-lived increase in erosion during the African Humid Period: Evidence from the northern Kenya Rift". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 459: 58–69. Bibcode:2017E&PSL.459...58G. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2016.11.017. ISSN 0012-821X.
- Gasse, Françoise (January 2000). "Hydrological changes in the African tropics since the Last Glacial Maximum". Quaternary Science Reviews. 19 (1–5): 189–211. Bibcode:2000QSRv...19..189G. doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(99)00061-X.
- Gasse, Françoise; Van Campo, Elise (September 1994). "Abrupt post-glacial climate events in West Asia and North Africa monsoon domains". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 126 (4): 435–456. Bibcode:1994E&PSL.126..435G. doi:10.1016/0012-821X(94)90123-6.
- Gross, Thilo; Guimarães, Paulo R.; Koch, Paul L.; Dominy, Nathaniel J.; Rudolf, Lars; Pires, Mathias M.; Yeakel, Justin D. (7 October 2014). "Collapse of an ecological network in Ancient Egypt". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111 (40): 14472–14477. arXiv:1409.7006. Bibcode:2014PNAS..11114472Y. doi:10.1073/pnas.1408471111. ISSN 1091-6490. PMC 4210013. PMID 25201967.
- Groucutt, Huw S; Breeze, Paul S; Guagnin, Maria; Stewart, Mathew; Drake, Nick; Shipton, Ceri; Zahrani, Badr; Omarfi, Abdulaziz Al; Alsharekh, Abdullah M; Petraglia, Michael D (December 2020). "Monumental landscapes of the Holocene humid period in Northern Arabia: The mustatil phenomenon". The Holocene. 30 (12): 1767–1779. Bibcode:2020Holoc..30.1767G. doi:10.1177/0959683620950449. PMC 7575307. PMID 33132543.
- Guilderson, Thomas P.; Charles, Christopher D.; Crosta, Xavier; Shemesh, Aldo; Kanfoush, Sharon L.; Hodell, David A. (2001). "Abrupt Cooling of Antarctic Surface Waters and Sea Ice Expansion in the South Atlantic Sector of the Southern Ocean at 5000 cal yr B.P.". Quaternary Research. 56 (2): 191–198. Bibcode:2001QuRes..56..191H. doi:10.1006/qres.2001.2252. ISSN 1096-0287.
- Hamann, Yvonne; Ehrmann, Werner; Schmiedl, Gerhard; Kuhnt, Tanja (20 January 2017). "Modern and late Quaternary clay mineral distribution in the area of the SE Mediterranean Sea". Quaternary Research. 71 (3): 453–464. Bibcode:2009QuRes..71..453H. doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2009.01.001. ISSN 0033-5894.
- Hamdan, Mohamed A.; Brook, George A. (December 2015). "Timing and characteristics of Late Pleistocene and Holocene wetter periods in the Eastern Desert and Sinai of Egypt, based on 14 C dating and stable isotope analysis of spring tufa deposits". Quaternary Science Reviews. 130: 168–188. Bibcode:2015QSRv..130..168H. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.09.011. ISSN 0277-3791.
- Hamdan, M. A.; Flower, R. J.; Hassan, F. A.; Hassan, S. M. (1 June 2020). "The Holocene history of the Faiyum Lake (Egypt) based on sediment characteristics, diatoms and ostracods contents". Journal of Great Lakes Research. 46 (3): 456–475. doi:10.1016/j.jglr.2020.03.016. ISSN 0380-1330.
- Hamdan, M. A.; Flower, R. J.; Hassan, F. A.; Leroy, S. A. G. (1 July 2020). "Geochemical and palynological analysis of Faiyum Lake sediments, Egypt: Implications for holocene paleoclimate". Journal of African Earth Sciences. 167: 103864. Bibcode:2020JAfES.16703864H. doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2020.103864. ISSN 1464-343X.
- Haslett, Simon K; Davies, Catherine F C (1 March 2006). "Late Quaternary climate–ocean changes in western North Africa: offshore geochemical evidence". Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers. 31 (1): 34–52. doi:10.1111/j.1475-5661.2006.00193.x. ISSN 0020-2754.
- Hayes, Christopher T.; Wallace, Davin J. (1 February 2019). "Exploring records of Saharan dust transport and hurricanes in the western North Atlantic over the Holocene". Quaternary Science Reviews. 205: 1–9. Bibcode:2019QSRv..205....1H. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.11.018. ISSN 0277-3791.
- Heine, Klaus (2019). Das Quartär in den Tropen: Eine Rekonstruktion des Paläoklimas (in German). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-57384-6. ISBN 978-3-662-57383-9.
- Hély, Christelle; Braconnot, Pascale; Watrin, Julie; Zheng, Weipeng (August 2009). "Climate and vegetation: Simulating the African humid period". Comptes Rendus Geoscience. 341 (8–9): 671–688. Bibcode:2009CRGeo.341..671H. doi:10.1016/j.crte.2009.07.002. ISSN 1631-0713.
- Hoelzmann, Philipp; Keding, Birgit; Berke, Hubert; Kröpelin, Stefan; Kruse, Hans-Joachim (May 2001). "Environmental change and archaeology: lake evolution and human occupation in the Eastern Sahara during the Holocene". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 169 (3–4): 193–217. Bibcode:2001PPP...169..193H. doi:10.1016/S0031-0182(01)00211-5.
- Hoelzmann, Philipp; Holmes, Jonathan (26 April 2017). "The Late Pleistocene-Holocene African Humid Period as Evident in Lakes". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Climate Science. 1. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.531.
- Hopcroft, Peter O.; Valdes, Paul J.; Harper, Anna B.; Beerling, David J. (16 July 2017). "Multi vegetation model evaluation of the Green Sahara climate regime: RAINFALL SUPPORTING A GREEN SAHARA". Geophysical Research Letters. 44 (13): 6804–6813. doi:10.1002/2017GL073740.
- Hou, Mei; Wu, Wen Xiang (5 December 2020). "A review of 6000-5000 cal BP climatic anomalies in China". Quaternary International. 571: 58–72. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2020.12.004. ISSN 1040-6182.
- Huang, Jianbin; Wang, Shaowu; Wen, Xinyu; Yang, Bao (December 2008). "Progress in studies of the climate of humid period and the impacts of changing precession in early-mid Holocene". Progress in Natural Science. 18 (12): 1459–1464. doi:10.1016/j.pnsc.2008.05.011. ISSN 1002-0071.
- Hughes, Philip D.; Fenton, C.R.; Gibbard, Philip L. (1 January 2011). Quaternary Glaciations of the Atlas Mountains, North Africa. Developments in Quaternary Sciences. 15. pp. 1065–1074. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-53447-7.00076-3. ISBN 9780444534477. ISSN 1571-0866.
- Jahns, Susanne (1 February 1995). "A holocene pollen diagram from El Atrun, northern Sudan". Vegetation History and Archaeobotany. 4 (1): 23–30. doi:10.1007/BF00198612. ISSN 1617-6278. S2CID 129636065.
- Jones, Sacha C.; Stewart, Brian A., eds. (2016). Africa from MIS 6-2: Population Dynamics and Paleoenvironments. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-7520-5. ISBN 9789401775199. S2CID 12509903.
- Jung, S.J.A.; Davies, G.R.; Ganssen, G.M.; Kroon, D. (30 April 2004). "Stepwise Holocene aridification in NE Africa deduced from dust-borne radiogenic isotope records". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 221 (1–4): 27–37. Bibcode:2004E&PSL.221...27J. doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(04)00095-0. ISSN 0012-821X.
- Junginger, Annett; Roller, Sybille; Olaka, Lydia A.; Trauth, Martin H. (February 2014). "The effects of solar irradiation changes on the migration of the Congo Air Boundary and water levels of paleo-Lake Suguta, Northern Kenya Rift, during the African Humid Period (15–5ka BP)". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 396: 1–16. Bibcode:2014PPP...396....1J. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2013.12.007. ISSN 0031-0182.
- Junginger, Annett; Trauth, Martin H. (December 2013). "Hydrological constraints of paleo-Lake Suguta in the Northern Kenya Rift during the African Humid Period (15–5kaBP)". Global and Planetary Change. 111: 174–188. Bibcode:2013GPC...111..174J. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2013.09.005. ISSN 0921-8181.
- Kendall, C. G. C. (26 August 2020). Alsharhan, A.S; Glennie, K.W; Whittle, G.L; Kendall, C.G.C (eds.). Quaternary Deserts and Climatic Change. CRC Press. doi:10.1201/9781003077862. ISBN 978-1-003-07786-2.
- Kennett, Douglas J.; Kennett, James P. (1 January 2007). Influence of Holocene marine transgression and climate change on cultural evolution in southern Mesopotamia. Climate Change and Cultural Dynamics. pp. 229–264. doi:10.1016/B978-012088390-5.50012-1. ISBN 9780120883905.
- Khalidi, Lamya; Mologni, Carlo; Ménard, Clément; Coudert, Lucie; Gabriele, Marzia; Davtian, Gourguen; Cauliez, Jessie; Lesur, Joséphine; Bruxelles, Laurent; Chesnaux, Lorène; Redae, Blade Engda; Hainsworth, Emily; Doubre, Cécile; Revel, Marie; Schuster, Mathieu; Zazzo, Antoine (1 September 2020). "9000 years of human lakeside adaptation in the Ethiopian Afar: Fisher-foragers and the first pastoralists in the Lake Abhe basin during the African Humid Period". Quaternary Science Reviews. 243: 106459. Bibcode:2020QSRv..24306459K. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2020.106459. ISSN 0277-3791.
- Kindermann, Karin; Classen, Erich (2010). Djara: zur mittelholozänen Besiedlungsgeschichte zwischen Niltal und Oasen, Abu-Muharik-Plateau, Ägypten (in German). Köln: Heinrich-Barth-Instut. ISBN 978-3-927688-35-3. OCLC 641458909.
- Kocurek, Gary; Westerman, Robin; Hern, Caroline; Tatum, Dominic; Rajapara, H. M.; Singhvi, Ashok K. (1 April 2020). "Aeolian dune accommodation space for Holocene Wadi Channel Avulsion Strata, Wahiba Dune Field, Oman". Sedimentary Geology. 399: 105612. Bibcode:2020SedG..39905612K. doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2020.105612. ISSN 0037-0738.
- Krinner, G.; Lézine, A.-M.; Braconnot, P.; Sepulchre, P.; Ramstein, G.; Grenier, C.; Gouttevin, I. (2012). "A reassessment of lake and wetland feedbacks on the North African Holocene climate". Geophysical Research Letters. 39 (7). Bibcode:2012GeoRL..39.7701K. doi:10.1029/2012GL050992. ISSN 1944-8007.
- Krüger, Stefan; Beuscher, Sarah; Schmiedl, Gerhard; Ehrmann, Werner (27 January 2017). "Intensity of African Humid Periods Estimated from Saharan Dust Fluxes". PLOS ONE. 12 (1): e0170989. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1270989E. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0170989. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 5271358. PMID 28129378.
- Kuper, Rudolph (January 2006). "After 5000 BC: The Libyan desert in transition". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 5 (1–2): 409–419. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2005.10.013.
- Kuzmicheva, Evgeniya A.; Debella, Habte Jebessa; Khasanov, Bulat F.; Krylovich, Olga A.; Girmay, Wondwossen; Vasyukov, Dmitry D.; Yirga, Solomon; Savinetsky, Arkady B. (14 November 2017). "ECOSYSTEM HISTORY OF THE BALE MOUNTAINS". Ethiopian Journal of Biological Sciences. 16 (1): 61–93. ISSN 1819-8678.
- Lancaster, Nicholas (2020). "On the formation of desert loess". Quaternary Research. 96: 105–122. Bibcode:2020QuRes..96..105L. doi:10.1017/qua.2020.33. ISSN 0033-5894.
- Lebamba, Judicaël; Vincens, Annie; Lézine, Anne-Marie; Marchant, Rob; Buchet, Guillaume (December 2016). "Forest-savannah dynamics on the Adamawa plateau (Central Cameroon) during the "African humid period" termination: A new high-resolution pollen record from Lake Tizong". Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology. 235: 129–139. doi:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2016.10.001. ISSN 0034-6667.
- Lernia, Savino di; Biagetti, Stefano; Ryan, Kathleen; Bruni, Silvia; Cramp, Lucy; Salque, Mélanie; Evershed, Richard P.; Dunne, Julie (June 2012). "First dairying in green Saharan Africa in the fifth millennium bc". Nature. 486 (7403): 390–394. Bibcode:2012Natur.486..390D. doi:10.1038/nature11186. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 22722200. S2CID 39800.
- Lernia, Savino di; Biagetti, Stefano; Bruni, Slivia; Cramp, Lucy; Evershed, Richard P.; Dunne, Julie (8 December 2013). "The beginnings of dairying as practised by pastoralists in 'green' Saharan Africa in the 5th millennium BC". Documenta Praehistorica. 40: 118–130. doi:10.4312/dp.40.10. ISSN 1854-2492.
- Lernia, Savino di; Bruni, Silvia; Evershed, Richard P.; Mercuri, Anna Maria; Dunne, Julie (January 2017). "Earliest direct evidence of plant processing in prehistoric Saharan pottery". Nature Plants. 3 (1): 16194. doi:10.1038/nplants.2016.194. hdl:11380/1121484. ISSN 2055-0278. PMID 27991880. S2CID 28162195.
- Lézine, Anne-Marie; Duplessy, Jean-Claude; Cazet, Jean-Pierre (April 2005). "West African monsoon variability during the last deglaciation and the Holocene: Evidence from fresh water algae, pollen and isotope data from core KW31, Gulf of Guinea". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 219 (3–4): 225–237. Bibcode:2005PPP...219..225L. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2004.12.027. ISSN 0031-0182.
- Lézine, Anne-Marie (August 2009). "Timing of vegetation changes at the end of the Holocene Humid Period in desert areas at the northern edge of the Atlantic and Indian monsoon systems". Comptes Rendus Geoscience. 341 (8–9): 750–759. Bibcode:2009CRGeo.341..750L. doi:10.1016/j.crte.2009.01.001. ISSN 1631-0713.
- Lézine, Anne-Marie; Robert, Christian; Cleuziou, Serge; Inizan, Marie-Louise; Braemer, Frank; Saliège, Jean-François; Sylvestre, Florence; Tiercelin, Jean-Jacques; Crassard, Rémy; Méry, Sophie; Charpentier, Vincent; Steimer-Herbet, Tara (July 2010). "Climate change and human occupation in the Southern Arabian lowlands during the last deglaciation and the Holocene". Global and Planetary Change. 72 (4): 412–428. Bibcode:2010GPC....72..412L. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2010.01.016. ISSN 0921-8181.
- Lézine, Anne-Marie; Holl, Augustin F.-C.; Lebamba, Judicaël; Vincens, Annie; Assi-Khaudjis, Chimène; Février, Louis; Sultan, Émmanuelle (July 2013). "Temporal relationship between Holocene human occupation and vegetation change along the northwestern margin of the Central African rainforest". Comptes Rendus Geoscience. 345 (7–8): 327–335. Bibcode:2013CRGeo.345..327L. doi:10.1016/j.crte.2013.03.001. ISSN 1631-0713.
- Lézine, Anne-Marie (24 May 2017). "Vegetation at the Time of the African Humid Period". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Climate Science. 1. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.530.
- Lézine, Anne-Marie; Ivory, Sarah J.; Braconnot, Pascale; Marti, Olivier (15 May 2017). "Timing of the southward retreat of the ITCZ at the end of the Holocene Humid Period in Southern Arabia: Data-model comparison". Quaternary Science Reviews. 164: 68–76. Bibcode:2017QSRv..164...68L. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.03.019. ISSN 0277-3791.
- Linstädter, Jörg; Kröpelin, Stefan (2004). "Wadi Bakht revisited: Holocene climate change and prehistoric occupation in the Gilf Kebir region of the Eastern Sahara, SW Egypt". Geoarchaeology. 19 (8): 753–778. doi:10.1002/gea.20023. ISSN 1520-6548.
- Liu, Z. Y.; Kiefer, T.; Guo, Z. T.; Fasullo, J.; Cheng, H.; Wang, B.; Wang, P. X. (21 November 2014). "The global monsoon across timescales: coherent variability of regional monsoons". Climate of the Past. 10 (6): 2007–2052. Bibcode:2014CliPa..10.2007W. doi:10.5194/cp-10-2007-2014. ISSN 1814-9324.
- Liu, Zhengyu; Cobb, Kim M.; Stager, J. Curt; Niedermeyer, Eva M.; Chafik, Léon; Lu, Zhengyao; Muschitiello, Francesco; Zhang, Qiong; Pausata, Francesco S. R. (7 July 2017). "Greening of the Sahara suppressed ENSO activity during the mid-Holocene". Nature Communications. 8: 16020. Bibcode:2017NatCo...816020P. doi:10.1038/ncomms16020. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 5504352. PMID 28685758.
- Liu, Xiting; Rendle-Bühring, Rebecca; Kuhlmann, Holger; Li, Anchun (February 2017). "Two phases of the Holocene East African Humid Period: Inferred from a high-resolution geochemical record off Tanzania". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 460: 123–134. Bibcode:2017E&PSL.460..123L. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2016.12.016. ISSN 0012-821X.
- Magny, Michel; Haas, Jean Nicolas (2004). "A major widespread climatic change around 5300 cal. yr BP at the time of the Alpine Iceman". Journal of Quaternary Science. 19 (5): 423–430. Bibcode:2004JQS....19..423M. doi:10.1002/jqs.850. ISSN 1099-1417.
- Maley, J (November 2000). "Last Glacial Maximum lacustrine and fluviatile Formations in the Tibesti and other Saharan mountains, and large-scale climatic teleconnections linked to the activity of the Subtropical Jet Stream". Global and Planetary Change. 26 (1–3): 121–136. Bibcode:2000GPC....26..121M. doi:10.1016/S0921-8181(00)00039-4.
- Marshall, Michael H.; Lamb, Henry F.; Davies, Sarah J.; Leng, Melanie J.; Kubsa, Zelalem; Umer, Mohammed; Bryant, Charlotte (1 August 2009). "Climatic change in northern Ethiopia during the past 17,000 years: A diatom and stable isotope record from Lake Ashenge". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 279 (1): 114–127. Bibcode:2009PPP...279..114M. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2009.05.003. ISSN 0031-0182.
- Marsicek, Jeremiah P.; Shuman, Bryan; Brewer, Simon; Foster, David R.; Oswald, W. Wyatt (November 2013). "Moisture and temperature changes associated with the mid-Holocene Tsuga decline in the northeastern United States". Quaternary Science Reviews. 80: 129–142. Bibcode:2013QSRv...80..129M. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.09.001. ISSN 0277-3791.
- Martin, Max; Damodaran, Vinita; D'Souza, Rohan, eds. (2019). Geography in Britain after World War II: Nature, Climate, and the Etchings of Time. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-28323-0. ISBN 978-3-030-28322-3.
- Maslin, Mark; Manning, Katie; Brierley, Chris (1 October 2018). "Pastoralism may have delayed the end of the green Sahara". Nature Communications. 9 (1): 4018. Bibcode:2018NatCo...9.4018B. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-06321-y. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 6167352. PMID 30275473.
- Matter, Albert; Mahjoub, Ayman; Neubert, Eike; Preusser, Frank; Schwalb, Antje; Szidat, Sönke; Wulf, Gerwin (October 2016). "Reactivation of the Pleistocene trans-Arabian Wadi ad Dawasir fluvial system (Saudi Arabia) during the Holocene humid phase" (PDF). Geomorphology. 270: 88–101. Bibcode:2016Geomo.270...88M. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.07.013.
- McCool, Jon-Paul (15 April 2019). "Carbonates as evidence for groundwater discharge to the Nile River during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene". Geomorphology. 331: 4–21. Bibcode:2019Geomo.331....4M. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2018.09.026. ISSN 0169-555X.
- McGee, David; deMenocal, Peter B. (20 November 2017). "Climatic Changes and Cultural Responses During the African Humid Period Recorded in Multi-Proxy Data". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Climate Science. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Climate Science. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.529. ISBN 9780190228620. Retrieved 29 April 2020 – via Semantic Scholar.
- Médail, Frédéric; Duong, Nathalie; Roig, Anne; Fady, Bruno; Juin, Marianick; Baumel, Alex; Migliore, Jérémy (18 September 2013). "Surviving in Mountain Climate Refugia: New Insights from the Genetic Diversity and Structure of the Relict Shrub Myrtus nivellei (Myrtaceae) in the Sahara Desert". PLOS ONE. 8 (9): e73795. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...873795M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0073795. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3776782. PMID 24058489.
- Menocal, Peter de; Ortiz, Joseph; Guilderson, Tom; Adkins, Jess; Sarnthein, Michael; Baker, Linda; Yarusinsky, Martha (January 2000). "Abrupt onset and termination of the African Humid Period". Quaternary Science Reviews. 19 (1–5): 347–361. Bibcode:2000QSRv...19..347D. doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(99)00081-5. ISSN 0277-3791.
- Menocal, Peter B. de (February 2015). "Palaeoclimate: End of the African Humid Period". Nature Geoscience. 8 (2): 86–87. Bibcode:2015NatGe...8...86D. doi:10.1038/ngeo2355. ISSN 1752-0908.
- Mercuri, Anna Maria; D'Andrea, A. Catherine; Fornaciari, Rita; Höhn, Alexa, eds. (2018). Plants and People in the African Past: Progress in African Archaeobotany. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-89839-1. ISBN 9783319898384. S2CID 51890928.
- Metcalfe, Sarah E.; Nash, David J., eds. (28 September 2012). Quaternary Environmental Change in the Tropics. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. doi:10.1002/9781118336311. ISBN 978-1-118-33631-1.
- Morrill, Carrie; Overpeck, Jonathan T.; Cole, Julia E. (27 July 2016). "A synthesis of abrupt changes in the Asian summer monsoon since the last deglaciation". The Holocene. 13 (4): 465–476. Bibcode:2003Holoc..13..465M. doi:10.1191/0959683603hl639ft. S2CID 54673585.
- Morrissey, Amy; Scholz, Christopher A. (June 2014). "Paleohydrology of Lake Turkana and its influence on the Nile River system". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 403: 88–100. Bibcode:2014PPP...403...88M. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2014.03.029. ISSN 0031-0182.
- Moeyersons, Jan; Nyssen, Jan; Poesen, Jean; Deckers, Jozef; Haile, Mitiku (January 2006). "Age and backfill/overfill stratigraphy of two tufa dams, Tigray Highlands, Ethiopia: Evidence for Late Pleistocene and Holocene wet conditions". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 230 (1–2): 165–181. Bibcode:2006PPP...230..165M. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2005.07.013.
- Muhs, Daniel R.; Roskin, Joel; Tsoar, Haim; Skipp, Gary; Budahn, James R.; Sneh, Amihai; Porat, Naomi; Stanley, Jean-Daniel; Katra, Itzhak; Blumberg, Dan G. (June 2013). "Origin of the Sinai–Negev erg, Egypt and Israel: mineralogical and geochemical evidence for the importance of the Nile and sea level history". Quaternary Science Reviews. 69: 28–48. Bibcode:2013QSRv...69...28M. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.02.022. ISSN 0277-3791.
- Muschitiello, Francesco; Zhang, Qiong; Sundqvist, Hanna S.; Davies, Frazer J.; Renssen, Hans (October 2015). "Arctic climate response to the termination of the African Humid Period". Quaternary Science Reviews. 125: 91–97. Bibcode:2015QSRv..125...91M. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.08.012. ISSN 0277-3791.
- Neer, Wim Van; Alhaique, Francesca; Wouters, Wim; Dierickx, Katrien; Gala, Monica; Goffette, Quentin; Mariani, Guido S.; Zerboni, Andrea; Lernia, Savino di (19 February 2020). "Aquatic fauna from the Takarkori rock shelter reveals the Holocene central Saharan climate and palaeohydrography". PLOS ONE. 15 (2): e0228588. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1528588V. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0228588. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 7029841. PMID 32074116.
- Niedermeyer, Eva M.; Schefuß, Enno; Sessions, Alex L.; Mulitza, Stefan; Mollenhauer, Gesine; Schulz, Michael; Wefer, Gerold (November 2010). "Orbital- and millennial-scale changes in the hydrologic cycle and vegetation in the western African Sahel: insights from individual plant wax δD and δ13C". Quaternary Science Reviews. 29 (23–24): 2996–3005. Bibcode:2010QSRv...29.2996N. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.06.039. ISSN 0277-3791.
- Olsen, Sandra L. (1 January 2017). "Weighing the Evidence for Ancient Afro-Arabian Cultural Connections through Neolithic Rock Art". Human Interaction with the Environment in the Red Sea. pp. 89–129. doi:10.1163/9789004330825_007. ISBN 9789004330825.
- Pachur, Hans-Joachim; Altmann, Norbert (2006). Die Ostsahara im Spätquartär : Ökosystemwandel im größten hyperariden Raum der Erde (in German). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. ISBN 9783540476252. OCLC 315826557.
- Pausata, Francesco S.R.; Gaetani, Marco; Messori, Gabriele; Berg, Alexis; Maia de Souza, Danielle; Sage, Rowan F.; deMenocal, Peter B. (March 2020). "The Greening of the Sahara: Past Changes and Future Implications". One Earth. 2 (3): 235–250. doi:10.1016/j.oneear.2020.03.002. ISSN 2590-3322.
- Peck, John; Scholz, Christopher A.; King, John; Heil, Clifford W.; Otto-Bliesner, Bette; Overpeck, Jonathan T.; Hughen, Konrad A.; McKay, Nicholas P.; Shanahan, Timothy M. (February 2015). "The time-transgressive termination of the African Humid Period". Nature Geoscience. 8 (2): 140–144. Bibcode:2015NatGe...8..140S. doi:10.1038/ngeo2329. ISSN 1752-0908.
- Pennington, Benjamin T.; Hamdan, Mohamed A.; Pears, Ben R.; Sameh, Hamed I. (30 April 2019). "Aridification of the Egyptian Sahara 5000–4000 cal BP revealed from x-ray fluorescence analysis of Nile Delta sediments at Kom al-Ahmer/Kom Wasit" (PDF). Quaternary International. 514: 108–118. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2019.01.015. ISSN 1040-6182.
- Perego, Alessandro; Zerboni, Andrea; Cremaschi, Mauro (1 January 2011). "Geomorphological Map of the Messak Settafet and Mellet (Central Sahara, SW Libya)". Journal of Maps. 7 (1): 464–475. doi:10.4113/jom.2011.1207. S2CID 129383111.
- Petit-Maire, N. (1989), "Interglacial Environments in Presently Hyperarid Sahara : Palaeoclimatic Implications", in Leinen, Margaret; Sarnthein, Michael (eds.), Paleoclimatology and Paleometeorology: Modern and Past Patterns of Global Atmospheric Transport, NATO ASI Series, Springer Netherlands, pp. 637–661, doi:10.1007/978-94-009-0995-3_27, ISBN 9789400909953
- Petoukhov, Vladimir; Kubatzki, Claudia; Ganopolski, Andrey; Brovkin, Victor; Claussen, Martin (1 March 2003). "Climate Change in Northern Africa: The Past is Not the Future" (PDF). Climatic Change. 57 (1–2): 99–118. doi:10.1023/A:1022115604225. ISSN 1573-1480. S2CID 53386559.
- Petraglia, Michael D.; Rose, Jeffrey I., eds. (2010). The Evolution of Human Populations in Arabia: Paleoenvironments, Prehistory and Genetics. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology. Springer Netherlands. ISBN 9789048127184 – via Academia.edu.
- Phelps, Leanne N.; Chevalier, Manuel; Shanahan, Timothy M.; Aleman, Julie C.; Courtney‐Mustaphi, Colin; Kiahtipes, Christopher Albert; Broennimann, Oliver; Marchant, Rob; Shekeine, John; Quick, Lynne J.; Davis, Basil A. S.; Guisan, Antoine; Manning, Katie (August 2020). "Asymmetric response of forest and grassy biomes to climate variability across the African Humid Period: influenced by anthropogenic disturbance?". Ecography. 43 (8): 1118–1142. doi:10.1111/ecog.04990.
- Phillipps, Rebecca; Holdaway, Simon; Wendrich, Willeke; Cappers, René (February 2012). "Mid-Holocene occupation of Egypt and global climatic change". Quaternary International. 251: 64–76. Bibcode:2012QuInt.251...64P. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.04.004. ISSN 1040-6182.
- Piao, Jinling; Chen, Wen; Wang, Lin; Pausata, Francesco S. R.; Zhang, Qiong (1 January 2020). "Northward extension of the East Asian summer monsoon during the mid-Holocene". Global and Planetary Change. 184: 103046. Bibcode:2020GPC...18403046P. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2019.103046. ISSN 0921-8181.
- Pirie, Anne; Garfi, Salvatore; Clarke, Joanne; Brooks, Nick (2009). "The archaeology of Western Sahara: results of environmental and archaeological reconnaissance". Antiquity. 83 (322): 918–934. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00099257. ISSN 1745-1744. S2CID 161364490.
- Prasad, Sushma; Negendank, Jörg F. W. (2004), Fischer, Hubertus; Kumke, Thomas; Lohmann, Gerrit; Flöser, Götz (eds.), "Holocene Palaeoclimate in the Saharo—Arabian Desert", The Climate in Historical Times: Towards a Synthesis of Holocene Proxy Data and Climate Models, GKSS School of Environmental Research, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 209–227, doi:10.1007/978-3-662-10313-5_12, ISBN 9783662103135
- Quade, J.; Dente, E.; Armon, M.; Ben Dor, Y.; Morin, E.; Adam, O.; Enzel, Y. (14 June 2018). "Megalakes in the Sahara? A Review". Quaternary Research. 90 (2): 253–275. Bibcode:2018QuRes..90..253Q. doi:10.1017/qua.2018.46. ISSN 0033-5894.
- Radies, D.; Hasiotis, S.T.; Preusser, F.; Neubert, E.; Matter, A. (July 2005). "Paleoclimatic significance of Early Holocene faunal assemblages in wet interdune deposits of the Wahiba Sand Sea, Sultanate of Oman". Journal of Arid Environments. 62 (1): 109–125. Bibcode:2005JArEn..62..109R. doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2004.09.021.
- Ramos, Ana; Ramil, Fran; Sanz, José Luis, eds. (2017). Deep-Sea Ecosystems Off Mauritania. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. doi:10.1007/978-94-024-1023-5. ISBN 9789402410211. S2CID 46208390.
- Reid, Rachel E. B.; Jones, Mica; Brandt, Steven; Bunn, Henry; Marshall, Fiona (15 November 2019). "Oxygen isotope analyses of ungulate tooth enamel confirm low seasonality of rainfall contributed to the African Humid Period in Somalia". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 534: 109272. Bibcode:2019PPP...534j9272R. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2019.109272. ISSN 0031-0182.
- Reimer, Paula J.; Carr, Andrew S.; Meadows, Michael E.; Chase, Brian M. (2010). "Evidence for progressive Holocene aridification in southern Africa recorded in Namibian hyrax middens: Implications for African Monsoon dynamics and the African Humid Period". Quaternary Research. 74 (1): 36–45. Bibcode:2010QuRes..74...36C. doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2010.04.006. ISSN 1096-0287.
- Renaud, P. G.; Riegl, B. M.; Rowlands, G. P.; Purkis, S. J. (1 March 2010). "The paradox of tropical karst morphology in the coral reefs of the arid Middle East". Geology. 38 (3): 227–230. Bibcode:2010Geo....38..227P. doi:10.1130/G30710.1. ISSN 0091-7613.
- Renssen, H.; Brovkin, V.; Fichefet, T.; Goosse, H. (1 February 2003). "Holocene climate instability during the termination of the African Humid Period". Geophysical Research Letters. 30 (4): 1184. Bibcode:2003GeoRL..30.1184R. doi:10.1029/2002GL016636. hdl:1871/23157. ISSN 1944-8007.
- Renssen, H.; Brovkin, V.; Fichefet, T.; Goosse, H. (June 2006). "Simulation of the Holocene climate evolution in Northern Africa: The termination of the African Humid Period". Quaternary International. 150 (1): 95–102. Bibcode:2006QuInt.150...95R. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2005.01.001. ISSN 1040-6182.
- Revel, Marie; Ducassou, E.; Grousset, F.E.; Bernasconi, S.M.; Migeon, S.; Revillon, S.; Mascle, J.; Murat, A.; Zaragosi, S.; Bosch, D. (June 2010). "100,000 Years of African monsoon variability recorded in sediments of the Nile margin". Quaternary Science Reviews. 29 (11–12): 1342–1362. Bibcode:2010QSRv...29.1342R. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.02.006. ISSN 0277-3791.
- Riemer, H. (2006). Youssef, S.A.A (ed.). Archaeology and Environment of the Western Desert of Egypt: 14C-Based Human Occupation History as an Archive for Holocene Palaeoclimatic Reconstruction. Proceedings of The First International Conference on the Geology of the Tethys. Cairo: Cairo University. pp. 553–564 – via Academia.edu.
- Rojas, Virginia P.; Meynadier, Laure; Colin, Christophe; Bassinot, Franck; Valet, Jean-Pierre; Miska, Serge (15 May 2019). "Multi-tracer study of continental erosion and sediment transport to the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden during the last 20 ka". Quaternary Science Reviews. 212: 135–148. Bibcode:2019QSRv..212..135R. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.02.033. ISSN 0277-3791.
- Roubeix, Vincent; Chalié, Françoise (6 September 2018). "New insights into the termination of the African Humid Period (5.5 ka BP) in central Ethiopia from detailed analysis of a diatom record" (PDF). Journal of Paleolimnology. 61 (1): 99–110. Bibcode:2019JPall..61...99R. doi:10.1007/s10933-018-0047-7. ISSN 1573-0417. S2CID 134871122.
- Röhl, Ursula; Lamy, Frank; Bickert, Torsten; Jahn, Alexandra; Fohlmeister, Jens; Stuut, Jan-Berend W.; Claussen, Martin; Tjallingii, Rik (October 2008). "Coherent high- and low-latitude control of the northwest African hydrological balance". Nature Geoscience. 1 (10): 670–675. Bibcode:2008NatGe...1..670T. doi:10.1038/ngeo289. ISSN 1752-0908.
- Runge, Jürgen (1 November 2010). Runge, Jörgen (ed.). African Palaeoenvironments and Geomorphic Landscape Evolution: Palaeoecology of Africa Vol. 30, An International Yearbook of Landscape Evolution and Palaeoenvironments (1 ed.). CRC Press. doi:10.1201/b10542. ISBN 9780203845271.
- Runge, Jürgen (15 November 2013). Runge, Jörgen (ed.). New Studies on Former and Recent Landscape Changes in Africa: Palaeoecology of Africa 32 (1 ed.). CRC Press. doi:10.1201/b15982. ISBN 9781315815053.
- Russell, James; Ivory, Sarah J. (2018). "Lowland forest collapse and early human impacts at the end of the African Humid Period at Lake Edward, equatorial East Africa". Quaternary Research. 89 (1): 7–20. Bibcode:2018QuRes..89....7I. doi:10.1017/qua.2017.48. ISSN 1096-0287.
- Sachse, Dirk; Brauer, Achim; Strecker, Manfred R.; Tjallingii, Rik; Epp, Laura S.; Ako, Andrew A.; Onana, Jean-Michel; Mbusnum, Kevin G.; Brademann, Brian; Oslisly, Richard; Dupont, Lydie M.; Sebag, David; Schefuß, Enno; Saulieu, Geoffroy de; Ménot, Guillemette; Deschamps, Pierre; Garcin, Yannick (27 March 2018). "Early anthropogenic impact on Western Central African rainforests 2,600 y ago". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (13): 3261–3266. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115.3261G. doi:10.1073/pnas.1715336115. ISSN 1091-6490. PMC 5879660. PMID 29483260.
- Said, Rushdi (1993). "PAST FLUCTUATIONS OF THE NILE". The River Nile. Elsevier. pp. 127–169. doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-041886-5.50020-5. ISBN 9780080418865. Retrieved 4 May 2019.
- Sangen, Mark (2012). "Late Quaternary palaeoenvironments in Southern Cameroon as evidenced by alluvial sediments from the tropical rain forest and savanna domain". In Runge, Jürgen (ed.). Landscape evolution, neotectonics and quaternary environmental change in southern Cameroon (1 ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press/Balkema. ISBN 9780203120200. OCLC 802261801.
- Santisteban, Juan I.; Mediavilla, Rosa; Galán de Frutos, Luis; López Cilla, Ignacio (1 October 2019). "Holocene floods in a complex fluvial wetland in central Spain: Environmental variability, climate and time". Global and Planetary Change. 181: 102986. Bibcode:2019GPC...18102986S. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2019.102986. ISSN 0921-8181.
- Schefuß, Enno; Roche, Didier; Skonieczny, Charlotte; Mulitza, Stefan; Beckmann, Britta; Gimeno, Luis; Caley, Thibaut; Prange, Matthias; Collins, James A. (8 November 2017). "Rapid termination of the African Humid Period triggered by northern high-latitude cooling". Nature Communications. 8 (1): 1372. Bibcode:2017NatCo...8.1372C. doi:10.1038/s41467-017-01454-y. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 5678106. PMID 29118318.
- Schuster, Mathieu; Nutz, Alexis (1 December 2016). "Stepwise drying of Lake Turkana at the end of the African Humid Period: a forced regression modulated by solar activity variations?". Solid Earth. 7 (6): 1609–1618. Bibcode:2016SolE....7.1609N. doi:10.5194/se-7-1609-2016. ISSN 1869-9510.
- Sepulchre, P; Schuster, M; Ramstein, G; Krinnezr, G; Girard, J; Vignaud, P; Brunet, M (March 2008). "Evolution of Lake Chad Basin hydrology during the mid-Holocene: A preliminary approach from lake to climate modelling". Global and Planetary Change. 61 (1–2): 41–48. Bibcode:2008GPC....61...41S. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2007.08.010. ISSN 0921-8181.
- Servant, M.; Buchet, G.; Vincens, A. (4 May 2010). "Vegetation response to the "African Humid Period" termination in Central Cameroon (7° N) – new pollen insight from Lake Mbalang". Climate of the Past. 6 (3): 281–294. Bibcode:2010CliPa...6..281V. doi:10.5194/cp-6-281-2010. ISSN 1814-9324.
- Sha, Lijuan; Ait Brahim, Yassine; Wassenburg, Jasper A.; Yin, Jianjun; Peros, Matthew; Cruz, Francisco W.; Cai, Yanjun; Li, Hanying; Du, Wenjing; Zhang, Haiwei; Edwards, R. Lawrence; Cheng, Hai (13 December 2019). "How Far North Did the African Monsoon Fringe Expand During the African Humid Period? Insights From Southwest Moroccan Speleothems". Geophysical Research Letters. 46 (23): 14093–14102. Bibcode:2019GeoRL..4614093S. doi:10.1029/2019GL084879.
- Shi, ZhengGuo; Liu, XiaoDong (1 October 2009). "Effect of precession on the Asian summer monsoon evolution: A systematic review". Chinese Science Bulletin. 54 (20): 3720–3730. Bibcode:2009ChSBu..54.3720L. doi:10.1007/s11434-009-0540-5. ISSN 1861-9541. S2CID 93829069.
- Skinner, Christopher B.; Poulsen, Christopher J. (2016). "The role of fall season tropical plumes in enhancing Saharan rainfall during the African Humid Period". Geophysical Research Letters. 43 (1): 349–358. Bibcode:2016GeoRL..43..349S. doi:10.1002/2015GL066318. ISSN 1944-8007.
- Smith, Benjamin Daniel (March 2018). "Hunting in yellow waters: an ethnoarchaeological perspective on selective fishing on Lake Turkana". Quaternary International. 471: 241–251. Bibcode:2018QuInt.471..241S. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2017.11.038.
- Soriano, S.; Tribolo, Ch; Maggetti, M.; Ozainne, S.; Ballouche, A.; Fahmy, A.; Neumann, K.; Lespez, L.; Rasse, M.; Huysecom, E. (2009). "The emergence of pottery in Africa during the tenth millennium cal BC: new evidence from Ounjougou (Mali)". Antiquity. 83 (322): 905–917. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00099245. ISSN 1745-1744. S2CID 60439470.
- Spinage, Clive A. (2012), "The Changing Climate of Africa Part I: Introduction and Eastern Africa", African Ecology, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 57–141, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-22872-8_2, ISBN 9783642228711
- Sponholz, B.; Baumhauer, R.; Felix-Henningsen, P. (1 June 1993). "Fulgurites in the southern Central Sahara, Republic of Niger and their palaeoenvironmental significance". The Holocene. 3 (2): 97–104. Bibcode:1993Holoc...3...97S. doi:10.1177/095968369300300201. S2CID 56110306.
- Stivers, Jeffrey P.; Dutheil, Didier B.; Moots, Hannah M.; Cocca, Enzo; N'siala, Isabella Massamba; Giraudi, Carlo; Kaye, Thomas G.; Jr, Thomas W. Stafford; Mercuri, Anna Maria (14 August 2008). "Lakeside Cemeteries in the Sahara: 5000 Years of Holocene Population and Environmental Change". PLOS ONE. 3 (8): e2995. Bibcode:2008PLoSO...3.2995S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002995. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 2515196. PMID 18701936.
- Stojanowski, Christopher M.; Carver, Charisse L.; Miller, Katherine A. (September 2014). "Incisor avulsion, social identity and Saharan population history: New data from the Early Holocene southern Sahara". Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 35: 79–91. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2014.04.007. ISSN 0278-4165.
- Sun, Weiyi; Wang, Bin; Zhang, Qiong; Pausata, Francesco S. R.; Chen, Deliang; Lu, Guonian; Yan, Mi; Ning, Liang; Liu, Jian (19 August 2019). "Northern Hemisphere Land Monsoon Precipitation Increased by the Green Sahara During Middle Holocene". Geophysical Research Letters. 46 (16): 9870–9879. Bibcode:2019GeoRL..46.9870S. doi:10.1029/2019GL082116.
- Sun, Weiyi; Wang, Bin; Zhang, Qiong; Chen, Deliang; Lu, Guonian; Liu, Jian (2 December 2020). "Middle East Climate Response to the Saharan Vegetation Collapse during the Mid-Holocene". Journal of Climate. 34 (1): 229–242. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-20-0317.1. ISSN 0894-8755.
- Sylvestre, F.; Doumnang, J.-C.; Deschamps, P.; Buchet, G.; Guiot, J.; Vincens, A.; Amaral, P. G. C. (29 January 2013). "Palynological evidence for gradual vegetation and climate changes during the African Humid Period termination at 13°N from a Mega-Lake Chad sedimentary sequence". Climate of the Past. 9 (1): 223–241. Bibcode:2013CliPa...9..223A. doi:10.5194/cp-9-223-2013. ISSN 1814-9324.
- Tafuri, Mary Anne; Bentley, R. Alexander; Manzi, Giorgio; di Lernia, Savino (September 2006). "Mobility and kinship in the prehistoric Sahara: Strontium isotope analysis of Holocene human skeletons from the Acacus Mts. (southwestern Libya)". Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 25 (3): 390–402. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2006.01.002. ISSN 0278-4165.
- Talbot, Michael R.; Filippi, Maria Letizia; Jensen, Niels Bo; Tiercelin, Jean-Jacques (March 2007). "An abrupt change in the African monsoon at the end of the Younger Dryas" (PDF). Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 8 (3). Bibcode:2007GGG.....8.3005T. doi:10.1029/2006GC001465.
- Thompson, Alexander J.; Skinner, Christopher B.; Poulsen, Christopher J.; Zhu, Jiang (2019). "Modulation of Mid-Holocene African Rainfall by Dust Aerosol Direct and Indirect Effects". Geophysical Research Letters. 46 (7): 3917–3926. Bibcode:2019GeoRL..46.3917T. doi:10.1029/2018GL081225. ISSN 1944-8007.
- Tierney, Jessica E.; Lewis, Sophie C.; Cook, Benjamin I.; LeGrande, Allegra N.; Schmidt, Gavin A. (July 2011). "Model, proxy and isotopic perspectives on the East African Humid Period". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 307 (1–2): 103–112. Bibcode:2011E&PSL.307..103T. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2011.04.038. ISSN 0012-821X.
- Timm, Oliver; Köhler, Peter; Timmermann, Axel; Menviel, Laurie (May 2010). "Mechanisms for the Onset of the African Humid Period and Sahara Greening 14.5–11 ka BP*" (PDF). Journal of Climate. 23 (10): 2612–2633. Bibcode:2010JCli...23.2612T. doi:10.1175/2010jcli3217.1.
- Toomey, Michael R.; Curry, William B.; Donnelly, Jeffrey P.; van Hengstum, Peter J. (March 2013). "Reconstructing 7000 years of North Atlantic hurricane variability using deep-sea sediment cores from the western Great Bahama Bank: A 7000 YR RECORD OF HURRICANE ACTIVITY". Paleoceanography. 28 (1): 31–41. doi:10.1002/palo.20012. hdl:1912/5928.
- Wang, Lixin; Brook, George A.; Burney, David A.; Voarintsoa, Ny Riavo G.; Liang, Fuyuan; Cheng, Hai; Edwards, R. Lawrence (15 April 2019). "The African Humid Period, rapid climate change events, the timing of human colonization, and megafaunal extinctions in Madagascar during the Holocene: Evidence from a 2m Anjohibe Cave stalagmite". Quaternary Science Reviews. 210: 136–153. Bibcode:2019QSRv..210..136W. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.02.004. ISSN 0277-3791.
- Watrin, Julie; Lézine, Anne-Marie; Hély, Christelle (August 2009). "Plant migration and plant communities at the time of the "green Sahara"". Comptes Rendus Geoscience. 341 (8–9): 656–670. Bibcode:2009CRGeo.341..656W. doi:10.1016/j.crte.2009.06.007. hdl:11380/708996. ISSN 1631-0713.
- Wendorf, Fred; Karlén, Wibjörn; Schild, Romuald (1 January 2007). Middle Holocene environments of north and east Africa, with special emphasis on the African Sahara. Climate Change and Cultural Dynamics. pp. 189–227. doi:10.1016/B978-012088390-5.50011-X. ISBN 9780120883905.
- White, Kevin H.; Bristow, Charlie S.; Armitage, Simon J.; Blench, Roger M.; Drake, Nick A. (11 January 2011). "Ancient watercourses and biogeography of the Sahara explain the peopling of the desert". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (2): 458–462. Bibcode:2011PNAS..108..458D. doi:10.1073/pnas.1012231108. ISSN 1091-6490. PMC 3021035. PMID 21187416.
- Williams, Martin; Talbot, Michael; Aharon, Paul; Abdl Salaam, Yassin; Williams, Frances; Inge Brendeland, Knut (October 2006). "Abrupt return of the summer monsoon 15,000 years ago: new supporting evidence from the lower White Nile valley and Lake Albert". Quaternary Science Reviews. 25 (19–20): 2651–2665. Bibcode:2006QSRv...25.2651W. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.07.019. ISSN 0277-3791.
- Williams, M.A.J.; Williams, F.M.; Duller, G.A.T.; Munro, R.N.; El Tom, O.A.M.; Barrows, T.T.; Macklin, M.; Woodward, J.; Talbot, M.R.; Haberlah, D. (May 2010). "Late Quaternary floods and droughts in the Nile valley, Sudan: new evidence from optically stimulated luminescence and AMS radiocarbon dating". Quaternary Science Reviews. 29 (9–10): 1116–1137. Bibcode:2010QSRv...29.1116W. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.02.018. ISSN 0277-3791.
- Wong, Jun Yi (2020). "The Role of Environmental Factors in the Early Development of Egyptian Stone Architecture". Cambridge Archaeological Journal. 31: 53–65. doi:10.1017/S0959774320000232. ISSN 0959-7743.
- Wu, Jiawang; Liu, Zhifei; Stuut, Jan-Berend W.; Zhao, Yulong; Schirone, Antonio; de Lange, Gert J. (May 2017). "North-African paleodrainage discharges to the central Mediterranean during the last 18,000 years: A multiproxy characterization". Quaternary Science Reviews. 163: 95–113. Bibcode:2017QSRv..163...95W. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.03.015. ISSN 0277-3791.
- Vahrenholt, F.; Lüning, S. (2019), "Holocene Climate Development of North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula", The Geology of the Arab World---An Overview, Springer Geology, Springer, Cham, pp. 507–546, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-96794-3_14, ISBN 9783319967936
- van der Lubbe, H.J.L.; Krause-Nehring, J.; Junginger, A.; Garcin, Y.; Joordens, J.C.A.; Davies, G.R.; Beck, C.; Feibel, C.S.; Johnson, T.C.; Vonhof, H.B. (October 2017). "Gradual or abrupt? Changes in water source of Lake Turkana (Kenya) during the African Humid Period inferred from Sr isotope ratios". Quaternary Science Reviews. 174: 1–12. Bibcode:2017QSRv..174....1V. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.08.010. ISSN 0277-3791.
- Vermeersch, Pierre; Linseele, Veerle; Marinova, Elena (2008). "Holocene environment and subsistence patterns near the Tree Shelter, Red Sea Mountains, Egypt". Quaternary Research. 70 (3): 392–397. Bibcode:2008QuRes..70..392M. doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2008.08.002. ISSN 1096-0287.
- Vincenzo, De Santis; Massimo, Caldara (26 May 2015). "The 5.5–4.5 kyr climatic transition as recorded by the sedimentation pattern of coastal deposits of the Apulia region, southern Italy". The Holocene. 25 (8): 1313–1329. Bibcode:2015Holoc..25.1313V. doi:10.1177/0959683615584207. S2CID 129760951.
- Zerboni, Andrea; Trombino, Luca; Cremaschi, Mauro (January 2011). "Micromorphological approach to polycyclic pedogenesis on the Messak Settafet plateau (central Sahara): Formative processes and palaeoenvironmental significance". Geomorphology. 125 (2): 319–335. Bibcode:2011Geomo.125..319Z. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2010.10.015. ISSN 0169-555X.
- Zerboni, Andrea; Gatto, Maria Carmela (1 June 2015). "Holocene Supra-Regional Environmental Changes as Trigger for Major Socio-Cultural Processes in Northeastern Africa and the Sahara". African Archaeological Review. 32 (2): 301–333. doi:10.1007/s10437-015-9191-x. ISSN 1572-9842. S2CID 126834892.
- Zerboni, Andrea; Nicoll, Kathleen (15 April 2019). "Enhanced zoogeomorphological processes in North Africa in thehuman-impacted landscapes of the Anthropocene". Geomorphology. 331: 22–35. Bibcode:2019Geomo.331...22Z. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2018.10.011. ISSN 0169-555X.
- Zielhofer, Christoph; Faust, Dominik; Escudero, Rafael Baena; del Olmo, Fernando Diaz; Kadereit, Annette; Moldenhauer, Klaus-Martin; Porras, Ana (24 July 2016). "Centennial-scale late-Pleistocene to mid-Holocene synthetic profile of the Medjerda Valley, northern Tunisia". The Holocene. 14 (6): 851–861. Bibcode:2004Holoc..14..851Z. doi:10.1191/0959683604hl765rp. S2CID 129977747.
- Zielhofer, Christoph; Suchodoletz, Hans von; Fletcher, William J.; Schneider, Birgit; Dietze, Elisabeth; Schlegel, Michael; Schepanski, Kerstin; Weninger, Bernhard; Mischke, Steffen; Mikdad, Abdeslam (September 2017). "Millennial-scale fluctuations in Saharan dust supply across the decline of the African Humid Period". Quaternary Science Reviews. 171: 119–135. Bibcode:2017QSRv..171..119Z. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.07.010. ISSN 0277-3791.
Внешние ссылки
- Bloszies, Christopher (28 October 2014). Water Level History of Lake Turkana, Kenya and Hydroclimate Variability during the African Humid Period (Master of Science thesis).
- Fraedrich, Klaus F. (2013). Analysis of multistability and abrupt transitions – method studies with a global atmosphere-vegetation model simulating the end of the African Humid Period (PhD thesis). Hamburg University Hamburg. doi:10.17617/2.1602269.
- Krause, Jan (2013). Holozäne Landschaftsentwicklung und Paläohydrologie der Zentralen Sahara (PhD thesis) (in German).
- Reick, Christian (27 September 2017). Effects of plant diversity on simulated climate-vegetation interaction towards the end of the African Humid Period (PhD thesis). Universität Hamburg Hamburg. doi:10.17617/2.2479574.