| Иосиф Сталин | |
|---|---|
 Портрет 1937 года, использованный в государственных рекламных целях | |
| Генеральный секретарь Коммунистической партии Советского Союза | |
| Занимал должность 3 апреля 1922 г. - 16 октября 1952 г. [а] | |
| Предшествует | Вячеслав Молотов (как ответственный секретарь ) |
| Преемник | Георгий Маленков ( де-факто ) [б] |
| Председатель Совета Народных Комиссаров Советского Союза. | |
| В офисе 6 мая 1941 г. - 15 марта 1946 г. | |
| Предшествует | Вячеслав Молотов |
| Преемник | офис упразднен |
| Председатель Совета Министров Советского Союза | |
| В офисе 15 марта 1946 - 5 марта 1953 | |
| Президент | Михаил Калинин Николай Шверник |
| Первые заместители | |
| Предшествует | Вячеслав Молотов |
| Преемник | Георгий Маленков |
| Член Учредительного собрания России | |
| В должности 25 ноября 1917 г. - 20 января 1918 г. [c] | |
| Подается вместе | Николай Кутлер , Павел Милюков , Родичев, Максим Винавер , Черепанов, Евдокимов, Михаил Калинин , Юзеф Унслихт , Григорий Зиновьев , Борис Камков , Шрайдер |
| Предшествует | Избирательный округ создан |
| Преемник | Избирательный округ упразднен |
| Округ | Петроградская метрополия |
| Министр обороны | |
| В офисе с 15 марта 1946 года по 3 марта 1947 года. | |
| Предшествует | себя наркомом обороны Советского Союза |
| Преемник | Николай Булганин |
| Нарком по делам национальностей РСФСР | |
| В должности 1917 г. - 7 июля 1923 г. | |
| Предшествует | положение установлено |
| Преемник | должность упразднена |
| Нарком обороны СССР | |
| В офисе 19 июля 1941 г. - 25 февраля 1946 г. | |
| Предшествует | Семен Тимошенко |
| Преемник | себя наркомом Вооруженных Сил СССР |
| Личные данные | |
| Родившийся | Иосеб Бесарионис дзе Джугашвили [d] 18 декабря [ OS 6] 1878 г. Гори , Тифлисская губерния , Кавказское наместничество , Российская империя (ныне Грузия ) |
| Умер | 5 марта 1953 (74 года) Кунцево Дача , Кунцево , Москва , Российская СФСР , Советский Союз (ныне Россия ) |
| Причина смерти | Кровоизлияние в мозг |
| Место отдыха | Мавзолей Ленина , Москва (9 марта 1953 - 31 октября 1961) Некрополь Кремлевской стены , Москва (с 31 октября 1961) |
| Политическая партия | РСДРП (1901–1903) РСДРП ( большевики ) (1903–1918) КПСС (1918–1953) |
| Супруг (а) | Екатерина Сванидзе Взаимодействие с другими людьми Взаимодействие с другими людьми ( М. 1906; д. 1907)Надежда Аллилуева Взаимодействие с другими людьми Взаимодействие с другими людьми ( М. 1919; д. 1932) |
| Дети |
|
| Мама | Екатерина Геладзе |
| Отец | Бесарион Джугашвили |
| Кабинет | Сталин I – II |
| Религия | Нет ( атеизм ) Бывший православный грузин |
| Подпись | |
| Военная служба | |
| Псевдоним (ы) | Коба Человек из стали Красный Царь Кремлевский горец |
| Верность | Советский союз |
| Филиал / служба | Советские Вооруженные Силы |
| Годы службы |
|
| Классифицировать | Маршал Советского Союза (1943 г.) |
| Команды |
|
| Битвы / войны |
|
| Награды |
|
Членство в центральном учреждении
Другие офисы занимали
Лидер Советского Союза
| |
Иосиф Виссарионович Сталин [f] (18 декабря [ OS 6 декабря] 1878 [1] - 5 марта 1953) был грузинским революционером и правителем Советского Союза с 1927 по 1953 год. Он был Генеральным секретарем Коммунистической партии России. Советский Союз (1922–1952) и Председатель Совета Министров Советского Союза (1941–1953). Несмотря на то, что первоначально он управлял страной как часть коллективного руководства , он в конечном итоге консолидировал власть и к 1930-м годам стал фактическим диктатором Советского Союза . Коммунистическая идеологически привержен ленинскоВ интерпретации марксизма Сталин формализовал эти идеи как марксизм-ленинизм, в то время как его собственная политика известна как сталинизм .
Родился в бедной семье в Гори в Российской империи (ныне Грузия ). В юности Сталин вступил в Марксистскую Российскую социал-демократическую рабочую партию . Затем он редактировал партийную газету « Правда» и собирал средства для большевистской фракции Владимира Ленина с помощью грабежей, похищений и рэкетов . Неоднократно подвергался арестам, несколько раз подвергся внутренней ссылке. После того, как большевики захватили власть во время Октябрьской революции и создали однопартийное государство при недавно переименованной Лениным Коммунистической партии в 1917 году, Сталин присоединился к ее руководящему Политбюро . Обслуживание вГражданская война в России До того, как в 1922 году возглавил Советский Союз , Сталин взял на себя руководство страной после смерти Ленина в 1924 году . При Сталине социализм в одной стране стал центральным постулатом партийной догмы . В рамках пятилетних планов страна подверглась коллективизации сельского хозяйства и быстрой индустриализации , создав централизованную командную экономику . Это привело к серьезным перебоям в производстве продуктов питания, что привело к голоду 1932–1933 годов . Искоренить обвиняемых « врагов рабочего класса».«Сталин организовал Великую чистку , в ходе которой с 1934 по 1939 год было заключено в тюрьму более миллиона человек и по меньшей мере 700 000 казнено. К 1937 году он имел полный личный контроль над партией и государством.
Правительство Сталина продвигало марксизм-ленинизм за рубежом через Коммунистический Интернационал и поддерживало европейские антифашистские движения в течение 1930-х годов, особенно во время гражданской войны в Испании . В 1939 году он подписал пакт о ненападении с нацистской Германией , в результате чего советское вторжение в Польшу . Германия разорвала договор, вторгшись в Советский Союз в 1941 году. Несмотря на первоначальные неудачи, Советская Красная Армия отразила немецкое вторжение и захватила Берлин в 1945 году, положив конец Второй мировой войне в Европе. Советы аннексировали страны Балтии и помогли установитьПравительства стран Центральной и Восточной Европы, Китая и Северной Кореи, поддерживающие Советский Союз . Советский Союз и Соединенные Штаты вышли из войны мировыми сверхдержавами . Напряженность, возникшая между поддерживаемым Советским Союзом Восточным блоком и поддерживаемым США Западным блоком, стала известна как холодная война . Сталин провел свою страну через послевоенное восстановление, в ходе которого в 1949 году было разработано ядерное оружие . В эти годы страна пережила еще один крупный голод и антисемитскую кампанию, достигшую своего пика в заговоре врачей . После смерти Сталинав 1953 году, он был в конце концов сменили Никита Хрущев , который осудил его и инициировал десталинизация в советском обществе .
Считающийся одной из самых значительных фигур XX века, Сталин был объектом всепроникающего культа личности в международном марксистско-ленинском движении, которое почитало его как поборника рабочего класса и социализма . После распада Советского Союза в 1991 году Сталин сохранил популярность в России и Грузии как победоносный лидер военного времени, сделавший Советский Союз крупной мировой державой. Напротив, его тоталитарное правительство широко осуждалось за надзор за массовыми репрессиями , этническими чистками , широкомасштабными депортациями , сотнями тысяч казней и голодом , унесшим жизни миллионов людей..
Ранний период жизни
Детство - юность: 1878–1899 гг.
Имя Сталина при рождении - Иосеб Бесарионис дзе Джугашвили [г] . Он родился в грузинском городе Гори , [2] в то время входившем в состав Тифлисской губернии Российской империи и являвшимся домом для смешанных грузинских, армянских, русских и еврейских общин. [3] Он родился 18 декабря [ OS 6 декабря] 1878 г. [4] [h] и крестился 29 декабря. [6] Его родители, Бесарион Джугашвили и Екатерина Геладзе , [7] были этническими грузинами , и Сталин вырос, говоря на грузинском языке . [8]Он был их единственным ребенком, пережившим младенчество [9], и получил прозвище «Сосо», уменьшительное от «Иосеб». [10]
Бесарион был сапожником, работавшим в мастерской, принадлежавшей другому человеку; [11] изначально это был финансовый успех, но позже пришел в упадок, [12] и семья оказалась в бедности. [13] Бесарион стал алкоголиком [14] и в состоянии алкогольного опьянения избил свою жену и сына. [15] Екатерина и Сталин покинули дом к 1883 году и начали бродячую жизнь, перемещаясь по девяти разным арендованным комнатам в течение следующего десятилетия. [16] В 1886 году они переехали в дом друга семьи, отца Кристофера Чарквиани. [17] Екатерина работала уборщицей и прачечной и была полна решимости отправить сына в школу. [18]В сентябре 1888 года Сталин поступил в Горийскую церковную школу, которую занял Чарквиани. [19] Несмотря на то, что он попал в много боев, [20] Сталин превосходил академический, [21] отображение таланта в живописи и драматических классах, [22] писать свои стихи , [23] и пение как певчий. [24] Сталин столкнулся с несколькими серьезными проблемами со здоровьем: оспа 1884 года оставила у него шрамы на лице; [25] и в возрасте 12 лет он был серьезно ранен, когда его ударил фаэтон , что, вероятно, стало причиной пожизненной инвалидности в его левой руке. [26]
В августе 1894 года Сталин поступил в Православную духовную семинарию в Тифлисе , получив стипендию, позволившую ему учиться по льготному тарифу. [27] Он присоединился к 600 стажерам-священникам, которые поселились там, [28] и получил высокие оценки. [29] Он продолжал писать стихи; пять его стихотворений на такие темы, как природа, земля и патриотизм, были опубликованы под псевдонимом «Сосело» в газете Ильи Чавчавадзе « Иверия» ( Грузия ). [30] [31] По словам биографа Сталина Саймона Себага Монтефиоре , они стали «второстепенными грузинскими классиками» [32]и были включены в различные антологии грузинской поэзии в последующие годы. [32] С возрастом Сталин потерял интерес к священническому обучению, его оценки упали [33], и его неоднократно заключали в камеру за свое бунтарское поведение. [34] В дневнике семинарии отмечалось, что он объявил себя атеистом, уклонился от молитв и отказался снимать шляпу перед монахами. [35]
Сталин вступил в клуб запрещенной книги в школе; [36] на него особенно повлиял прореволюционный роман Николая Чернышевского 1863 года « Что делать?» [37] Другой влиятельный текст - «Отцеубийство» Александра Казбеги , в котором Сталин взял прозвище «Коба» от имени главного бандитского героя книги. [38] Он также прочитал « Капитал» , книгу 1867 года немецкого социологического теоретика Карла Маркса . [39] Сталин посвятил себя общественно-политическую теорию Маркса, марксизм , [40] , который был тогда на подъеме в Грузии, одной из различных формсоциализм противостоял царской власти империи . [41] Ночью он присутствовал на тайных рабочих собраниях [42] и был представлен Силибистро «Сильва» Джибладзе , марксистскому основателю Месаме Даси («Третья группа»), грузинской социалистической группы. [43] Сталин покинул семинарию в апреле 1899 года и больше не вернулся. [44]
Российская социал-демократическая рабочая партия: 1899–1904 гг.
В октябре 1899 года Сталин начал работать метеорологом в Тифлисской обсерватории. [45] Он привлек группу сторонников через свои классы социалистической теории [46] и стал одним из организаторов тайного массового митинга рабочих на Первомай 1900 года [47], на котором он успешно призвал многих людей к забастовке. [48] К этому моменту тайная полиция империи, Охрана , знала о деятельности Сталина в революционной среде Тифлиса. [48] Они попытались арестовать его в марте 1901 года, но он сбежал и скрылся [49], живя на пожертвования друзей и сочувствующих. [50]Оставаясь в подполье, он помог спланировать демонстрацию на Первомай 1901 года, в которой 3000 участников марша столкнулись с властями. [51] Он продолжал избегать ареста, используя псевдонимы и спал в разных квартирах. [52] В ноябре 1901 года он был избран в Тифлисский комитет Российской социал-демократической рабочей партии (РСДРП), марксистской партии, основанной в 1898 году. [53]
В том же месяце Сталин отправился в портовый город Батуми . [54] Его воинственная риторика вызвала разногласия среди марксистов города, некоторые из которых подозревали, что он мог быть агентом-провокатором, работающим на правительство. [55] Он нашел работу на складе нефтеперерабатывающего завода Ротшильдов , где он стал одним из организаторов двух забастовок рабочих. [56] После ареста нескольких лидеров забастовки он стал одним из организаторов массовой общественной демонстрации, которая привела к штурму тюрьмы; войска обстреляли демонстрантов, 13 из которых были убиты. [57] Сталин организовал еще одну массовую демонстрацию в день их похорон [58], прежде чем был арестован в апреле 1902 года.[59] Сначала содержался в тюрьме Батуми [60], а затем в тюрьме Кутаиси [61], в середине 1903 года он был приговорен к трем годам ссылки в Восточной Сибири. [62]
Сталин покинул Батуми в октябре и прибыл в небольшой сибирский городок Новая Уда в конце ноября 1903 года. [63] Там он жил в двухкомнатном крестьянском доме, спал в кладовой дома. [64] Он предпринял две попытки побега: в первой он добрался до Балаганска, прежде чем вернуться из-за обморожения . [65] Его вторая попытка, в январе 1904 г., увенчалась успехом, и он добрался до Тифлиса. [66] Там он вместе с Филиппом Махарадзе редактировал грузинскую марксистскую газету « Пролетариатис Брдзола» («Борьба пролетариата») . [67]Он призвал грузинское марксистское движение отделиться от своего российского аналога, в результате чего несколько членов РСДРП обвинили его в том, что он придерживается взглядов, противоречащих этосу марксистского интернационализма, и призвали исключить его из партии; вскоре он отказался от своего мнения. [68] Во время своего изгнания, РСДРП был раскол между В. И. Ленина «s„ большевики “и Мартов » S „ меньшевиков “. [69] Сталин ненавидел многих меньшевиков в Грузии и присоединился к большевикам. [70] Хотя он основал опорный пункт большевиков в шахтерском городке Чиатура , [71]Большевизм оставался силой меньшинства на грузинской революционной сцене, где доминировали меньшевики. [72]
Революция 1905 г. и ее последствия: 1905–1912 гг.
В январе 1905 года правительственные войска расправились с демонстрантами в Санкт-Петербурге. Вскоре волнения распространились по Российской империи, что стало известно как революция 1905 года . [74] Особенно пострадала Грузия. [75] Сталин был в Баку в феврале, когда вспыхнули этнические столкновения между армянами и азербайджанцами; не менее 2000 были убиты. [76] Он публично раскритиковал «погромы против евреев и армян» как часть попыток царя Николая II «укрепить свой презренный трон». [77]Сталин сформировал большевистский боевой отряд, который он использовал, чтобы разлучить воюющие этнические группировки Баку; он также использовал беспорядки как прикрытие для кражи печатного оборудования. [77] На фоне растущего насилия по всей Грузии он сформировал новые боевые отряды, и меньшевики сделали то же самое. [78] Отряды Сталина разоружили местную полицию и войска, [79] совершили набег на правительственные арсеналы [80] и собрали средства с помощью рэкетов на крупных местных предприятиях и шахтах. [81] Они начали нападения на казачьи войска правительства и процарские черносотенцы , [82]координируя часть своих операций с меньшевистской милицией. [83]
В ноябре 1905 года грузинские большевики избрали Сталина одним из своих делегатов на большевистскую конференцию в Санкт-Петербурге. [84] По прибытии он встретился с женой Ленина Надеждой Крупской , которая сообщила ему, что место проведения было перенесено в Тампере в Великое княжество Финляндское . [85] На конференции Сталин впервые встретился с Лениным. [86] Хотя Сталин глубоко уважал Ленина, он открыто не соглашался с точкой зрения Ленина о том, что большевики должны выдвигать кандидатов на предстоящих выборах в Государственную Думу ; Сталин считал парламентский процесс пустой тратой времени. [87]В апреле 1906 г. Сталин присутствовал на IV съезде РСДРП в Стокгольме ; это была его первая поездка за пределы Российской империи. [88] На конференции РСДРП - тогда возглавлявшаяся меньшевистским большинством - согласилась с тем, что не будет собирать средства с помощью вооруженного разбоя. [89] Ленин и Сталин не согласились с этим решением [90] и позже в частном порядке обсуждали, как они могут продолжить грабежи для дела большевиков. [91]
Сталин женился на Като Сванидзе на церковной церемонии в Сенаки в июле 1906 года. [92] В марте 1907 года она родила сына Якова . [93] К тому году - по словам историка Роберта Сервиса - Сталин зарекомендовал себя как «ведущий большевик Грузии». [94] Он присутствовал на Пятом съезде РСДРП , проходившем в Лондоне в мае-июне 1907 года. [95] Вернувшись в Тифлис, Сталин организовал ограбление крупной партии денег Имперскому банку в июне 1907 года. Его банда устроила засаду на вооруженных людей. колонна на Ереванской площадис стрельбой и самодельными бомбами. Около 40 человек были убиты, но вся его банда спаслась живыми. [96] После ограбления Сталин поселился в Баку с женой и сыном. [97] Там меньшевики выступили против Сталина по поводу ограбления и проголосовали за исключение его из РСДРП, но он не обратил на них внимания. [98]
В Баку Сталин обеспечил большевистское господство в местном отделении РСДРП [99] и редактировал две большевистские газеты - « Бакинский пролетарий» и « Гудок» («Свисток»). [100] В августе 1907 года он присутствовал на VII съезде в II Интернационала - международной социалистической организации - в Штутгарте , Германия. [101] В ноябре 1907 г. его жена умерла от тифа , [102] , и он оставил свой сын со своей семьей в Тифлисе. [103] В Баку он собрал свою банду, Экипировку, [104]которые продолжали атаковать черносотенцев и собирали финансы, используя рэкет, фальсифицируя валюту и совершая грабежи. [105] Они также похитили детей нескольких богатых людей, чтобы получить выкуп. [106] В начале 1908 года он поехал в швейцарский город Женеву, чтобы встретиться с Лениным и выдающимся русским марксистом Георгием Плехановым , хотя последний разозлил его. [107]
В марте 1908 года Сталин был арестован и заключен в Баиловскую тюрьму в Баку. [108] Там он возглавил заключенных в тюрьму большевиков, организовал дискуссионные группы и приказал убить подозреваемых осведомителей. [109] Он был в конечном счете приговорен к двум годам ссылки в селе Сольвычегодск , Вологодской губернии , прибыв туда в феврале 1909 г. [110] В июне он бежал из деревни , и сделал это в Котласе под видом женщины , а оттуда в Санкт Петербург. [111] В марте 1910 г. его снова арестовали и отправили обратно в Сольвычегодск. [112]Там у него были романы по крайней мере с двумя женщинами; его квартирная хозяйка Мария Кузакова позже родила ему второго сына Константина . [113] В июне 1911 года Сталину разрешили переехать в Вологду , где он пробыл два месяца, [114] имея отношения с Пелагеей Онуфриевой. [115] Он бежал в Санкт-Петербург, [116] где был арестован в сентябре 1911 года и приговорен к трехлетней ссылке в Вологде. [117]
Повышение в ЦК и редакция « Правды» : 1912–1917 гг.
В январе 1912 года, когда Сталин находился в ссылке, на Пражской конференции был избран первый большевистский ЦК . [118] Вскоре после конференции Ленин и Григорий Зиновьев решили кооптировать Сталина в комитет. [118] Еще в Вологде Сталин согласился, оставшись членом ЦК на всю оставшуюся жизнь. [119] Ленин считал, что Сталин как грузин поможет заручиться поддержкой большевиков со стороны национальных меньшинств империи. [120] В феврале 1912 года Сталин снова бежал в Санкт-Петербург, [121] ему было поручено преобразовать большевистскую еженедельную газету « Звезда».( «Звезда») в день, правда ( «Правда»). [122] Новая газета была выпущена в апреле 1912 года, [123] хотя роль Сталина как редактора держалась в секрете. [123]
В мае 1912 года он был снова арестован и заключен в Шпалергскую тюрьму, а затем приговорен к трем годам ссылки в Сибирь. [124] В июле он прибыл в сибирской деревне Нарыма , [125] , где он делил комнату с парнем большевик Яков Свердлов . [126] Через два месяца Сталин и Свердлов сбежали обратно в Санкт-Петербург. [127] В течение короткого периода времени еще в Тифлисе Сталин и служба спланировали засаду на почтовую карету, во время которой большая часть группы - хотя и не Сталин - была задержана властями. [128] Сталин вернулся в Санкт-Петербург, где продолжил редактировать и писать статьи для « Правды» .[129]
После выборов в Думу в октябре 1912 года , на которых были избраны шесть большевиков и шесть меньшевиков, Сталин писал статьи, призывающие к примирению между двумя марксистскими фракциями, за что Ленин критиковал его. [130] В конце 1912 года Сталин дважды пересекал территорию Австро-Венгерской империи, чтобы навестить Ленина в Кракове [131] , [131] в конце концов поклонившись ленинскому сопротивлению воссоединению с меньшевиками. [132] В январе 1913 года Сталин побывал в Вене , [133] , где он исследовал «национальный вопрос» о том , как большевики должны иметь дело с Российской империи национальных и этнических меньшинств. [134]Ленин, который поощрял Сталина к написанию статьи на эту тему, [135] хотел привлечь эти группы к большевистскому делу, предложив им право на отделение от Российского государства, но также надеялся, что они останутся частью будущего, управляемого большевиками. Россия. [136]
Статья Сталина « Марксизм и национальный вопрос» [137] впервые была опубликована в мартовском, апрельском и майском выпусках большевистского журнала « Просвещение» за 1913 год ; [138] Ленин был доволен этим. [139] По словам Монтефиоре, это была «самая известная работа Сталина». [136] Статья была опубликована под псевдонимом «К. Сталин», [139] имя , которое он использовал с 1912 года [140] Производный от русских слов стали ( СТАЛЬ ), [141] это было переведено как " Еловек из стали"; [142] Сталин, возможно, намеревался подражать псевдониму Ленина. [143]Сталин сохранил это имя до конца своей жизни, возможно, потому, что оно использовалось в статье, которая установила его репутацию среди большевиков. [144]
В феврале 1913 года Сталин был арестован еще в Санкт-Петербурге. [145] Он был приговорен к четырем годам ссылки в Туруханске , отдаленной части Сибири, побег из которой был особенно трудным. [146] В августе он прибыл в село Монастырское, хотя через четыре недели был переселен в село Костино. [147] В марте 1914 года, обеспокоенные возможной попыткой побега, власти перевели Сталина в деревню Курейка на окраине Полярного круга . [148] В деревне у Сталина были отношения с Лидией Перепрыгией, которой в то время было тринадцать, то есть на год моложе установленного законом возраста согласия в царской России.[149] Примерно в декабре 1914 года Перепрыгия родила Сталину ребенка, который вскоре умер. [150] Она родила еще одного из его детей, Александра, примерно в апреле 1917 года. [151] [152]
В Курейке Сталин жил в тесном сотрудничестве с коренными тунгусов и остяков , [153] и провел большую часть своего времени рыбалки. [154]
Русская революция: 1917 г.
Пока Сталин был в изгнании, Россия вступила в Первую мировую войну , и в октябре 1916 года Сталин и другие ссыльные большевики были мобилизованы в российскую армию , отправившись в Монастырское. [155] Они прибыли в Красноярск в феврале 1917 года, [156] где судмедэксперт признал Сталина непригодным к военной службе из-за его поврежденной руки. [157] Сталин должен был отбыть еще четыре месяца в ссылке, и он успешно попросил, чтобы он отбыл ее в соседнем Ачинске . [158] Сталин был в городе, когда Февральская революциясостоялся; восстания вспыхнули в Петрограде - так был переименован Санкт-Петербург - и царь Николай II отрекся от престола, чтобы избежать жестокого свержения. Российская империя стала де-факто республикой, во главе которой стояло Временное правительство, во главе которого стояли либералы. [159] В мартовском настроении Сталин поехал поездом в Петроград. [160] Там, Сталин и товарищ большевик Лев Каменев взял на себя управление Правды , [161] и Сталин был назначен представителем большевиков в Исполнительный комитет Петроградского Совета , влиятельного совета рабочих города. [162]В апреле Сталин занял третье место на выборах большевиков в ЦК партии; Ленин занял первое место, а Зиновьев - второе. [163] Это отражало его старшее положение в партии в то время. [164]
Существующее псевдо-правительство, которое не было избрано народом и которое не подотчетно народу, должно быть заменено правительством, признанным народом, избранным представителями рабочих, солдат и крестьян и ответственным перед своими представителями.
- Передовая статья Сталина в « Правде» , октябрь 1917 г. [165]
Сталин помог организовать восстание июльских дней , вооруженную демонстрацию силы сторонниками большевиков. [166] После подавления демонстрации Временное правительство начало подавление большевиков, совершив набег на « Правду» . [167] Во время этого рейда Сталин тайно вытащил Ленина из редакции газеты и взял на себя ответственность за безопасность лидера большевиков, перемещая его между убежищами Петрограда, прежде чем переправить его в Разлив . [168] В отсутствие Ленина Сталин продолжал редактировать « Правду» и исполнял обязанности лидера большевиков, наблюдая за Шестым съездом партии , который проводился тайно. [169]Ленин начал призывать большевиков захватить власть, свергнув Временное правительство в результате государственного переворота . Сталин и его коллега-большевик Лев Троцкий одобрили план действий Ленина, но первоначально против него выступили Каменев и другие члены партии. [170] Ленин вернулся в Петроград и получил большинство в пользу переворота на заседании ЦК 10 октября. [171]
24 октября милиция ворвалась в редакции большевистских газет, громила машины и прессы; Сталин спас часть этого оборудования, чтобы продолжить свою деятельность. [172] Рано утром 25 октября Сталин присоединился к Ленину на заседании ЦК в Смольном институте , откуда был направлен большевистский переворот - Октябрьская революция . [173] Большевистская милиция захватила Петроградскую электростанцию, почтовое отделение, государственный банк, телефонную станцию и несколько мостов. [174] Контролируемый большевиками корабль « Аврора» открыл огонь по Зимнему дворцу.; Собравшиеся делегаты Временного правительства сдались и были арестованы большевиками. [175] Хотя ему было поручено проинформировать большевистских делегатов Второго съезда Советов о развивающейся ситуации, роль Сталина в перевороте не была публично видна. [176] Троцкий и другие более поздние большевистские противники Сталина использовали это как доказательство того, что его роль в перевороте была незначительной, хотя более поздние историки это отвергают. [177] По словам историка Олега Хлевнюка , Сталин «сыграл важную роль [в Октябрьской революции] ... как высокопоставленный большевик, член Центрального комитета партии и редактор ее главной газеты»; [178]историк Стивен Коткин также отметил, что Сталин был «в гуще событий» в процессе подготовки к перевороту. [179]
В правительстве Ленина
Консолидация власти: 1917–1918 гг.
26 октября 1917 года Ленин объявил себя председателем нового правительства - Совета Народных Комиссаров («Совнарком»). [180] Сталин поддержал решение Ленина не формировать коалицию с меньшевиками и партией эсеров , хотя они сформировали коалиционное правительство с левыми эсерами . [181] Сталин стал частью неформальной четверки, возглавлявшей правительство, наряду с Лениным, Троцким и Свердловым; [182] из них, Свердлов регулярно отсутствовал и умер в марте 1919 года. [183] Кабинет Сталина располагался недалеко от кабинета Ленина в Смольном институте , [184]и он и Троцкий были единственными людьми, которым был разрешен доступ в кабинет Ленина без предварительной записи. [185] Хотя Сталин не был так широко известен, как Ленин или Троцкий, [186] значение Сталина среди большевиков росло. [187] Он был соавтором указов Ленина о закрытии враждебных газет, [188] и вместе со Свердловым он председательствовал на заседаниях комитета по разработке проекта конституции новой Российской Советской Федеративной Социалистической Республики . [189] Он решительно поддерживал создание Лениным службы безопасности ЧК и последующий Красный террор.что он инициировал; отмечая, что государственное насилие оказалось эффективным инструментом для капиталистических держав, он полагал, что оно докажет то же самое для советского правительства. [190] В отличие от высших большевиков, таких как Каменев и Николай Бухарин , Сталин никогда не выражал беспокойства по поводу быстрого роста и расширения ЧК и красного террора. [190]
Бросив его редакцией Правды , [191] Сталин был назначен народным комиссаром по делам национальностей. [192] Он взял Надежду Аллилуеву своим секретарем [193] и в какой-то момент женился на ней, хотя дата свадьбы неизвестна. [194] В ноябре 1917 года он подписал Указ о гражданстве , предоставляющий проживающим в России этническим и национальным меньшинствам право на отделение и самоопределение. [195] Цель указа была в первую очередь стратегической; Большевики хотели завоевать расположение национальных меньшинств, но надеялись, что последние на самом деле не захотят независимости. [196]В том же месяце он поехал в Хельсинки, чтобы поговорить с финскими социал-демократами , удовлетворив в декабре просьбу Финляндии о независимости . [196] Его ведомство выделило средства на создание издательств и школ с изучением языков различных этнических меньшинств. [197] Социалистические революционеры обвиняли разговоры Сталина о федерализме и национальном самоопределении как прикрытие централизующей и империалистической политики Совнаркома . [189]
Из - за продолжающейся Первой мировой войны, в которой Россия воевала с Центральным державам в Германии и Австро-Венгрии , правительство Ленина переселены из Петрограда в Москву в марте 1918 г. Сталин, Троцкий, Свердлов и Ленин жил в Кремле . [198] Сталин поддержал желание Ленина подписать перемирие с Центральными державами независимо от стоимости территории. [199] Сталин считал это необходимым, потому что - в отличие от Ленина - он не был убежден, что Европа находится на пороге пролетарской революции . [200] Ленин в конце концов убедил других высокопоставленных большевиков в своей точке зрения, что привело к подписаниюБрест-Литовский мирный договор в марте 1918 г. [201] Договор предоставил Центральным державам обширные земли и ресурсы и вызвал гнев многих в России; левые эсеры вышли из коалиционного правительства по этому вопросу. [202] Правящая партия РСДРП вскоре была переименована в Коммунистическую партию России . [203]
Военное командование: 1918–1921 гг.
После захвата власти большевиками и правые, и левые армии сплотились против них, что спровоцировало гражданскую войну в России . [204] Чтобы обеспечить доступ к истощающимся запасам продовольствия, в мае 1918 года Совнарком отправил Сталина в Царицын, чтобы он возглавил снабжение продовольствием на юге России. [205] Стремясь проявить себя как командир, [206] оказавшись там, он взял под свой контроль региональные военные операции. [207] Он подружился с двумя военными, Климентом Ворошиловым и Семеном Буденным , которые составили ядро его военно-политической базы поддержки. [208]Полагая, что победа обеспечена численным превосходством, он послал большое количество войск Красной Армии в бой против антибольшевистских белых армий региона , что привело к большим потерям; Ленина беспокоила эта дорогостоящая тактика. [209] В Царицыне Сталин приказал местному отделению ЧК казнить подозреваемых контрреволюционеров, иногда без суда [210], и - в нарушение государственных распоряжений - очищал военные и продовольственные пункты от специалистов среднего класса, некоторых из которых он также выполнен. [211] Его использование государственного насилия и террора было в большем масштабе, чем одобряло большинство большевистских лидеров; [212]например, он приказал поджечь несколько деревень, чтобы обеспечить соблюдение его программы закупки продуктов питания. [213]
В декабре 1918 года Сталина отправили в Пермь для расследования того, как белые силы Александра Колчака смогли уничтожить базировавшиеся там красные войска. [214] Он вернулся в Москву в период с января по март 1919 г. [215], прежде чем был направлен на Западный фронт в Петроград. [216] Когда Третий красный полк дезертировал, он приказал публично казнить взятых в плен перебежчиков. [215] В сентябре его вернули на Южный фронт. [215] Во время войны он показал себя Центральному Комитету, проявив решительность, решимость и готовность брать на себя ответственность в конфликтных ситуациях. [206]В то же время он игнорировал приказы и неоднократно угрожал уйти в отставку в случае оскорблений. [217] Ленин получил выговор от Ленина на 8-м съезде партии за использование тактики, в результате которой погибло слишком много солдат Красной Армии. [218] В ноябре 1919 года правительство тем не менее наградило его орденом Красного Знамени за службу в военное время. [219]
К концу 1919 года большевики выиграли гражданскую войну в России. [220] К тому времени Совнарком обратил свое внимание на распространение пролетарской революции за рубежом, с этой целью в марте 1919 года сформировал Коммунистический Интернационал ; Сталин присутствовал на церемонии открытия. [221] Хотя Сталин не разделял ленинской веры в то, что европейский пролетариат был на грани революции, он признавал, что, пока он оставался один, Советская Россия оставалась уязвимой. [222] В декабре 1918 года он составил декреты о признании марксистских советских республик в Эстонии , Литве и Латвии ; [223]во время гражданской войны эти марксистские правительства были свергнуты, и страны Балтии стали полностью независимыми от России, что Сталин считал незаконным. [224] В феврале 1920 г. он был назначен начальником Рабоче-крестьянской инспекции ; [225] В том же месяце он был переведен на Кавказский фронт. [226]
После предыдущих столкновений между польскими и российскими войсками в начале 1920 года разразилась польско-советская война , когда поляки вторглись на Украину и 7 мая взяли Киев . [227] 26 мая Сталина перевели в Украину, на Юго-Западный фронт. [228] Красная Армия отвоевала Киев 10 июня и вскоре заставила польские войска вернуться в Польшу. [229] 16 июля Центральный комитет решил перенести войну на территорию Польши. [230] Ленин верил, что польский пролетариат восстанет, чтобы поддержать русских против польского правительства Юзефа Пилсудского . [230] Сталин предостерегал от этого; он считал, чтонационализм побудит польский рабочий класс поддержать военные усилия своего правительства. [230] Он также считал, что Красная Армия была плохо подготовлена к ведению наступательной войны и что это даст Белой Армии шанс вновь появиться в Крыму , что потенциально может разжечь гражданскую войну. [230] Сталин проиграл спор, после чего принял решение Ленина и поддержал его. [226] На Юго-Западном фронте он решил завоевать Львов ; Сосредоточившись на этой цели, он не подчинился приказу в начале августа о переброске своих войск для помощи войскам Михаила Тухачевского , атакующим Варшаву. [231]
В середине августа 1920 года поляки отбили наступление русских , и Сталин вернулся в Москву, чтобы присутствовать на заседании Политбюро. [232] В Москве Ленин и Троцкий обвинили его в его поведении во время польско-советской войны. [233] Сталин чувствовал себя униженным и недооцененным; 17 августа он потребовал увольнения из армии, которое было удовлетворено 1 сентября. [234] На 9-й большевистской конференции в конце сентября Троцкий обвинил Сталина в «стратегических ошибках» в его ведении войны. [235] Троцкий утверждал, что Сталин саботировал кампанию, не подчиняясь приказам о переброске войск. [236] Ленин присоединился к Троцкому в его критике, и никто не выступил от его имени на конференции. [237]Сталин почувствовал себя опозоренным и усилил антипатию к Троцкому. [218] Польско-советская война закончилась 18 марта 1921 года, когда в Риге был подписан мирный договор . [238]
Последние годы Ленина: 1921–1923 гг.
Советское правительство стремилось подчинить соседние государства своему господству; в феврале 1921 г. он вторгся в меньшевик-управляемую Грузию , [239] , а в апреле 1921 года Сталин приказал Красной армии в Туркестане , чтобы восстановить российский государственный контроль. [240] Как нарком по делам национальностей, Сталин считал, что каждая национальная и этническая группа должна иметь право на самовыражение, [241] которому способствовали « автономные республики » в составе российского государства, в которых они могли контролировать различные региональные дела. [242] Придерживаясь этой точки зрения, некоторые марксисты обвиняли его в чрезмерной склонности к буржуазному национализму., в то время как другие обвиняли его в том, что он остается слишком русоцентричным, пытаясь удержать эти народы в составе Российского государства. [241]
Родной для Сталина Кавказ представлял особую проблему из-за своей очень многоэтнической смеси. [243] Сталин выступал против идеи отдельных автономных республик Грузии, Армении и Азербайджана, утверждая, что они, вероятно, будут угнетать этнические меньшинства на их соответствующих территориях; вместо этого он призвал к созданию Закавказской Социалистической Федеративной Советской Республики . [244] Коммунистическая партия Грузии против идеи, в результате грузинского дела . [245] В середине 1921 года Сталин вернулся на Южный Кавказ, где призвал грузинских коммунистов избегать шовинистического грузинского национализма, маргинализировавшего абхазский , осетинский, и аджарские меньшинства в Грузии. [246] В этой поездке Сталин встретился со своим сыном Яковом и привез его обратно в Москву; [247] Надежда родила еще одного сына Сталина, Василия , в марте 1921 года. [247]
После гражданской войны по всей России вспыхнули забастовки рабочих и крестьянские восстания, в значительной степени противодействующие проекту закупки продовольствия Совнаркомом; В качестве противоядия Ленин ввел рыночные реформы: Новую экономическую политику (НЭП). [248] Были также внутренние беспорядки в Коммунистической партии, поскольку Троцкий возглавил фракцию, призывающую к упразднению профсоюзов; Ленин противился этому, а Сталин помог сплотить оппозицию позиции Троцкого. [249] Сталин также согласился руководить отделом агитации и пропаганды в Секретариате ЦК. [250] На XI съезде партии в 1922 году Ленин назначил Сталина новым Генеральным секретарем партии.. Хотя высказывались опасения, что принятие этого нового поста поверх других его постов приведет к чрезмерной нагрузке на его работу и даст ему слишком много власти, Сталин был назначен на эту должность. [251] Для Ленина было выгодно иметь ключевого союзника на этом решающем посту. [252]
- Завещание Ленина, 4 января 1923 г .; [253] это, возможно, было сочинено Крупской, а не самим Лениным. [254]
В мае 1922 года из-за массивного инсульта Ленина частично парализовало. [255] Проживая на своей даче в Горках , Ленин был главным связующим звеном с Совнаркомом через Сталина, который был постоянным гостем. [256] Ленин дважды просил Сталина раздобыть яд, чтобы он мог покончить жизнь самоубийством, но Сталин никогда этого не делал. [257] Несмотря на это товарищество, Ленин не любил то, что он называл «азиатскими» манерами Сталина, и сказал своей сестре Марии, что Сталин «не умный». [258] Ленин и Сталин спорили по вопросу внешней торговли; Ленин считал, что советское государство должно иметь монополию на внешнюю торговлю, но Сталин поддержал Григория Сокольникова.считает, что на данном этапе это было непрактично. [259] Еще одно разногласие возникло по поводу грузинского дела, когда Ленин поддержал стремление ЦК Грузии создать Грузинскую советскую республику, а не идею Сталина о закавказской республике. [260]
Они также не соглашались с природой советского государства. Ленин призывал к созданию новой федерации под названием «Союз Советских Республик Европы и Азии», отражающей его стремление к расширению на два континента, и настаивал на том, чтобы российское государство присоединилось к этому союзу на равных условиях с другими советскими государствами. [261] Сталин полагал, что это будет стимулировать стремление к независимости среди нерусских, вместо этого он утверждал, что этнические меньшинства будут довольны статусом «автономных республик» в составе Российской Советской Федеративной Социалистической Республики. [262] Ленин обвинил Сталина в «великорусском шовинизме»; Сталин обвинил Ленина в «национальном либерализме». [263]Был достигнут компромисс, по которому федерация будет переименована в «Союз Советских Социалистических Республик» (СССР). [261] Образование СССР было ратифицировано в декабре 1922 года; Хотя официально это была федеративная система, все основные решения принимались руководящим Политбюро Коммунистической партии Советского Союза в Москве. [264]
Их различия также стали личными; Ленин был особенно возмущен, когда Сталин грубо обошелся с женой Крупской во время телефонного разговора. [265] В последние годы своей жизни Крупская предоставила руководящим деятелям Завещание Ленина , серию все более уничижительных заметок о Сталине. Они критиковали грубые манеры и чрезмерную власть Сталина, предлагая снять Сталина с поста генерального секретаря. [266] Некоторые историки сомневаются, создавал ли Ленин их когда-либо, предполагая вместо этого, что они могли быть написаны Крупской, у которой были личные разногласия со Сталиным; [254] Однако Сталин никогда публично не высказывал опасений по поводу их подлинности. [267]
Консолидация власти
Преемник Ленина: 1924–1927
Ленин умер в январе 1924 года. [268] Сталин руководил похоронами и был одним из их гроб; Против воли вдовы Ленина Политбюро забальзамировало его труп и поместило в мавзолей на Красной площади в Москве . [269] Он стал частью растущего культа личности, посвященного Ленину, и в том же году Петроград был переименован в «Ленинград». [270] Чтобы укрепить свой имидж преданного лениниста, Сталин прочитал в Свердловском университете девять лекций на тему « Основы ленинизма », которые позже были опубликованы в виде книги. [271] На 13-м съезде партии в мае 1924 г. "«Завещание Ленина » было зачитано только руководителям провинциальных делегаций. [272] Смущенный его содержанием, Сталин подал в отставку с поста генерального секретаря; этот поступок смирения спас его, и он остался на своем посту. [273]
В качестве Генерального секретаря Сталин имел полную свободу действий в назначении своих сотрудников, внедряя своих сторонников в партию и администрацию. [274] Отдавая предпочтение новым членам Коммунистической партии, многие из которых были из рабочих и крестьян, « старым большевикам », которые имели университетское образование, [275] он добился того, чтобы лоялисты были разбросаны по регионам страны. [276] Сталин много контактировал с молодыми партийными функционерами, [277] и желание продвижения по службе побудило многих провинциальных деятелей стремиться произвести впечатление на Сталина и добиться его расположения. [278] Сталин также установил тесные отношения с тройкой, составлявшей основу тайной полиции (сначала ЧК, а затем ее заменившая,Государственное политическое управление ): Феликс Дзержинский , Генрих Ягода и Вячеслав Менжинский . [279] В личной жизни он проводил время между своей кремлевской квартирой и дачей у Зубалова; [280] его жена родила дочь Светлану в феврале 1926 года. [281]
После смерти Ленина в борьбе за то, чтобы стать его преемником, возникли различные главные герои: рядом со Сталиным были Троцкий, Зиновьев, Каменев, Бухарин, Алексей Рыков и Михаил Томский . [282] Сталин видел в Троцком, которого он лично презирал [283], главное препятствие на пути своего господства в партии. [284] Пока Ленин был болен, Сталин заключил антитроцкистский союз с Каменевым и Зиновьевым. [285] Хотя Зиновьев был обеспокоен растущим авторитетом Сталина, он поддержал его на 13-м съезде в качестве противовеса Троцкому, который теперь возглавлял партийную фракцию, известную как Левая оппозиция . [286]Левая оппозиция считала, что НЭП слишком много уступил капитализму; Сталина называли «правым» за его поддержку политики. [287] Сталин создал свиту из своих сторонников в Центральном комитете [288], в то время как левая оппозиция постепенно отстранялась от своих влиятельных позиций. [289] В этом его поддержал Бухарин, который, как и Сталин, считал, что предложения левой оппозиции ввергнут Советский Союз в нестабильность. [290]
В конце 1924 года Сталин выступил против Каменева и Зиновьева, сместив их сторонников с ключевых постов. [291] В 1925 году эти двое вступили в открытую оппозицию Сталину и Бухарину. [292] На 14-м съезде партии в декабре они начали атаку против сталинской фракции, но безуспешно. [293] Сталин, в свою очередь, обвинил Каменева и Зиновьева в возрождении фракционности - и, следовательно, нестабильности - в партии. [293] В середине 1926 года Каменев и Зиновьев объединились со сторонниками Троцкого, чтобы сформировать Объединенную оппозицию против Сталина; [294]в октябре они согласились прекратить фракционную деятельность под угрозой изгнания, а позже публично отказались от своих взглядов под командованием Сталина. [295] Фракционные споры продолжались: Сталин пригрозил уйти в отставку в октябре, затем в декабре 1926 года и снова в декабре 1927 года. [296] В октябре 1927 года Зиновьев и Троцкий были исключены из Центрального комитета; [297] последний был сослан в Казахстан, а затем депортирован из страны в 1929 году. [298] Некоторые из раскаявшихся членов Объединенной оппозиции были позже реабилитированы и возвращены в правительство. [299]
Сталин теперь был верховным лидером партии [300], хотя он и не был главой правительства , и эту задачу он поручил своему ключевому союзнику Вячеславу Молотову . [301] Другими важными сторонниками Политбюро были Ворошилов, Лазарь Каганович и Серго Орджоникидзе [302] , [302] при этом Сталин следил за тем, чтобы его союзники руководили различными государственными учреждениями. [303] Согласно Монтефиоре, в этот момент «Сталин был лидером олигархов, но он был далек от диктатора». [304] Его растущее влияние отразилось в названии различных мест в его честь; в июне 1924 г. украинский шахтерский городок Юзовка.стал Сталино [305], а в апреле 1925 года Царицын был переименован в Сталинград по приказу Михаила Калинина и Авеля Енукидзе . [306]
В 1926 году Сталин опубликовал « Вопросы ленинизма» . [307] Здесь он выступал за концепцию « социализма в одной стране », которую он представил как ортодоксальную ленинскую перспективу. Тем не менее, это противоречило устоявшимся большевистским взглядам на то, что социализм не может быть установлен в одной стране, а может быть достигнут только в глобальном масштабе посредством процесса мировой революции . [307] В 1927 году в партии были споры по поводу советской политики в отношении Китая. Сталин призвал китайских коммунистов вступить в союз с Гоминьданом.(Гоминьдан) националисты, считающие союз коммунистов и гоминьдана лучшим оплотом против японского имперского экспансионизма. Вместо этого Гоминьдан репрессировал коммунистов, и между двумя сторонами вспыхнула гражданская война . [308]
Раскулачивание, коллективизация и индустриализация: 1927–1931 гг.
Экономическая политика
- Сталин, февраль 1931 г. [309]
Советский Союз отставал от промышленного развития западных стран [310], и там не хватало хлеба; В 1927 году было произведено только 70% зерна, произведенного в 1926 году. [311] Правительство Сталина опасалось нападения со стороны Японии, Франции, Великобритании, Польши и Румынии. [312] Многие коммунисты, в том числе в комсомоле , ОГПУ и Красной Армии, стремились избавиться от НЭПа и его рыночного подхода; [313] у них были опасения по поводу тех, кто нажился на этой политике: зажиточных крестьян, известных как « кулаки », и владельцев малого бизнеса или « нэпменов ». [314]Здесь Сталин отвернулся от НЭПа, что поставило его на «левый» курс даже на Троцкого или Зиновьева. [315]
В начале 1928 года Сталин поехал в Новосибирск , где он утверждал, что кулаки копят зерно, и приказал арестовать кулаков и конфисковать их зерно, а в феврале Сталин привез большую часть урожая в Москву с собой. [316] По его команде отряды хлебозаготовителей появились через Западную Сибирь и Урал, и между этими отрядами и крестьянством вспыхнуло насилие. [317] Сталин объявил, что и кулаков, и «середняков» нужно принудить к сбору урожая. [318] Бухарин и несколько других членов ЦК были возмущены тем, что с ними не посоветовались по поводу этой меры, которую они сочли опрометчивой. [319]В январе 1930 г. Политбюро одобрило ликвидацию кулачества; обвиняемые кулаки были собраны и сосланы в другие части страны или в концлагеря. [320] Многие погибли во время путешествия. [321] К июлю 1930 года более 320 000 домашних хозяйств были затронуты политикой раскулачивания. [320] По словам биографа Сталина Дмитрия Волкогонова , раскулачивание было «первым массовым террором, примененным Сталиным в его собственной стране». [322]
В 1929 году Политбюро объявило о массовой коллективизации сельского хозяйства , [324] , устанавливающее и колхозы колхозов и совхозов совхозов. [325] Сталин запретил кулакам входить в эти коллективы. [326] Хотя официально они были добровольными, многие крестьяне вступали в коллективы из страха перед судьбой кулачества; другие присоединились к ним на фоне запугивания и насилия со стороны сторонников партии. [327] К 1932 году около 62% домашних хозяйств, занятых в сельском хозяйстве, были частью коллективов, а к 1936 году эта цифра возросла до 90%. [328] Многие из коллективизированных крестьян возмущались потерей своих личных сельскохозяйственных угодий, [329]и производительность упала. [330] Голод разразился во многих областях, [331] Политбюро часто отдавало приказ о доставке в эти регионы чрезвычайной продовольственной помощи. [332]
Вооруженные крестьянские восстания против раскулачивания и коллективизации вспыхнули на Украине, Северном Кавказе, юге России и в Средней Азии, достигнув апогея в марте 1930 года; они были подавлены Красной Армией. [333] Сталин ответил на восстание статьей, в которой настаивал на добровольности коллективизации и возлагал ответственность за любое насилие и другие эксцессы на местных чиновников. [334] Хотя он и Сталин были близки на протяжении многих лет, [335] Бухарин выразил озабоченность по поводу этой политики; он рассматривал их как возврат к старой ленинской политике « военного коммунизма » и считал, что она потерпит неудачу. К середине 1928 года он не смог заручиться достаточной поддержкой в партии, чтобы противостоять реформам. [336]В ноябре 1929 года Сталин удалил его из Политбюро. [337]
Официально Советский Союз заменил «иррациональность» и «расточительность» в виде рыночной экономики с плановой экономикой , организованной по долгосрочной перспективе, точной и научной базы; на самом деле советская экономика основывалась на специальных заповедях, отдаваемых из центра, часто для краткосрочных целей. [338] В 1928 году был запущен первый пятилетний план , в котором основное внимание уделялось развитию тяжелой промышленности; [339] он был закончен на год раньше срока, в 1932 году. [340] В СССР произошли масштабные экономические преобразования. [341] Были открыты новые шахты, построены новые города, такие как Магнитогорск , и ведутся работы наНачался Беломорско-Балтийский канал . [341] Миллионы крестьян переехали в города, хотя городское домостроение не могло удовлетворить спрос. [341] На закупку техники иностранного производства образовались большие долги. [342]
Многие из крупных строительных объектов, в том числе Беломорско-Балтийский канал и Московский метрополитен , были построены в основном за счет принудительного труда. [343] Последние элементы контроля рабочих над промышленностью были удалены, а руководители предприятий увеличили свой авторитет и получили привилегии и льготы; [344] Сталин защищал неравенство в заработной плате, указывая на аргумент Маркса о том, что это было необходимо на начальных этапах социализма. [345] Для интенсификации труда были введены ряд медалей и наград, а также стахановское движение . [323] Посыл Сталина состоял в том, что социализм устанавливался в СССР, в то время как капитализм рушился средиКрах Уолл-стрит . [346] Его речи и статьи отражали его утопическое видение Советского Союза, поднимающегося до беспрецедентных высот человеческого развития, создавая « нового советского человека ». [347]
Культурная и внешняя политика
В 1928 году Сталин заявил, что классовая война между пролетариатом и его врагами будет усиливаться по мере развития социализма. [348] Он предупреждал об «опасности справа», в том числе и в самой Коммунистической партии. [349] Первым крупным показательным процессом в СССР был Шахтинский процесс 1928 года, на котором несколько «промышленных специалистов» из среднего класса были признаны виновными в саботаже. [350] С 1929 по 1930 году , дальнейшие показательные процессы были проведены для устрашения оппозиции: [351] они включали в себя дело промпартию , меньшевик Trial и Metro-Vickers Trial . [352]Зная, что этническое русское большинство может быть обеспокоено тем, что им правит грузин [353], он продвигал этнических русских по всей государственной иерархии и сделал русский язык обязательным в школах и офисах, хотя и для использования в тандеме с местными языками в районах с нерусское большинство. [354] Националистические настроения среди этнических меньшинств были подавлены. [355] Консервативная социальная политика была продвинута для повышения социальной дисциплины и ускорения роста населения; это включало упор на крепкие семейные узы и материнство, повторную криминализацию гомосексуализма , ограничения на аборты и разводы, а также отмену Женотдела.женское отделение. [356]
Stalin desired a "cultural revolution",[357] entailing both creation of a culture for the "masses" and wider dissemination of previously elite culture.[358] He oversaw proliferation of schools, newspapers, and libraries, as well as advancement of literacy and numeracy.[359] Socialist realism was promoted throughout arts,[360] while Stalin personally wooed prominent writers, namely Maxim Gorky, Mikhail Sholokhov, and Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy.[361] He also expressed patronage for scientists whose research fitted within his preconceived interpretation of Marxism; for instance, he endorsed research of an agrobiologist Trofim Lysenko despite the fact that it was rejected by the majority of Lysenko's scientific peers as pseudo-scientific.[362] The government's anti-religious campaign was re-intensified,[363] with increased funding given to the League of Militant Atheists.[355] Christian, Muslim, and Buddhist clergy faced persecution.[351] Many religious buildings were demolished, most notably Moscow's Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, destroyed in 1931 to make way for the (never completed) Palace of the Soviets.[364] Religion retained an influence over much of the population; in the 1937 census, 57% of respondents identified as religious.[365]
Throughout the 1920s and beyond, Stalin placed a high priority on foreign policy.[366] He personally met with a range of Western visitors, including George Bernard Shaw and H. G. Wells, both of whom were impressed with him.[367] Through the Communist International, Stalin's government exerted a strong influence over Marxist parties elsewhere in the world;[368] initially, Stalin left the running of the organisation largely to Bukharin.[369] At its 6th Congress in July 1928, Stalin informed delegates that the main threat to socialism came not from the right but from non-Marxist socialists and social democrats, whom he called "social fascists";[370] Stalin recognised that in many countries, the social democrats were the Marxist-Leninists' main rivals for working-class support.[371] This preoccupation with opposing rival leftists concerned Bukharin, who regarded the growth of fascism and the far right across Europe as a far greater threat.[369] After Bukharin's departure, Stalin placed the Communist International under the administration of Dmitry Manuilsky and Osip Piatnitsky.[368]
Stalin faced problems in his family life. In 1929, his son Yakov unsuccessfully attempted suicide; his failure earned Stalin's contempt.[372] His relationship with Nadezhda was also strained amid their arguments and her mental health problems.[373] In November 1932, after a group dinner in the Kremlin in which Stalin flirted with other women, Nadezhda shot herself.[374]Publicly, the cause of death was given as appendicitis; Stalin also concealed the real cause of death from his children.[375] Stalin's friends noted that he underwent a significant change following her suicide, becoming emotionally harder.[376]
Major crises: 1932–1939
Famine
Within the Soviet Union, there was widespread civic disgruntlement against Stalin's government.[377] Social unrest, previously restricted largely to the countryside, was increasingly evident in urban areas, prompting Stalin to ease on some of his economic policies in 1932.[378] In May 1932, he introduced a system of kolkhoz markets where peasants could trade their surplus produce.[379] At the same time, penal sanctions became more severe; at Stalin's instigation, in August 1932 a decree was introduced wherein the theft of even a handful of grain could be a capital offense.[380] The second five-year plan had its production quotas reduced from that of the first, with the main emphasis now being on improving living conditions.[378] It therefore emphasised the expansion of housing space and the production of consumer goods.[378] Like its predecessor, this plan was repeatedly amended to meet changing situations; there was for instance an increasing emphasis placed on armament production after Adolf Hitler became German chancellor in 1933.[381]
The Soviet Union experienced a major famine which peaked in the winter of 1932–33;[382] between five and seven million people died.[383] Worst affected were Ukraine and the North Caucasus, although the famine also affected Kazakhstan and several Russian provinces.[384] Historians have long debated whether Stalin's government had intended the famine to occur or not;[385] there are no known documents in which Stalin or his government explicitly called for starvation to be used against the population.[386] The 1931 and 1932 harvests had been poor ones because of weather conditions[387] and had followed several years in which lower productivity had resulted in a gradual decline in output.[383] Government policies—including the focus on rapid industrialisation, the socialisation of livestock, and the emphasis on sown areas over crop rotation—exacerbated the problem;[388] the state had also failed to build reserve grain stocks for such an emergency.[389] Stalin blamed the famine on hostile elements and sabotage within the peasantry;[390] his government provided small amounts of food to famine-struck rural areas, although this was wholly insufficient to deal with the levels of starvation.[391] The Soviet government believed that food supplies should be prioritized for the urban workforce;[392] for Stalin, the fate of Soviet industrialisation was far more important than the lives of the peasantry.[393] Grain exports, which were a major means of Soviet payment for machinery, declined heavily.[391] Stalin would not acknowledge that his policies had contributed to the famine,[380] the existence of which was kept secret from foreign observers.[394]
Ideological and foreign affairs
In 1935–36, Stalin oversaw a new constitution; its dramatic liberal features were designed as propaganda weapons, for all power rested in the hands of Stalin and his Politburo.[395] He declared that "socialism, which is the first phase of communism, has basically been achieved in this country".[395] In 1938, The History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks), colloquially known as the Short Course, was released;[396] Conquest later referred to it as the "central text of Stalinism".[397] A number of authorised Stalin biographies were also published,[398] although Stalin generally wanted to be portrayed as the embodiment of the Communist Party rather than have his life story explored.[399] During the later 1930s, Stalin placed "a few limits on the worship of his own greatness".[399] By 1938, Stalin's inner circle had gained a degree of stability, containing the personalities who would remain there until Stalin's death.[400]
Seeking improved international relations, in 1934 the Soviet Union secured membership of the League of Nations, of which it had previously been excluded.[401] Stalin initiated confidential communications with Hitler in October 1933, shortly after the latter came to power in Germany.[402] Stalin admired Hitler, particularly his manoeuvres to remove rivals within the Nazi Party in the Night of the Long Knives.[403] Stalin nevertheless recognised the threat posed by fascism and sought to establish better links with the liberal democracies of Western Europe;[404] in May 1935, the Soviets signed a treaty of mutual assistance with France and Czechoslovakia.[405] At the Communist International's 7th Congress, held in July–August 1935, the Soviet government encouraged Marxist-Leninists to unite with other leftists as part of a popular front against fascism.[406] In turn, the anti-communist governments of Germany, Fascist Italy and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact of 1936.[407]
When the Spanish Civil War broke out in July 1936, the Soviets sent 648 aircraft and 407 tanks to the left-wing Republican faction; these were accompanied by 3,000 Soviet troops and 42,000 members of the International Brigades set up by the Communist International.[408] Stalin took a strong personal involvement in the Spanish situation.[409] Germany and Italy backed the Nationalist faction, which was ultimately victorious in March 1939.[410] With the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in July 1937, the Soviet Union and China signed a non-aggression pact the following August.[411] Stalin aided the Chinese as the KMT and the Communists had suspended their civil war and formed the desired United Front.[412]
The Great Terror
Stalin often gave conflicting signals regarding state repression.[413] In May 1933, he released from prison many convicted of minor offenses, ordering the security services not to enact further mass arrests and deportations.[414] In September 1934, he launched a commission to investigate false imprisonments; that same month he called for the execution of workers at the Stalin Metallurgical Factory accused of spying for Japan.[413] This mixed approach began to change in December 1934, after prominent party member Sergey Kirov was murdered.[415] After the murder, Stalin became increasingly concerned by the threat of assassination, improved his personal security, and rarely went out in public.[416] State repression intensified after Kirov's death;[417] Stalin instigated this, reflecting his prioritisation of security above other considerations.[418] Stalin issued a decree establishing NKVD troikas which could mete out rulings without involving the courts.[419] In 1935, he ordered the NKVD to expel suspected counter-revolutionaries from urban areas;[381] in early 1935, over 11,000 were expelled from Leningrad.[381] In 1936, Nikolai Yezhov became head of the NKVD.[420]
Stalin orchestrated the arrest of many former opponents in the Communist Party as well as sitting members of the Central Committee: denounced as Western-backed mercenaries, many were imprisoned or exiled internally.[421] The first Moscow Trial took place in August 1936; Kamenev and Zinoviev were among those accused of plotting assassinations, found guilty in a show trial, and executed.[422] The second Moscow Show Trial took place in January 1937,[423] and the third in March 1938, in which Bukharin and Rykov were accused of involvement in the alleged Trotskyite-Zinovievite terrorist plot and sentenced to death.[424] By late 1937, all remnants of collective leadership were gone from the Politburo, which was controlled entirely by Stalin.[425]There were mass expulsions from the party,[426] with Stalin commanding foreign communist parties to also purge anti-Stalinist elements.[427]
Repressions further intensified in December 1936 and remained at a high level until November 1938, a period known as the Great Purge.[418] By the latter part of 1937, the purges had moved beyond the party and were affecting the wider population.[428] In July 1937, the Politburo ordered a purge of "anti-Soviet elements" in society, targeting anti-Stalin Bolsheviks, former Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries, priests, ex-White Army soldiers, and common criminals.[429] That month, Stalin and Yezhov signed Order No. 00447, listing 268,950 people for arrest, of whom 75,950 were executed.[430] He also initiated "national operations", the ethnic cleansing of non-Soviet ethnic groups—among them Poles, Germans, Latvians, Finns, Greeks, Koreans, and Chinese—through internal or external exile.[431] During these years, approximately 1.6 million people were arrested,[432] 700,000 were shot, and an unknown number died under NKVD torture.[432]
During the 1930s and 1940s, NKVD groups assassinated defectors and opponents abroad;[433] in August 1940, Trotsky was assassinated in Mexico, eliminating the last of Stalin's opponents among the former Party leadership.[434] In May, this was followed by the arrest of most members of the military Supreme Command and mass arrests throughout the military, often on fabricated charges.[435] These purges replaced most of the party's old guard with younger officials who did not remember a time before Stalin's leadership and who were regarded as more personally loyal to him.[436] Party functionaries readily carried out their commands and sought to ingratiate themselves with Stalin to avoid becoming the victim of the purge.[437] Such functionaries often carried out a greater number of arrests and executions than their quotas set by Stalin's central government.[438]
Stalin initiated all key decisions during the Terror, personally directing many of its operations and taking an interest in their implementation.[439] His motives in doing so have been much debated by historians.[432] His personal writings from the period were — according to Khlevniuk — "unusually convoluted and incoherent", filled with claims about enemies encircling him.[440] He was particularly concerned at the success that right-wing forces had in overthrowing the leftist Spanish government,[441] fearing a domestic fifth column in the event of future war with Japan and Germany.[442] The Great Terror ended when Yezhov was removed as the head of the NKVD, to be replaced by Lavrentiy Beria,[443] a man totally devoted to Stalin.[444] Yezhov was arrested in April 1939 and executed in 1940.[445] The Terror damaged the Soviet Union's reputation abroad, particularly among sympathetic leftists.[446] As it wound down, Stalin sought to deflect responsibility from himself,[447] blaming its "excesses" and "violations of law" on Yezhov.[448] According to historian James Harris, contemporary archival research shows that the motivation behind the purges was not Stalin attempting to establish his own personal dictatorship; evidence suggests he was committed to building the socialist state envisioned by Lenin. The real motivation for the terror, according to Harris, was an excessive fear of counterrevolution.[449]
World War II
Pact with Nazi Germany: 1939–1941
As a Marxist–Leninist, Stalin expected an inevitable conflict between competing capitalist powers; after Nazi Germany annexed Austria and then part of Czechoslovakia in 1938, Stalin recognised a war was looming.[450] He sought to maintain Soviet neutrality, hoping that a German war against France and Britain would lead to Soviet dominance in Europe.[451] Militarily, the Soviets also faced a threat from the east, with Soviet troops clashing with the expansionist Japanese in the latter part of the 1930s.[452] Stalin initiated a military build-up, with the Red Army more than doubling between January 1939 and June 1941, although in its haste to expand many of its officers were poorly trained.[453] Between 1940 and 1941 he also purged the military, leaving it with a severe shortage of trained officers when war broke out.[454]
As Britain and France seemed unwilling to commit to an alliance with the Soviet Union, Stalin saw a better deal with the Germans.[455] On 3 May 1939, Stalin replaced his western-oriented foreign minister Maxim Litvinov with Vyacheslav Molotov.[456] In May 1939, Germany began negotiations with the Soviets, proposing that Eastern Europe be divided between the two powers.[457] Stalin saw this as an opportunity both for territorial expansion and temporary peace with Germany.[458] In August 1939, the Soviet Union signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact with Germany, a non-aggression pact negotiated by Molotov and German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop.[459] A week later, Germany invaded Poland, sparking the UK and France to declare war on Germany.[460] On 17 September, the Red Army entered eastern Poland, officially to restore order amid the collapse of the Polish state.[461] On 28 September, Germany and the Soviet Union exchanged some of their newly conquered territories; Germany gained the linguistically Polish-dominated areas of Lublin Province and part of Warsaw Province while the Soviets gained Lithuania.[462] A German–Soviet Frontier Treaty was signed shortly after, in Stalin's presence.[463] The two states continued trading, undermining the British blockade of Germany.[464]
The Soviets further demanded parts of eastern Finland, but the Finnish government refused. The Soviets invaded Finland in November 1939, yet despite numerical inferiority, the Finns kept the Red Army at bay.[465] International opinion backed Finland, with the Soviets being expelled from the League of Nations.[466] Embarrassed by their inability to defeat the Finns, the Soviets signed an interim peace treaty, in which they received territorial concessions from Finland.[467] In June 1940, the Red Army occupied the Baltic states, which were forcibly merged into the Soviet Union in August;[468] they also invaded and annexed Bessarabia and northern Bukovina, parts of Romania.[469] The Soviets sought to forestall dissent in these new East European territories with mass repressions.[470] One of the most noted instances was the Katyn massacre of April and May 1940, in which around 22,000 members of the Polish armed forces, police, and intelligentsia were executed.[471]
The speed of the German victory over and occupation of France in mid-1940 took Stalin by surprise.[472] He increasingly focused on appeasement with the Germans to delay any conflict with them.[473] After the Tripartite Pact was signed by Axis Powers Germany, Japan, and Italy in October 1940, Stalin proposed that the USSR also join the Axis alliance.[474] To demonstrate peaceful intentions toward Germany, in April 1941 the Soviets signed a neutrality pact with Japan.[475] Although de facto head of government for a decade and a half, Stalin concluded that relations with Germany had deteriorated to such an extent that he needed to deal with the problem as de jure head of government as well: on 6 May, Stalin replaced Molotov as Premier of the Soviet Union.[476]
German invasion: 1941–1942
In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union, initiating the war on the Eastern Front.[477] Although intelligence agencies had repeatedly warned him of Germany's intentions, Stalin was taken by surprise.[478] He formed a State Defense Committee, which he headed as Supreme Commander,[479] as well as a military Supreme Command (Stavka),[480] with Georgy Zhukov as its Chief of Staff.[481] The German tactic of blitzkrieg was initially highly effective; the Soviet air force in the western borderlands was destroyed within two days.[482] The German Wehrmacht pushed deep into Soviet territory;[483] soon, Ukraine, Byelorussia, and the Baltic states were under German occupation, and Leningrad was under siege;[484] and Soviet refugees were flooding into Moscow and surrounding cities.[485] By July, Germany's Luftwaffe was bombing Moscow,[484] and by October the Wehrmacht was amassing for a full assault on the capital. Plans were made for the Soviet government to evacuate to Kuibyshev, although Stalin decided to remain in Moscow, believing his flight would damage troop morale.[486] The German advance on Moscow was halted after two months of battle in increasingly harsh weather conditions.[487]
Going against the advice of Zhukov and other generals, Stalin emphasised attack over defence.[488] In June 1941, he ordered a scorched earth policy of destroying infrastructure and food supplies before the Germans could seize them,[489] also commanding the NKVD to kill around 100,000 political prisoners in areas the Wehrmacht approached.[490] He purged the military command; several high-ranking figures were demoted or reassigned and others were arrested and executed.[491] With Order No. 270, Stalin commanded soldiers risking capture to fight to the death describing the captured as traitors;[492] among those taken as a prisoner of war by the Germans was Stalin's son Yakov, who died in their custody.[493] Stalin issued Order No. 227 in July 1942, which directed that those retreating unauthorised would be placed in "penal battalions" used as cannon fodder on the front lines.[494] Amid the fighting, both the German and Soviet armies disregarded the law of war set forth in the Geneva Conventions;[495] the Soviets heavily publicised Nazi massacres of communists, Jews, and Romani.[496] Stalin exploited Nazi anti-Semitism, and in April 1942 he sponsored the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee (JAC) to garner Jewish and foreign support for the Soviet war effort.[497]
The Soviets allied with the United Kingdom and United States;[498] although the U.S. joined the war against Germany in 1941, little direct American assistance reached the Soviets until late 1942.[495] Responding to the invasion, the Soviets intensified their industrial enterprises in central Russia, focusing almost entirely on production for the military.[499] They achieved high levels of industrial productivity, outstripping that of Germany.[496] During the war, Stalin was more tolerant of the Russian Orthodox Church, allowing it to resume some of its activities and meeting with Patriarch Sergius in September 1943.[500] He also permitted a wider range of cultural expression, notably permitting formerly suppressed writers and artists like Anna Akhmatova and Dmitri Shostakovich to disperse their work more widely.[501] The Internationale was dropped as the country's national anthem, to be replaced with a more patriotic song.[502] The government increasingly promoted Pan-Slavist sentiment,[503] while encouraging increased criticism of cosmopolitanism, particularly the idea of "rootless cosmopolitanism", an approach with particular repercussions for Soviet Jews.[504] Comintern was dissolved in 1943,[505] and Stalin encouraged foreign Marxist–Leninist parties to emphasise nationalism over internationalism to broaden their domestic appeal.[503]
In April 1942, Stalin overrode Stavka by ordering the Soviets' first serious counter-attack, an attempt to seize German-held Kharkov in eastern Ukraine. This attack proved unsuccessful.[506] That year, Hitler shifted his primary goal from an overall victory on the Eastern Front, to the goal of securing the oil fields in the southern Soviet Union crucial to a long-term German war effort.[507] While Red Army generals saw evidence that Hitler would shift efforts south, Stalin considered this to be a flanking move in a renewed effort to take Moscow.[508] In June 1942, the German Army began a major offensive in Southern Russia, threatening Stalingrad; Stalin ordered the Red Army to hold the city at all costs.[509] This resulted in the protracted Battle of Stalingrad.[510] In December 1942, he placed Konstantin Rokossovski in charge of holding the city.[511] In February 1943, the German troops attacking Stalingrad surrendered.[512] The Soviet victory there marked a major turning point in the war;[513] in commemoration, Stalin declared himself Marshal of the Soviet Union.[514]
Soviet counter-attack: 1942–1945
By November 1942, the Soviets had begun to repulse the important German strategic southern campaign and, although there were 2.5 million Soviet casualties in that effort, it permitted the Soviets to take the offensive for most of the rest of the war on the Eastern Front.[515] Germany attempted an encirclement attack at Kursk, which was successfully repulsed by the Soviets.[516] By the end of 1943, the Soviets occupied half of the territory taken by the Germans from 1941 to 1942.[517] Soviet military industrial output also had increased substantially from late 1941 to early 1943 after Stalin had moved factories well to the east of the front, safe from German invasion and aerial assault.[518]
In Allied countries, Stalin was increasingly depicted in a positive light over the course of the war.[519] In 1941, the London Philharmonic Orchestra performed a concert to celebrate his birthday,[520] and in 1942, Time magazine named him "Man of the Year".[519] When Stalin learned that people in Western countries affectionately called him "Uncle Joe" he was initially offended, regarding it as undignified.[521] There remained mutual suspicions between Stalin, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who were together known as the "Big Three".[522] Churchill flew to Moscow to visit Stalin in August 1942 and again in October 1944.[523] Stalin scarcely left Moscow throughout the war,[524] with Roosevelt and Churchill frustrated with his reluctance to travel to meet them.[525]
In November 1943, Stalin met with Churchill and Roosevelt in Tehran, a location of Stalin's choosing.[526] There, Stalin and Roosevelt got on well, with both desiring the post-war dismantling of the British Empire.[527] At Tehran, the trio agreed that to prevent Germany rising to military prowess yet again, the German state should be broken up.[528] Roosevelt and Churchill also agreed to Stalin's demand that the German city of Königsberg be declared Soviet territory.[528] Stalin was impatient for the UK and U.S. to open up a Western Front to take the pressure off of the East; they eventually did so in mid-1944.[529] Stalin insisted that, after the war, the Soviet Union should incorporate the portions of Poland it occupied pursuant to the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Germany, which Churchill opposed.[530] Discussing the fate of the Balkans, later in 1944 Churchill agreed to Stalin's suggestion that after the war, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, and Yugoslavia would come under the Soviet sphere of influence while Greece would come under that of the West.[531]
In 1944, the Soviet Union made significant advances across Eastern Europe toward Germany,[532] including Operation Bagration, a massive offensive in the Byelorussian SSR against the German Army Group Centre.[533] In 1944 the German armies were pushed out of the Baltic states (with the exception of the Ostland), which were then re-annexed into the Soviet Union.[534] As the Red Army reconquered the Caucasus and Crimea, various ethnic groups living in the region—the Kalmyks, Chechens, Ingushi, Karachai, Balkars, and Crimean Tatars—were accused of having collaborated with the Germans. Using the idea of collective responsibility as a basis, Stalin's government abolished their autonomous republics and between late 1943 and 1944 deported the majority of their populations to Central Asia and Siberia.[535] Over one million people were deported as a result of the policy.[536]
In February 1945, the three leaders met at the Yalta Conference.[537] Roosevelt and Churchill conceded to Stalin's demand that Germany pay the Soviet Union 20 billion dollars in reparations, and that his country be permitted to annex Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands in exchange for entering the war against Japan.[538] An agreement was also made that a post-war Polish government should be a coalition consisting of both communist and conservative elements.[539] Privately, Stalin sought to ensure that Poland would come fully under Soviet influence.[540] The Red Army withheld assistance to Polish resistance fighters battling the Germans in the Warsaw Uprising, with Stalin believing that any victorious Polish militants could interfere with his aspirations to dominate Poland through a future Marxist government.[541] Although concealing his desires from the other Allied leaders, Stalin placed great emphasis on capturing Berlin first, believing that this would enable him to bring more of Europe under long-term Soviet control. Churchill was concerned that this was the case and unsuccessfully tried to convince the U.S. that the Western Allies should pursue the same goal.[542]
Victory: 1945
In April 1945, the Red Army seized Berlin, Hitler committed suicide, and Germany surrendered in May.[543] Stalin had wanted Hitler captured alive; he had his remains brought to Moscow to prevent them becoming a relic for Nazi sympathisers.[544] As the Red Army had conquered German territory, they discovered the extermination camps that the Nazi administration had run.[542] Many Soviet soldiers engaged in looting, pillaging, and rape, both in Germany and parts of Eastern Europe.[545] Stalin refused to punish the offenders.[542] After receiving a complaint about this from Yugoslav communist Milovan Djilas, Stalin asked how after experiencing the traumas of war a soldier could "react normally? And what is so awful in his having fun with a woman, after such horrors?"[546]
With Germany defeated, Stalin switched focus to the war with Japan, transferring half a million troops to the Far East.[547] Stalin was pressed by his allies to enter the war and wanted to cement the Soviet Union's strategic position in Asia.[548] On 8 August, in between the U.S. atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the Soviet army invaded Japanese-occupied Manchuria and defeated the Kwantung Army.[549] These events led to the Japanese surrender and the war's end.[550] Soviet forces continued to expand until they occupied all their territorial concessions, but the U.S. rebuffed Stalin's desire for the Red Army to take a role in the Allied occupation of Japan.[551]
Stalin attended the Potsdam Conference in July–August 1945, alongside his new British and U.S. counterparts, Prime Minister Clement Attlee and President Harry Truman.[552] At the conference, Stalin repeated previous promises to Churchill that he would refrain from a "Sovietization" of Eastern Europe.[553] Stalin pushed for reparations from Germany without regard to the base minimum supply for German citizens' survival, which worried Truman and Churchill who thought that Germany would become a financial burden for Western powers.[554] He also pushed for "war booty", which would permit the Soviet Union to directly seize property from conquered nations without quantitative or qualitative limitation, and a clause was added permitting this to occur with some limitations.[554] Germany was divided into four zones: Soviet, U.S., British, and French, with Berlin itself—located within the Soviet area—also subdivided thusly.[555]
Post-war era
Post-war reconstruction and famine: 1945–1947
After the war, Stalin was—according to Service—at the "apex of his career".[556] Within the Soviet Union he was widely regarded as the embodiment of victory and patriotism.[557] His armies controlled Central and Eastern Europe up to the River Elbe.[556]In June 1945, Stalin adopted the title of Generalissimus,[558] and stood atop Lenin's Mausoleum to watch a celebratory parade led by Zhukov through Red Square.[559] At a banquet held for army commanders, he described the Russian people as "the outstanding nation" and "leading force" within the Soviet Union, the first time that he had unequivocally endorsed the Russians over other Soviet nationalities.[560] In 1946, the state published Stalin's Collected Works.[561] In 1947, it brought out a second edition of his official biography, which eulogised him to a greater extent than its predecessor.[562] He was quoted in Pravda on a daily basis and pictures of him remained pervasive on the walls of workplaces and homes.[563]
Despite his strengthened international position, Stalin was cautious about internal dissent and desire for change among the population.[564] He was also concerned about his returning armies, who had been exposed to a wide range of consumer goods in Germany, much of which they had looted and brought back with them. In this he recalled the 1825 Decembrist Revolt by Russian soldiers returning from having defeated France in the Napoleonic Wars.[565] He ensured that returning Soviet prisoners of war went through "filtration" camps as they arrived in the Soviet Union, in which 2,775,700 were interrogated to determine if they were traitors. About half were then imprisoned in labour camps.[566] In the Baltic states, where there was much opposition to Soviet rule, de-kulakisation and de-clericalisation programs were initiated, resulting in 142,000 deportations between 1945 and 1949.[534] The Gulag system of labour camps was expanded further. By January 1953, three percent of the Soviet population was imprisoned or in internal exile, with 2.8 million in "special settlements" in isolated areas and another 2.5 million in camps, penal colonies, and prisons.[567]
The NKVD were ordered to catalogue the scale of destruction during the war.[568] It was established that 1,710 Soviet towns and 70,000 villages had been destroyed.[569] The NKVD recorded that between 26 and 27 million Soviet citizens had been killed, with millions more being wounded, malnourished, or orphaned.[570] In the war's aftermath, some of Stalin's associates suggested modifications to government policy.[571] Post-war Soviet society was more tolerant than its pre-war phase in various respects. Stalin allowed the Russian Orthodox Church to retain the churches it had opened during the war.[572] Academia and the arts were also allowed greater freedom than they had prior to 1941.[573] Recognising the need for drastic steps to be taken to combat inflation and promote economic regeneration, in December 1947 Stalin's government devalued the ruble and abolished the ration-book system.[574] Capital punishment was abolished in 1947 but reinstalled in 1950.[575]
Stalin's health was deteriorating, and heart problems forced a two-month vacation in the latter part of 1945.[576]He grew increasingly concerned that senior political and military figures might try to oust him; he prevented any of them from becoming powerful enough to rival him and had their apartments bugged with listening devices.[577] He demoted Molotov,[578] and increasingly favoured Beria and Malenkov for key positions.[579] In 1949, he brought Nikita Khrushchev from Ukraine to Moscow, appointing him a Central Committee secretary and the head of the city's party branch.[580] In the Leningrad Affair, the city's leadership was purged amid accusations of treachery; executions of many of the accused took place in 1950.[581]
In the post-war period there were often food shortages in Soviet cities,[582] and the USSR experienced a major famine from 1946 to 1947.[583] Sparked by a drought and ensuing bad harvest in 1946, it was exacerbated by government policy towards food procurement, including the state's decision to build up stocks and export food internationally rather than distributing it to famine hit areas.[584] Current estimates indicate that between one million and 1.5 million people died from malnutrition or disease as a result.[585] While agricultural production stagnated, Stalin focused on a series of major infrastructure projects, including the construction of hydroelectric plants, canals, and railway lines running to the polar north.[586] Much of this was constructed by prison labour.[586]
Cold War policy: 1947–1950
In the aftermath of the Second World War, the British Empire declined, leaving the U.S. and USSR as the dominant world powers.[587] Tensions among these former Allies grew,[557] resulting in the Cold War.[588] Although Stalin publicly described the British and U.S. governments as aggressive, he thought it unlikely that a war with them would be imminent, believing that several decades of peace was likely.[589] He nevertheless secretly intensified Soviet research into nuclear weaponry, intent on creating an atom bomb.[556] Still, Stalin foresaw the undesirability of a nuclear conflict, saying in 1949 that "atomic weapons can hardly be used without spelling the end of the world."[590] He personally took a keen interest in the development of the weapon.[591] In August 1949, the bomb was successfully tested in the deserts outside Semipalatinsk in Kazakhstan.[592] Stalin also initiated a new military build-up; the Soviet army was expanded from 2.9 million soldiers, as it stood in 1949, to 5.8 million by 1953.[593]
The US began pushing its interests on every continent, acquiring air force bases in Africa and Asia and ensuring pro-U.S. regimes took power across Latin America.[594] It launched the Marshall Plan in June 1947, with which it sought to undermine Soviet hegemony in eastern Europe. The US also offered financial assistance as part of the Marshall Plan on the condition that they opened their markets to trade, aware that the Soviets would never agree.[595]The Allies demanded that Stalin withdraw the Red Army from northern Iran. He initially refused, leading to an international crisis in 1946, but one year later Stalin finally relented and moved the Soviet troops out.[596]Stalin also tried to maximise Soviet influence on the world stage, unsuccessfully pushing for Libya—recently liberated from Italian occupation—to become a Soviet protectorate.[597] He sent Molotov as his representative to San Francisco to take part in negotiations to form the United Nations, insisting that the Soviets have a place on the Security Council.[588] In April 1949, the Western powers established the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), an international military alliance of capitalist countries.[598] Within Western countries, Stalin was increasingly portrayed as the "most evil dictator alive" and compared to Hitler.[599]
In 1948, Stalin edited and rewrote sections of Falsifiers of History, published as a series of Pravda articles in February 1948 and then in book form. Written in response to public revelations of the 1939 Soviet alliance with Germany, it focused on blaming Western powers for the war.[600] He erroneously claimed that the initial German advance in the early part of the war was not a result of Soviet military weakness, but rather a deliberate Soviet strategic retreat.[601] In 1949, celebrations took place to mark Stalin's seventieth birthday (although he was 71 at the time,) at which Stalin attended an event in the Bolshoi Theatre alongside Marxist–Leninist leaders from across Europe and Asia.[602]
Eastern Bloc
After the war, Stalin sought to retain Soviet dominance across Eastern Europe while expanding its influence in Asia.[534] Cautiously regarding the responses from the Western Allies, Stalin avoided immediately installing Communist Party governments across Eastern Europe, instead initially ensuring that Marxist-Leninists were placed in coalition ministries.[597] In contrast to his approach to the Baltic states, he rejected the proposal of merging the new communist states into the Soviet Union, rather recognising them as independent nation-states.[603]He was faced with the problem that there were few Marxists left in Eastern Europe, with most having been killed by the Nazis.[604] He demanded that war reparations be paid by Germany and its Axis allies Hungary, Romania, and the Slovak Republic.[557] Aware that these countries had been pushed toward socialism through invasion rather than by proletarian revolution, Stalin referred to them not as "dictatorships of the proletariat" but as "people's democracies", suggesting that in these countries there was a pro-socialist alliance combining the proletariat, peasantry, and lower middle-class.[605]
Churchill observed that an "Iron Curtain" had been drawn across Europe, separating the east from the west.[606] In September 1947, a meeting of East European communist leaders was held in Szklarska Poręba, Poland, from which was formed Cominform to co-ordinate the Communist Parties across Eastern Europe and also in France and Italy.[607] Stalin did not personally attend the meeting, sending Zhdanov in his place.[555] Various East European communists also visited Stalin in Moscow.[608] There, he offered advice on their ideas; for instance he cautioned against the Yugoslav idea for a Balkan federation incorporating Bulgaria and Albania.[608] Stalin had a particularly strained relationship with Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito due to the latter's continued calls for Balkan federation and for Soviet aid for the communist forces in the ongoing Greek Civil War.[609] In March 1948, Stalin launched an anti-Tito campaign, accusing the Yugoslav communists of adventurism and deviating from Marxist–Leninist doctrine.[610] At the second Cominform conference, held in Bucharest in June 1948, East European communist leaders all denounced Tito's government, accusing them of being fascists and agents of Western capitalism.[611] Stalin ordered several assassination attempts on Tito's life and contemplated invading Yugoslavia.[612]
Stalin suggested that a unified, but demilitarised, German state be established, hoping that it would either come under Soviet influence or remain neutral.[613] When the US and UK remained opposed to this, Stalin sought to force their hand by blockading Berlin in June 1948.[614] He gambled that the others would not risk war, but they airlifted supplies into West Berlin until May 1949, when Stalin relented and ended the blockade.[598] In September 1949 the Western powers transformed Western Germany into an independent Federal Republic of Germany; in response the Soviets formed East Germany into the German Democratic Republic in October.[613] In accordance with their earlier agreements, the Western powers expected Poland to become an independent state with free democratic elections.[615] In Poland, the Soviets merged various socialist parties into the Polish United Workers' Party, and vote rigging was used to ensure that it secured office.[610] The 1947 Hungarian elections were also rigged, with the Hungarian Working People's Party taking control.[610] In Czechoslovakia, where the communists did have a level of popular support, they were elected the largest party in 1946.[616] Monarchy was abolished in Bulgaria and Romania.[617] Across Eastern Europe, the Soviet model was enforced, with a termination of political pluralism, agricultural collectivisation, and investment in heavy industry.[611] It was aimed for economic autarky within the Eastern Bloc.[611]
Asia
In October 1949, Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong took power in China.[618] With this accomplished, Marxist governments now controlled a third of the world's land mass.[619] Privately, Stalin revealed that he had underestimated the Chinese Communists and their ability to win the civil war, instead encouraging them to make another peace with the KMT.[620] In December 1949, Mao visited Stalin. Initially Stalin refused to repeal the Sino-Soviet Treaty of 1945, which significantly benefited the Soviet Union over China, although in January 1950 he relented and agreed to sign a new treaty between the two countries.[621] Stalin was concerned that Mao might follow Tito's example by pursuing a course independent of Soviet influence, and made it known that if displeased he would withdraw assistance from China; the Chinese desperately needed said assistance after decades of civil war.[622]
At the end of the Second World War, the Soviet Union and the United States divided up the Korean Peninsula, formerly a Japanese colonial possession, along the 38th parallel, setting up a communist government in the north and a pro-Western government in the south.[623] North Korean leader Kim Il-sung visited Stalin in March 1949 and again in March 1950; he wanted to invade the south and although Stalin was initially reluctant to provide support, he eventually agreed by May 1950.[624] The North Korean Army launched the Korean War by invading the south in June 1950, making swift gains and capturing Seoul.[625] Both Stalin and Mao believed that a swift victory would ensue.[625] The U.S. went to the UN Security Council—which the Soviets were boycotting over its refusal to recognise Mao's government—and secured military support for the South Koreans. U.S. led forces pushed the North Koreans back.[626] Stalin wanted to avoid direct Soviet conflict with the U.S., convincing the Chinese to aid the North.[627]
The Soviet Union was one of the first nations to extend diplomatic recognition to the newly created state of Israel in 1948. When the Israeli ambassador Golda Meir arrived in the USSR, Stalin was angered by the Jewish crowds who gathered to greet her.[628] He was further angered by Israel's growing alliance with the U.S.[629] After Stalin fell out with Israel, he launched an anti-Jewish campaign within the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc.[605] In November 1948, he abolished the JAC,[630] and show trials took place for some of its members.[631] The Soviet press engaged in attacks on Zionism, Jewish culture, and "rootless cosmopolitanism",[632] with growing levels of anti-Semitism being expressed across Soviet society.[633] Stalin's increasing tolerance of anti-Semitism may have stemmed from his increasing Russian nationalism or from the recognition that anti-Semitism had proved a useful mobilising tool for Hitler and that he could do the same;[634] he may have increasingly viewed the Jewish people as a "counter-revolutionary" nation whose members were loyal to the U.S.[635] There were rumours, although they have never been substantiated, that Stalin was planning on deporting all Soviet Jews to the Jewish Autonomous Region in Birobidzhan, eastern Siberia.[636]
Final years: 1950–1953
In his later years, Stalin was in poor health.[637] He took increasingly long holidays; in 1950 and again in 1951 he spent almost five months vacationing at his Abkhazian dacha.[638] Stalin nevertheless mistrusted his doctors; in January 1952 he had one imprisoned after they suggested that he should retire to improve his health.[637] In September 1952, several Kremlin doctors were arrested for allegedly plotting to kill senior politicians in what came to be known as the Doctors' Plot; the majority of the accused were Jewish.[639] He instructed the arrested doctors to be tortured to ensure confession.[640] In November, the Slánský trial took place in Czechoslovakia as 13 senior Communist Party figures, 11 of them Jewish, were accused and convicted of being part of a vast Zionist-American conspiracy to subvert Eastern Bloc governments.[641] That same month, a much publicised trial of accused Jewish industrial wreckers took place in Ukraine.[642] In 1951, he initiated the Mingrelian affair, a purge of the Georgian branch of the Communist Party which resulted in over 11,000 deportations.[643]
From 1946 until his death, Stalin only gave three public speeches, two of which lasted only a few minutes.[644] The amount of written material that he produced also declined.[644] In 1950, Stalin issued the article "Marxism and Problems of Linguistics", which reflected his interest in questions of Russian nationhood.[645]In 1952, Stalin's last book, Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR, was published. It sought to provide a guide to leading the country after his death.[646] In October 1952, Stalin gave an hour and a half speech at the Central Committee plenum.[647] There, he emphasised what he regarded as leadership qualities necessary in the future and highlighted the weaknesses of various potential successors, particularly Molotov and Mikoyan.[648] In 1952, he also eliminated the Politburo and replaced it with a larger version which he called the Presidium.[649]
Death, funeral and aftermath
On 1 March 1953, Stalin's staff found him semi-conscious on the bedroom floor of his Volynskoe dacha.[650] He had suffered a cerebral hemorrhage.[651] He was moved onto a couch and remained there for three days.[652] He was hand-fed using a spoon, given various medicines and injections, and leeches were applied to him.[651] Svetlana and Vasily were called to the dacha on 2 March; the latter was drunk and angrily shouted at the doctors, resulting in him being sent home.[653] Stalin died on 5 March 1953.[654] According to Svetlana, it had been "a difficult and terrible death".[655] An autopsy revealed that he had died of a cerebral hemorrhage and that he also suffered from severe damage to his cerebral arteries due to atherosclerosis.[656] It is possible that Stalin was murdered.[657] Beria has been suspected of murder, although no firm evidence has ever appeared.[651]
Stalin's death was announced on 6 March.[658] The body was embalmed,[659] and then placed on display in Moscow's House of Unions for three days.[660] Crowds were such that a crush killed about 100 people.[661] The funeral involved the body being laid to rest in Lenin's Mausoleum in Red Square on 9 March; hundreds of thousands attended.[662] That month featured a surge in arrests for "anti-Soviet agitation" as those celebrating Stalin's death came to police attention.[663] The Chinese government instituted a period of official mourning for Stalin's death.[664]
Stalin left no anointed successor nor a framework within which a transfer of power could take place.[665] The Central Committee met on the day of his death, with Malenkov, Beria, and Khrushchev emerging as the party's key figures.[666] The system of collective leadership was restored, and measures introduced to prevent any one member attaining autocratic domination again.[667] The collective leadership included the following eight senior members of the Presidium of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union listed according to the order of precedence presented formally on 5 March 1953: Georgy Malenkov, Lavrentiy Beria, Vyacheslav Molotov, Kliment Voroshilov, Nikita Khrushchev, Nikolai Bulganin, Lazar Kaganovich and Anastas Mikoyan.[668] Reforms to the Soviet system were immediately implemented.[669] Economic reform scaled back the mass construction projects, placed a new emphasis on house building, and eased the levels of taxation on the peasantry to stimulate production.[670] The new leaders sought rapprochement with Yugoslavia and a less hostile relationship with the U.S.,[671] pursuing a negotiated end to the Korean War in July 1953.[672] The doctors who had been imprisoned were released and the anti-Semitic purges ceased.[673] A mass amnesty for those imprisoned for non-political crimes was issued, halving the country's inmate population, while the state security and Gulag systems were reformed, with torture being banned in April 1953.[670]
Political ideology
Stalin claimed to have embraced Marxism at the age of fifteen,[674] and it served as the guiding philosophy throughout his adult life;[675] according to Kotkin, Stalin held "zealous Marxist convictions",[676] while Montefiore suggested that Marxism held a "quasi-religious" value for Stalin.[677] Although he never became a Georgian nationalist,[678] during his early life elements from Georgian nationalist thought blended with Marxism in his outlook.[679] The historian Alfred J. Rieber noted that he had been raised in "a society where rebellion was deeply rooted in folklore and popular rituals".[678] Stalin believed in the need to adapt Marxism to changing circumstances; in 1917, he declared that "there is dogmatic Marxism and there is creative Marxism. I stand on the ground of the latter".[680] Volkogonov believed that Stalin's Marxism was shaped by his "dogmatic turn of mind", suggesting that this had been instilled in the Soviet leader during his education in religious institutions.[681] According to scholar Robert Service, Stalin's "few innovations in ideology were crude, dubious developments of Marxism".[675] Some of these derived from political expediency rather than any sincere intellectual commitment;[675] Stalin would often turn to ideology post hoc to justify his decisions.[682] Stalin referred to himself as a praktik, meaning that he was more of a practical revolutionary than a theoretician.[683]
As a Marxist and an extreme anti-capitalist, Stalin believed in an inevitable "class war" between the world's proletariat and bourgeoise.[684] He believed that the working classes would prove successful in this struggle and would establish a dictatorship of the proletariat,[685] regarding the Soviet Union as an example of such a state.[686] He also believed that this proletarian state would need to introduce repressive measures against foreign and domestic "enemies" to ensure the full crushing of the propertied classes,[687] and thus the class war would intensify with the advance of socialism.[688] As a propaganda tool, the shaming of "enemies" explained all inadequate economic and political outcomes, the hardships endured by the populace, and military failures.[689] The new state would then be able to ensure that all citizens had access to work, food, shelter, healthcare, and education, with the wastefulness of capitalism eliminated by a new, standardised economic system.[690] According to Sandle, Stalin was "committed to the creation of a society that was industrialised, collectivised, centrally planned and technologically advanced."[691]
Stalin adhered to the Leninist variant of Marxism.[692] In his book, Foundations of Leninism, he stated that "Leninism is the Marxism of the epoch of imperialism and of the proletarian revolution".[693] He claimed to be a loyal Leninist,[694] although was—according to Service—"not a blindly obedient Leninist".[690] Stalin respected Lenin, but not uncritically,[695] and spoke out when he believed that Lenin was wrong.[690] During the period of his revolutionary activity, Stalin regarded some of Lenin's views and actions as being the self-indulgent activities of a spoiled émigré, deeming them counterproductive for those Bolshevik activists based within the Russian Empire itself.[696] After the October Revolution, they continued to have differences. Whereas Lenin believed that all countries across Europe and Asia would readily unite as a single state following proletariat revolution, Stalin argued that national pride would prevent this, and that different socialist states would have to be formed; in his view, a country like Germany would not readily submit to being part of a Russian-dominated federal state.[697] Stalin biographer Oleg Khlevniuk nevertheless believed that the pair developed a "strong bond" over the years,[698] while Kotkin suggested that Stalin's friendship with Lenin was "the single most important relationship in Stalin's life".[699] After Lenin's death, Stalin relied heavily on Lenin's writings—far more so than those of Marx and Engels—to guide him in the affairs of state.[700] Stalin adopted the Leninist view on the need for a revolutionary vanguard who could lead the proletariat rather than being led by them.[685] Leading this vanguard, he believed that the Soviet peoples needed a strong, central figure—akin to a Tsar—whom they could rally around.[701] In his words, "the people need a Tsar, whom they can worship and for whom they can live and work".[702] He read about, and admired, two Tsars in particular: Ivan the Terrible and Peter the Great.[703] In the personality cult constructed around him, he was known as the vozhd, an equivalent to the Italian duce and German fuhrer.[704]
Stalinism was a development of Leninism,[705] and while Stalin avoided using the term "Marxism-Leninism-Stalinism", he allowed others to do so.[706] Following Lenin's death, Stalin contributed to the theoretical debates within the Communist Party, namely by developing the idea of "Socialism in One Country". This concept was intricately linked to factional struggles within the party, particularly against Trotsky.[707] He first developed the idea in December 1924 and elaborated upon in his writings of 1925–26.[708] Stalin's doctrine held that socialism could be completed in Russia but that its final victory there could not be guaranteed because of the threat from capitalist intervention. For this reason, he retained the Leninist view that world revolution was still a necessity to ensure the ultimate victory of socialism.[708] Although retaining the Marxist belief that the state would wither away as socialism transformed into pure communism, he believed that the Soviet state would remain until the final defeat of international capitalism.[709] This concept synthesised Marxist and Leninist ideas with nationalist ideals,[691] and served to discredit Trotsky—who promoted the idea of "permanent revolution"—by presenting the latter as a defeatist with little faith in Russian workers' abilities to construct socialism.[710]
Stalin viewed nations as contingent entities which were formed by capitalism and could merge into others.[711] Ultimately he believed that all nations would merge into a single, global human community,[711] and regarded all nations as inherently equal.[712] In his work, he stated that "the right of secession" should be offered to the ethnic-minorities of the Russian Empire, but that they should not be encouraged to take that option.[713] He was of the view that if they became fully autonomous, then they would end up being controlled by the most reactionary elements of their community; as an example he cited the largely illiterate Tatars, whom he claimed would end up dominated by their mullahs.[713] Stalin argued that the Jews possessed a "national character" but were not a "nation" and were thus unassimilable. He argued that Jewish nationalism, particularly Zionism, was hostile to socialism.[714] According to Khlevniuk, Stalin reconciled Marxism with great-power imperialism and therefore expansion of the empire makes him a worthy to the Russian tsars.[689] Service argued that Stalin's Marxism was imbued with a great deal of Russian nationalism.[675] According to Montefiore, Stalin's embrace of the Russian nation was pragmatic, as the Russians were the core of the population of the USSR; it was not a rejection of his Georgian origins.[715] Stalin's push for Soviet westward expansion into eastern Europe resulted in accusations of Russian imperialism.[716]
Personal life and characteristics
— Stephen Kotkin[717]
Ethnically Georgian,[718] Stalin grew up speaking the Georgian language,[719] and did not begin learning Russian until the age of eight or nine.[720] He remained proud of his Georgian identity,[721] and throughout his life retained a heavy Georgian accent when speaking Russian.[722] According to Montefiore, despite Stalin's affinity for Russia and Russians, he remained profoundly Georgian in his lifestyle and personality.[723] Stalin's colleagues described him as "Asiatic", and he told a Japanese journalist that "I am not a European man, but an Asian, a Russified Georgian".[724] Service also noted that Stalin "would never be Russian", could not credibly pass as one, and never tried to pretend that he was.[725] Montefiore was of the view that "after 1917, [Stalin] became quadri-national: Georgian by nationality, Russian by loyalty, internationalist by ideology, Soviet by citizenship."[726]
Stalin had a soft voice,[727] and when speaking Russian did so slowly, carefully choosing his phrasing.[718] In private he used coarse language, although avoided doing so in public.[728] Described as a poor orator,[729] according to Volkogonov, Stalin's speaking style was "simple and clear, without flights of fancy, catchy phrases or platform histrionics".[730] He rarely spoke before large audiences, and preferred to express himself in written form.[731] His writing style was similar, being characterised by its simplicity, clarity, and conciseness.[732] Throughout his life, he used various nicknames and pseudonyms, including "Koba", "Soselo", and "Ivanov",[733] adopting "Stalin" in 1912; it was based on the Russian word for "steel" and has often been translated as "Man of Steel".[143]
In adulthood, Stalin measured 5 feet 4 inches (1.63 m) tall.[734] To appear taller, he wore stacked shoes, and stood on a small platform during parades.[735] His mustached face was pock-marked from smallpox during childhood; this was airbrushed from published photographs.[736] He was born with a webbed left foot, and his left arm had been permanently injured in childhood which left it shorter than his right and lacking in flexibility,[737] which was probably the result of being hit, at the age of 12, by a horse-drawn carriage.[738]
During his youth, Stalin cultivated a scruffy appearance in rejection of middle-class aesthetic values.[739] By 1907, he grew his hair long and often wore a beard; for clothing, he often wore a traditional Georgian chokha or a red satin shirt with a grey coat and black fedora.[740] From mid-1918 until his death he favoured military-style clothing, in particular long black boots, light-coloured collarless tunics, and a gun.[741] He was a lifelong smoker, who smoked both a pipe and cigarettes.[742] He had few material demands and lived plainly, with simple and inexpensive clothing and furniture;[743] his interest was in power rather than wealth.[744]
As Soviet leader, Stalin typically awoke around 11 am,[745] with lunch being served between 3 and 5 pm and dinner no earlier than 9 pm;[746] he then worked late into the evening.[747] He often dined with other Politburo members and their families.[748] As leader, he rarely left Moscow unless to go to one of his dachas;[749] he disliked travel,[750] and refused to travel by plane.[751] His choice of favoured holiday house changed over the years,[752] although he holidayed in southern parts of the USSR every year from 1925 to 1936 and again from 1945 to 1951.[753] Along with other senior figures, he had a dacha at Zubalova, 35 km outside Moscow,[754] although ceased using it after Nadezhda's 1932 suicide.[755] After 1932, he favoured holidays in Abkhazia, being a friend of its leader, Nestor Lakoba.[756] In 1934, his new Kuntsevo Dacha was built; 9 km from the Kremlin, it became his primary residence.[757] In 1935 he began using a new dacha provided for him by Lakoba at Novy Afon;[758] in 1936, he had the Kholodnaya Rechka dacha built on the Abkhazian coast, designed by Miron Merzhanov.[759]
Personality
Trotsky and several other Soviet figures promoted the idea that Stalin was a mediocrity.[760] This gained widespread acceptance outside the Soviet Union during his lifetime but was misleading.[761] According to biographer Montefiore, "it is clear from hostile and friendly witnesses alike that Stalin was always exceptional, even from childhood".[761] Stalin had a complex mind,[762] great self-control,[763] and an excellent memory.[764] He was a hard worker,[765] and displayed a keen desire to learn;[766] when in power, he scrutinised many details of Soviet life, from film scripts to architectural plans and military hardware.[767] According to Volkogonov, "Stalin's private life and working life were one and the same"; he did not take days off from political activities.[768]
Stalin could play different roles to different audiences,[769] and was adept at deception, often deceiving others as to his true motives and aims.[770] Several historians have seen it appropriate to follow Lazar Kaganovich's description of there being "several Stalins" as a means of understanding his multi-faceted personality.[771] He was a good organiser,[772] with a strategic mind,[773] and judged others according to their inner strength, practicality, and cleverness.[774] He acknowledged that he could be rude and insulting,[775] but he rarely raised his voice in anger;[776] as his health deteriorated in later life he became increasingly unpredictable and bad tempered.[777] Despite his tough-talking attitude, he could be very charming;[778] when relaxed, he cracked jokes and mimicked others.[766] Montefiore suggested that this charm was "the foundation of Stalin's power in the Party".[779]
Stalin was ruthless,[780] temperamentally cruel,[781] and had a propensity for violence high even among the Bolsheviks.[776] He lacked compassion,[782] something Volkogonov suggested might have been accentuated by his many years in prison and exile,[783] although he was capable of acts of kindness to strangers, even amid the Great Terror.[784] He was capable of self-righteous indignation,[785] and was resentful,[786] vindictive,[787] and vengeful, holding onto grievances against others for many years.[788] By the 1920s, he was also suspicious and conspiratorial, prone to believing that people were plotting against him and that there were vast international conspiracies behind acts of dissent.[789] He never attended torture sessions or executions,[790] although Service thought Stalin "derived deep satisfaction" from degrading and humiliating people and enjoyed keeping even close associates in a state of "unrelieved fear".[716] Montefiore thought Stalin's brutality marked him out as a "natural extremist";[791] Service suggested he had tendencies toward a paranoid and sociopathic personality disorder.[762] Other historians linked his brutality not to any personality trait, but to his unwavering commitment to the survival of the Soviet Union and the international Marxist–Leninist cause.[792]
— U.S. ambassador W. Averell Harriman[793]
Keenly interested in the arts,[794] Stalin admired artistic talent.[795] He protected several Soviet writers, such as Mikhail Bulgakov, even when their work was labelled harmful to his regime.[796] He enjoyed music,[797] owning around 2,700 records,[798] and frequently attending the Bolshoi Theatre during the 1930s and 1940s.[799] His taste in music and theatre was conservative, favouring classical drama, opera, and ballet over what he dismissed as experimental "formalism".[720] He also favoured classical forms in the visual arts, disliking avant-garde styles like cubism and futurism.[800] He was a voracious reader, with a library of over 20,000 books.[801] Little of this was fiction,[802] although he could cite passages from Alexander Pushkin, Nikolay Nekrasov, and Walt Whitman by heart.[795] He favoured historical studies, keeping up with debates in the study of Russian, Mesopotamian, ancient Roman, and Byzantine history.[644] An autodidact,[803] he claimed to read as many as 500 pages a day,[804] with Montefiore regarding him as an intellectual.[805] Stalin also enjoyed watching films late at night at cinemas installed in the Kremlin and his dachas.[806] He favoured the Western genre;[807] his favourite film was the 1938 picture Volga Volga.[808]
Stalin was a keen and accomplished billiards player,[809] and collected watches.[810] He also enjoyed practical jokes; he for instance would place a tomato on the seat of Politburo members and wait for them to sit on it.[811] When at social events, he encouraged singing,[812] as well as alcohol consumption; he hoped that others would drunkenly reveal their secrets to him.[813] As an infant, Stalin displayed a love of flowers,[814] and later in life he became a keen gardener.[814] His Volynskoe suburb had a 20-hectare (50-acre) park, with Stalin devoting much attention to its agricultural activities.[815]
Stalin publicly condemned anti-Semitism,[816] although he was repeatedly accused of it.[817] People who knew him, such as Khrushchev, suggested he long harbored negative sentiments toward Jews,[818] and anti-Semitic trends in his policies were further fueled by Stalin's struggle against Trotsky.[819] After Stalin's death, Khrushchev claimed that Stalin encouraged him to incite anti-Semitism in Ukraine, allegedly telling him that "the good workers at the factory should be given clubs so they can beat the hell out of those Jews."[820] In 1946, Stalin allegedly said privately that "every Jew is a potential spy."[821] Conquest stated that although Stalin had Jewish associates, he promoted anti-Semitism.[822] Service cautioned that there was "no irrefutable evidence" of anti-Semitism in Stalin's published work, although his private statements and public actions were "undeniably reminiscent of crude antagonism towards Jews";[823] he added that throughout Stalin's lifetime, the Georgian "would be the friend, associate or leader of countless individual Jews".[824] According to Beria, Stalin had affairs with several Jewish women.[825]
Relationships and family
Friendship was important to Stalin,[826] and he used it to gain and maintain power.[827] Kotkin observed that Stalin "generally gravitated to people like himself: parvenu intelligentsia of humble background".[828] He gave nicknames to his favourites, for instance referring to Yezhov as "my blackberry".[829] Stalin was sociable and enjoyed a joke.[830] According to Montefiore, Stalin's friendships "meandered between love, admiration, and venomous jealousy".[831] While head of the Soviet Union he remained in contact with many of his old friends in Georgia, sending them letters and gifts of money.[832]
According to Montefiore, in his early life Stalin "rarely seems to have been without a girlfriend".[833] He was sexually promiscuous, although rarely talked about his sex life.[834] Montefiore noted that Stalin's favoured types were "young, malleable teenagers or buxom peasant women",[834] who would be supportive and unchallenging toward him.[835] According to Service, Stalin "regarded women as a resource for sexual gratification and domestic comfort".[836] Stalin married twice and had several offspring.[837]
Stalin married his first wife, Ekaterina Svanidze, in 1906. According to Montefiore, theirs was "a true love match";[838] Volkogonov suggested that she was "probably the one human being he had really loved".[839] When she died, Stalin said: "This creature softened my heart of stone."[840] They had a son, Yakov, who often frustrated and annoyed Stalin.[841] Yakov had a daughter, Galina, before fighting for the Red Army in the Second World War. He was captured by the German Army and then committed suicide.[842]
Stalin's second wife was Nadezhda Alliluyeva; theirs was not an easy relationship, and they often fought.[843] They had two biological children—a son, Vasily, and a daughter, Svetlana—and adopted another son, Artyom Sergeev, in 1921.[844] During his marriage to Nadezhda, Stalin had affairs with many other women, most of whom were fellow revolutionaries or their wives.[845] Nadezdha suspected that this was the case,[846] and committed suicide in 1932.[847] Stalin regarded Vasily as spoiled and often chastised his behaviour; as Stalin's son, Vasily nevertheless was swiftly promoted through the ranks of the Red Army and allowed a lavish lifestyle.[848] Conversely, Stalin had an affectionate relationship with Svetlana during her childhood,[849] and was also very fond of Artyom.[844] In later life, he disapproved of Svetlana's various suitors and husbands, putting a strain on his relationship with her.[850] After the Second World War, he made little time for his children and his family played a decreasingly important role in his life.[851] After Stalin's death, Svetlana changed her surname from Stalin to Allilueva,[671] and defected to the U.S.[852]
After Nadezdha's death, Stalin became increasingly close to his sister-in-law Zhenya Alliluyeva;[853] Montefiore believed that they were probably lovers.[854] There are unproven rumours that from 1934 onward he had a relationship with his housekeeper Valentina Istomina.[855] Stalin had at least two illegitimate children,[856] although he never recognised them as being his.[857] One of them, Konstantin Kuzakov, later taught philosophy at the Leningrad Military Mechanical Institute, but never met his father.[858] The other, Alexander, was the son of Lidia Pereprygia; he was raised as the son of a peasant fisherman and the Soviet authorities made him swear never to reveal that Stalin was his biological father.[859]
Legacy
The historian Robert Conquest stated that Stalin perhaps "determined the course of the twentieth century" more than any other individual.[860] Biographers like Service and Volkogonov have considered him an outstanding and exceptional politician;[861] Montefiore labelled Stalin as "that rare combination: both 'intellectual' and killer", a man who was "the ultimate politician" and "the most elusive and fascinating of the twentieth-century titans".[862] According to historian Kevin McDermott, interpretations of Stalin range from "the sycophantic and adulatory to the vitriolic and condemnatory."[863] For most Westerners and anti-communist Russians, he is viewed overwhelmingly negatively as a mass murderer;[863] for significant numbers of Russians and Georgians, he is regarded as a great statesman and state-builder.[863]
Stalin strengthened and stabilised the Soviet Union.[864] Service suggested that the country might have collapsed long before 1991 without Stalin.[864] In under three decades, Stalin transformed the Soviet Union into a major industrial world power,[865] one which could "claim impressive achievements" in terms of urbanisation, military strength, education and Soviet pride.[866] Under his rule, the average Soviet life expectancy grew due to improved living conditions, nutrition and medical care[867] as mortality rates also declined.[868] Although millions of Soviet citizens despised him, support for Stalin was nevertheless widespread throughout Soviet society.[866] Stalin's necessity for Soviet Union's economic development has been questioned, with it being argued that Stalin's policies from 1928 on may have only been a limiting factor.[869]
Stalin's Soviet Union has been characterised as a totalitarian state,[870] with Stalin its authoritarian leader.[871] Various biographers have described him as a dictator,[872] an autocrat,[873] or accused him of practicing Caesarism.[874] Montefiore argued that while Stalin initially ruled as part of a Communist Party oligarchy, the Soviet government transformed from this oligarchy into a personal dictatorship in 1934,[875] with Stalin only becoming "absolute dictator" between March and June 1937, when senior military and NKVD figures were eliminated.[876] According to Kotkin, Stalin "built a personal dictatorship within the Bolshevik dictatorship."[717] In both the Soviet Union and elsewhere he came to be portrayed as an "Oriental despot".[877] Dmitri Volkogonov characterised him as "one of the most powerful figures in human history."[878] McDermott stated that Stalin had "concentrated unprecedented political authority in his hands."[879] Service stated that Stalin "had come closer to personal despotism than almost any monarch in history" by the late 1930s.[880]
McDermott nevertheless cautioned against "over-simplistic stereotypes"—promoted in the fiction of writers like Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Vasily Grossman, and Anatoly Rybakov—that portrayed Stalin as an omnipotent and omnipresent tyrant who controlled every aspect of Soviet life through repression and totalitarianism.[881] Service similarly warned of the portrayal of Stalin as an "unimpeded despot", noting that "powerful though he was, his powers were not limitless", and his rule depended on his willingness to conserve the Soviet structure he had inherited.[882] Kotkin observed that Stalin's ability to remain in power relied on him having a majority in the Politburo at all times.[883] Khlevniuk noted that at various points, particularly when Stalin was old and frail, there were "periodic manifestations" in which the party oligarchy threatened his autocratic control.[777] Stalin denied to foreign visitors that he was a dictator, stating that those who labelled him such did not understand the Soviet governance structure.[884]
A vast literature devoted to Stalin has been produced.[885] During Stalin's lifetime, his approved biographies were largely hagiographic in content.[886] Stalin ensured that these works gave very little attention to his early life, particularly because he did not wish to emphasise his Georgian origins in a state numerically dominated by Russians.[887] Since his death many more biographies have been written,[888] although until the 1980s these relied largely on the same sources of information.[888] Under Mikhail Gorbachev's Soviet administration various previously classified files on Stalin's life were made available to historians,[888] at which point Stalin became "one of the most urgent and vital issues on the public agenda" in the Soviet Union.[889] After the dissolution of the Union in 1991, the rest of the archives were opened to historians, resulting in much new information about Stalin coming to light,[890] and producing a flood of new research.[885]
Leninists remain divided in their views on Stalin; some view him as Lenin's authentic successor, while others believe he betrayed Lenin's ideas by deviating from them.[716] The socio-economic nature of Stalin's Soviet Union has also been much debated, varyingly being labelled a form of state socialism, state capitalism, bureaucratic collectivism, or a totally unique mode of production.[891] Socialist writers like Volkogonov have acknowledged that Stalin's actions damaged "the enormous appeal of socialism generated by the October Revolution"[892]
Death toll and allegations of genocide
With a high number of excess deaths occurring under his rule, Stalin has been labeled "one of the most notorious figures in history."[864] These deaths occurred as a result of collectivisation, famine, terror campaigns, disease, war and mortality rates in the Gulag. As the majority of excess deaths under Stalin were not direct killings, the exact number of victims of Stalinism is difficult to calculate due to lack of consensus among scholars on which deaths can be attributed to the regime.[893]
Official records reveal 799,455 documented executions in the Soviet Union between 1921 and 1953; 681,692 of these were carried out between 1937 and 1938, the years of the Great Purge.[894] According to Michael Ellman, the best modern estimate for the number of repression deaths during the Great Purge is 950,000–1.2 million, which includes executions, deaths in detention, or soon after their release.[895] In addition, while archival data shows that 1,053,829 perished in the Gulag from 1934 to 1953,[896] the current historical consensus is that of the 18 million people who passed through the Gulag system from 1930 to 1953, between 1.5 and 1.7 million died as a result of their incarceration.[897] Historian and archival researcher Stephen G. Wheatcroft and Michael Ellman attribute roughly 3 million deaths to the Stalinist regime, including executions and deaths from criminal negligence.[898] Wheatcoft and historian R. W. Davies estimate famine deaths at 5.5–6.5 million[899] while scholar Steven Rosefielde gives a number of 8.7 million.[900] In 2011, historian Timothy D. Snyder in 2011 summarised modern data made after the opening of the Soviet archives in the 1990s and states that Stalin's regime was responsible for 9 million deaths, with 6 million of these being deliberate killings. He further states the estimate is far lower than the estimates of 20 million or above which were made before access to the archives.[901]
Historians continue to debate whether or not the 1932–33 Ukrainian famine, known in Ukraine as the Holodomor, should be called a genocide.[902] Twenty six countries officially recognise it under the legal definition of genocide. In 2006, the Ukrainian Parliament declared it to be such,[903] and in 2010 a Ukrainian court posthumously convicted Stalin, Lazar Kaganovich, Stanislav Kosior, and other Soviet leaders of genocide.[904] Popular among some Ukrainian nationalists is the idea that Stalin consciously organised the famine to suppress national desires among the Ukrainian people. This interpretation has been rejected by more recent historical studies.[905] These have articulated the view that while Stalin's policies contributed significantly to the high mortality rate, there is no evidence that Stalin or the Soviet government consciously engineered the famine.[906] The idea that this was a targeted attack on the Ukrainians is complicated by the widespread suffering that also affected other Soviet peoples in the famine, including the Russians.[907] Within Ukraine, ethnic Poles and Bulgarians died in similar proportions to ethnic Ukrainians.[908] Despite any lack of clear intent on Stalin's part, the historian Norman Naimark noted that although there may not be sufficient "evidence to convict him in an international court of justice as a genocidaire [...] that does not mean that the event itself cannot be judged as genocide."[909]
In the Soviet Union and its successor states
Shortly after his death, the Soviet Union went through a period of de-Stalinization. Malenkov denounced the Stalin personality cult,[910] which was subsequently criticised in Pravda.[911] In 1956, Khrushchev gave his "Secret Speech", titled "On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences", to a closed session of the Party's 20th Congress. There, Khrushchev denounced Stalin for both his mass repression and his personality cult.[912] He repeated these denunciations at the 22nd Party Congress in October 1962.[913] In October 1961, Stalin's body was removed from the mausoleum and buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis next to the Kremlin walls, the location marked only by a simple bust.[914] Stalingrad was renamed Volgograd.[915]
Khrushchev's de-Stalinisation process in Soviet society ended when he was replaced as leader by Leonid Brezhnev in 1964; the latter introduced a level of re-Stalinisation within the Soviet Union.[916] In 1969 and again in 1979, plans were proposed for a full rehabilitation of Stalin's legacy but on both occasions were defeated by critics within the Soviet and international Marxist–Leninist movement.[917] Gorbachev saw the total denunciation of Stalin as necessary for the regeneration of Soviet society.[918] After the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, the first President of the new Russian Federation, Boris Yeltsin, continued Gorbachev's denunciation of Stalin but added to it a denunciation of Lenin.[918] His successor Vladimir Putin did not seek to rehabilitate Stalin but emphasised the celebration of Soviet achievements under Stalin's leadership rather than the Stalinist repressions.[919] In October 2017, Putin opened the Wall of Grief memorial in Moscow, noting that the "terrible past" would neither be "justified by anything" nor "erased from the national memory."[920]
Amid the social and economic turmoil of the post-Soviet period, many Russians viewed Stalin as having overseen an era of order, predictability, and pride.[921] He remains a revered figure among many Russian nationalists, who feel nostalgic about the Soviet victory over Nazi Germany in World War II,[922] and he is regularly invoked approvingly within both Russia's far-left and far-right.[923] In the 2008 Name of Russia television show, Stalin was voted as the third most notable personality in Russian history.[924] Polling by the Levada Center suggest Stalin's popularity has grown since 2015, with 46% of Russians expressing a favourable view of him in 2017 and 51% in 2019.[925] At the same time, there was a growth in pro-Stalinist literature in Russia, much relying upon the misrepresentation or fabrication of source material.[926] In this literature, Stalin's repressions are regarded either as a necessary measure to defeat "enemies of the people" or the result of lower-level officials acting without Stalin's knowledge.[926]
The only part of the former Soviet Union where admiration for Stalin has remained consistently widespread is Georgia, although Georgian attitude has been very divided.[927] A number of Georgians resent criticism of Stalin, the most famous figure from their nation's modern history.[922] A 2013 survey by Tbilisi State University found 45% of Georgians expressing "a positive attitude" to him.[928] A 2017 Pew Research survey had 57% of Georgians saying he played a positive role in history, compared to 18% of those expressing the same for Mikhail Gorbachev.[929]
Some positive sentiment can also be found elsewhere in the former Soviet Union. A 2012 survey commissioned by the Carnegie Endowment found 38% of Armenians concurring that their country "will always have need of a leader like Stalin."[930] In early 2010, a new monument to Stalin was erected in Zaporizhzhia, Ukraine.[931] In December 2010, unknown persons cut off its head and it was destroyed in an explosion in 2011.[932] In a 2016 Kyiv International Institute of Sociology poll, 38% of respondents had a negative attitude to Stalin, 26% a neutral one and 17% a positive, with 19% refusing to answer.[933]
See also
- Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union
- Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Soviet Russia in the 1930s
- Foreign relations of the Soviet Union
- Index of Soviet Union-related articles
- List of places named after Joseph Stalin
- Stalin's Peasants: Resistance and Survival in the Russian Village after Collectivization
- Stalin and the Scientists
- Stalin: Paradoxes of Power, 1878–1928
- Stalin: Waiting for Hitler, 1929–1941
Notes
- ^ Despite abolishing the office of General Secretary in 1952, Stalin continued to exercise its powers as the Secretariat's highest-ranking member.
- ^ After Stalin's death, Georgy Malenkov succeeded him as both head of government and the highest-ranking member of the party apparatus.
- ^ The Constituent Assembly was declared dissolved by the Bolshevik-Left SR Soviet government, rendering the end the term served.
- ^ Stalin's original Georgian name was Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili (იოსებ ბესარიონის ძე ჯუღაშვილი). The Russian equivalent of this is Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili (Иосиф Виссарионович Джугашвили). During his years as a revolutionary, he adopted the alias "Stalin", and after the October Revolution he made it his legal name.
- ^ While forced to give up control of the Secretariat almost immediately after succeeding Stalin as the body's de facto head, Malenkov was still recognised as "first among equals" within the regime for over a year. As late as March 1954, he remained listed as first in the Soviet leadership and continued to chair meetings of the Politburo.
- ^ Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Сталин, romanized: Iosif Vissarionovich Stalin Russian pronunciation: [ɪˈosʲɪf vʲɪsərʲɪˈonəvʲɪt͡ɕ ˈstalʲɪn].
- ^ Georgian: იოსებ ბესარიონის ძე ჯუღაშვილი
Georgian pronunciation: [iɔsɛb bɛsɑriɔnis dzɛ dʒuɣɑʃvilii] - ^ Although there is inconsistency among published sources about Stalin's exact date of birth, Ioseb Jughashvili is found in the records of the Uspensky Church in Gori, Georgia as born on 18 December (Old Style: 6 December) 1878. This birth date is maintained in his school leaving certificate, his extensive tsarist Russia police file, a police arrest record from 18 April 1902 which gave his age as 23 years, and all other surviving pre-Revolution documents. As late as 1921, Stalin himself listed his birthday as 18 December 1878 in a curriculum vitae in his own handwriting. After coming to power in 1922, Stalin gave his birth date as 21 December 1879 (Old Style date 9 December 1879). That became the day his birthday was celebrated in the Soviet Union.[5]
References
Citations
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 742, note 25. Starting in about 1920, Stalin gave a birth date of 21 December [O.S. 9] 1879 despite being born on 18 December [O.S. 6] 1878.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 2; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 11.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 15.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 14; Montefiore 2007, p. 23.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 23.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 16.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 2; Volkogonov 1991, p. 5; Service 2004, p. 14; Montefiore 2007, p. 19; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 11.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 26; Conquest 1991, p. 1; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 11.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 5; Service 2004, p. 16; Montefiore 2007, p. 22; Kotkin 2014, p. 17; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 11.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 11; Service 2004, p. 16; Montefiore 2007, p. 23; Kotkin 2014, p. 17.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 5; Service 2004, p. 14; Montefiore 2007, p. 22; Kotkin 2014, p. 16.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 16; Montefiore 2007, pp. 22, 32.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 11; Service 2004, p. 19.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 17; Montefiore 2007, p. 25; Kotkin 2014, p. 20; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 12.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 10; Volkogonov 1991, p. 5; Service 2004, p. 17; Montefiore 2007, p. 29; Kotkin 2014, p. 24; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 12.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 30–31; Kotkin 2014, p. 20.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 12; Montefiore 2007, p. 31; Kotkin 2014, pp. 20–21.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 31–32.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 11; Service 2004, p. 20; Montefiore 2007, pp. 32–34; Kotkin 2014, p. 21.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 20; Montefiore 2007, p. 36.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 12; Service 2004, p. 30; Montefiore 2007, p. 44; Kotkin 2014, p. 26.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 43–44.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 44.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 13; Service 2004, p. 30; Montefiore 2007, p. 43; Kotkin 2014, p. 26.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 12; Volkogonov 1991, p. 5; Service 2004, p. 19; Montefiore 2007, p. 31; Kotkin 2014, p. 20.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 12; Service 2004, p. 25; Montefiore 2007, pp. 35, 46; Kotkin 2014, pp. 20–21.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 28; Montefiore 2007, pp. 51–53; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 15.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 54–55.
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- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 18; Montefiore 2007, p. 57; Kotkin 2014, p. 33.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 38.
- ^ a b Montefiore 2007, p. 58.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 69; Kotkin 2014, p. 32; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 18.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 19; Montefiore 2007, p. 69; Kotkin 2014, pp. 36–37; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 19.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 70–71.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 19; Montefiore 2007, p. 62; Kotkin 2014, pp. 36, 37; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 18.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 63.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 14; Volkogonov 1991, p. 5; Service 2004, pp. 27–28; Montefiore 2007, p. 63; Kotkin 2014, pp. 23–24; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 17.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 38; Montefiore 2007, p. 64.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 69.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 40; Kotkin 2014, p. 43.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 66.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 65; Kotkin 2014, p. 44.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 41; Montefiore 2007, p. 71.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 54; Conquest 1991, p. 27; Service 2004, pp. 43–44; Montefiore 2007, p. 76; Kotkin 2014, pp. 47–48.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 79.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 54; Conquest 1991, p. 27; Montefiore 2007, p. 78.
- ^ a b Montefiore 2007, p. 78.
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- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 82.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 28; Montefiore 2007, p. 82; Kotkin 2014, p. 50.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 87.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 63; Rieber 2005, pp. 37–38; Montefiore 2007, pp. 87–88.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 29; Service 2004, p. 52; Rieber 2005, p. 39; Montefiore 2007, p. 101; Kotkin 2014, p. 51.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 91, 95; Kotkin 2014, p. 53.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 90–93; Kotkin 2014, p. 51; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 22–23.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 29; Service 2004, p. 49; Montefiore 2007, pp. 94–95; Kotkin 2014, p. 52; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 23.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 97–98.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 29; Service 2004, p. 49; Rieber 2005, p. 42; Montefiore 2007, p. 98; Kotkin 2014, p. 52.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 67; Service 2004, p. 52; Montefiore 2007, p. 101.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 67; Conquest 1991, p. 29; Service 2004, p. 52; Montefiore 2007, p. 105.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 68; Conquest 1991, p. 29; Montefiore 2007, p. 107; Kotkin 2014, p. 53; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 23.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 75; Conquest 1991, p. 29; Service 2004, p. 52; Montefiore 2007, pp. 108–110.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 111.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 52; Montefiore 2007, pp. 114–115.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 52; Montefiore 2007, pp. 115–116; Kotkin 2014, p. 53.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 57; Montefiore 2007, p. 123.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 54; Montefiore 2007, pp. 117–118; Kotkin 2014, p. 77.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 33–34; Service 2004, p. 53; Montefiore 2007, p. 113; Kotkin 2014, pp. 78–79; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 24.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 76; Service 2004, p. 59; Kotkin 2014, p. 80; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 24.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 131.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 38; Service 2004, p. 59.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 81.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 80; Service 2004, p. 56; Montefiore 2007, p. 126.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, pp. 84–85; Service 2004, p. 56.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 58; Montefiore 2007, pp. 128–129.
- ^ a b Montefiore 2007, p. 129.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 131–132.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 132.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 143.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 132–133.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 87; Montefiore 2007, pp. 135, 144.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 137.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, pp. 89–90; Service 2004, p. 60; Montefiore 2007, p. 145.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 145.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 90; Conquest 1991, p. 37; Service 2004, p. 60; Kotkin 2014, p. 81.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 92; Montefiore 2007, p. 147; Kotkin 2014, p. 105.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 94; Conquest 1991, pp. 39–40; Service 2004, pp. 61, 62; Montefiore 2007, p. 156.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 96; Conquest 1991, p. 40; Service 2004, p. 62; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 26.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 96; Service 2004, p. 62; Kotkin 2014, p. 113.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 168; Kotkin 2014, p. 113.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 64; Montefiore 2007, p. 159; Kotkin 2014, p. 105.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 64; Montefiore 2007, p. 167; Kotkin 2014, p. 106; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 25.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 65.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 41; Service 2004, p. 65; Montefiore 2007, pp. 168–170; Kotkin 2014, p. 108.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 41–42; Service 2004, p. 75; Kotkin 2014, p. 113.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 100; Montefiore 2007, p. 180; Kotkin 2014, p. 114.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 100; Conquest 1991, pp. 43–44; Service 2004, p. 76; Montefiore 2007, p. 184.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 190.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 186.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 189.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 191; Kotkin 2014, p. 115.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 44; Service 2004, p. 71; Montefiore 2007, p. 193; Kotkin 2014, p. 116.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 194.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 74; Montefiore 2007, p. 196; Kotkin 2014, p. 115.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 197–198; Kotkin 2014, p. 115.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 195.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 44; Service 2004, p. 68; Montefiore 2007, p. 203; Kotkin 2014, p. 116.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 45; Montefiore 2007, pp. 203–204.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 45; Service 2004, p. 68; Montefiore 2007, pp. 206, 208; Kotkin 2014, p. 116.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 46; Montefiore 2007, p. 212; Kotkin 2014, p. 117.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 46; Montefiore 2007, pp. 222, 226; Kotkin 2014, p. 121.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 79; Montefiore 2007, pp. 227, 229, 230–231; Kotkin 2014, p. 121.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 47; Service 2004, p. 80; Montefiore 2007, pp. 231, 234; Kotkin 2014, p. 121.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 79; Montefiore 2007, p. 234; Kotkin 2014, p. 121.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 236; Kotkin 2014, p. 121.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 237; Kotkin 2014, pp. 121–22.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 83; Kotkin 2014, pp. 122–123.
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- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 240.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 241.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 84; Montefiore 2007, p. 243.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 84; Montefiore 2007, p. 247.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 51; Montefiore 2007, p. 248.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 249; Kotkin 2014, p. 133.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 86; Montefiore 2007, p. 250; Kotkin 2014, p. 154.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 51; Service 2004, pp. 86–87; Montefiore 2007, pp. 250–251.
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- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 255.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 256.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 52; Service 2004, pp. 87–88; Montefiore 2007, pp. 256–259; Kotkin 2014, p. 133.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 263.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 54; Service 2004, p. 89; Montefiore 2007, p. 263.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 89; Montefiore 2007, pp. 264–265.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 59.
- ^ a b Montefiore 2007, p. 266.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 53; Service 2004, p. 85; Montefiore 2007, p. 266; Kotkin 2014, p. 133.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 133.
- ^ a b Montefiore 2007, p. 267.
- ^ Himmer 1986, p. 269; Volkogonov 1991, p. 7; Service 2004, p. 85.
- ^ Himmer 1986, p. 269; Service 2004, p. 85.
- ^ Himmer 1986, p. 269; Volkogonov 1991, p. 7; Montefiore 2007, p. 268; Kotkin 2014, p. 133.
- ^ a b Himmer 1986, p. 269.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 267–268.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 268–270; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 28.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 54; Service 2004, pp. 102–103; Montefiore 2007, pp. 270, 273; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 29.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 273–274.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 55; Service 2004, pp. 105–106; Montefiore 2007, pp. 277–278; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 29.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 107; Montefiore 2007, pp. 282–285; Kotkin 2014, p. 155; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 30.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 292–293.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 298, 300.
- ^ The Siberian Times, 6 April 2016.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 287.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 56; Service 2004, p. 110; Montefiore 2007, pp. 288–289.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 57; Service 2004, pp. 113–114; Montefiore 2007, p. 300; Kotkin 2014, p. 155.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 57; Montefiore 2007, pp. 301–302; Kotkin 2014, p. 155.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 114; Montefiore 2007, p. 302; Kotkin 2014, p. 155.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 114; Montefiore 2007, p. 302.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 57–58; Service 2004, pp. 116–117; Montefiore 2007, pp. 302–303; Kotkin 2014, p. 178; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 42.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, pp. 15, 19; Service 2004, p. 117; Montefiore 2007, p. 304; Kotkin 2014, p. 173.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 19; Service 2004, p. 120; Montefiore 2007, p. 310.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 59–60; Montefiore 2007, p. 310.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 64; Service 2004, p. 131; Montefiore 2007, p. 316; Kotkin 2014, p. 193; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 46.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 316.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 144.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 65; Montefiore 2007, pp. 319–320.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 32.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 322–324; Kotkin 2014, p. 203; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 48–49.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 326; Kotkin 2014, p. 204.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 68; Service 2004, p. 138.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 332–333, 335.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 144; Montefiore 2007, pp. 337–338.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 145; Montefiore 2007, p. 341.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 341–342.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 344–346.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 145, 147.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 144–146; Kotkin 2014, p. 224; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 52.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 53.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 177.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 147–148; Kotkin 2014, pp. 227–228, 229; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 52.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, pp. 28–29; Service 2004, p. 148.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 71; Kotkin 2014, p. 228.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 71, 90; Kotkin 2014, p. 318.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 71; Kotkin 2014, p. 229.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 27; Kotkin 2014, p. 226.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 150.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 157.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 149.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 155.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 158.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 148.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 70; Volkogonov 1991, p. 30; Service 2004, p. 148; Kotkin 2014, p. 228; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 52.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 72; Service 2004, p. 151.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 72; Service 2004, p. 167; Kotkin 2014, p. 264; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 49.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 71.
- ^ a b Conquest 1991, p. 71; Service 2004, p. 152.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 153.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 72; Service 2004, pp. 150–151; Kotkin 2014, pp. 259–264.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 75; Service 2004, pp. 158–161; Kotkin 2014, p. 250.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 159–160; Kotkin 2014, p. 250.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 75; Service 2004, p. 161; Kotkin 2014, pp. 257–258.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 161; Kotkin 2014, pp. 258–259, 265.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 259.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 165; Kotkin 2014, pp. 268–270.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 77; Volkogonov 1991, p. 39; Montefiore 2003, p. 27; Service 2004, p. 163; Kotkin 2014, pp. 300–301; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 54.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 173.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 164; Kotkin 2014, pp. 302–303.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 78, 82; Montefiore 2007, p. 28; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 55.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 81; Service 2004, p. 170.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 46; Montefiore 2007, p. 27; Kotkin 2014, pp. 305, 307; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 56–57.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 78–79; Volkogonov 1991, p. 40; Service 2004, p. 166; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 55.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 171.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 169.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 83–84; Service 2004, p. 172; Kotkin 2014, p. 314.
- ^ a b c Service 2004, p. 172.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 85; Service 2004, p. 172.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 173, 174.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 185.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 86; Volkogonov 1991, p. 45; Kotkin 2014, p. 331.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 175.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 91; Service 2004, p. 175.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 176.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 199.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 203, 190.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 174.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 178.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 176; Kotkin 2014, pp. 352–354.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 178; Kotkin 2014, p. 357; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 59.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 176–177.
- ^ a b c d Service 2004, p. 177.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 87; Service 2004, p. 179; Kotkin 2014, p. 362; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 60.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 180, 182; Kotkin 2014, p. 364.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 182.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 182; Kotkin 2014, pp. 364–365.
- ^ Davies 2003, p. 211; Service 2004, pp. 183–185; Kotkin 2014, pp. 376–377.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 377.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 184–185; Kotkin 2014, p. 377.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 392.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, pp. 396–397.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 388.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 202.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 199–200; Kotkin 2014, p. 371.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 200.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 194–196; Kotkin 2014, p. 400.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 194–195; Kotkin 2014, pp. 479–481.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 203–205; Kotkin 2014, p. 400.
- ^ a b Conquest 1991, p. 127; Service 2004, p. 232.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 89; Service 2004, p. 187; Kotkin 2014, p. 344; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 64.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 186.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 188.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 96; Volkogonov 1991, pp. 78–70; Service 2004, pp. 189–190; Kotkin 2014, p. 411.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 190.
- ^ Service 2000, p. 369; Service 2004, p. 209; Kotkin 2014, p. 504.
- ^ a b Kotkin 2014, p. 501.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 97; Volkogonov 1991, p. 53; Service 2004, p. 191.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 191–192; Kotkin 2014, p. 413.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 192; Kotkin 2014, p. 414; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 68.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 102; Service 2004, pp. 191–192; Kotkin 2014, p. 528.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 98; Service 2004, p. 193; Kotkin 2014, p. 483; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 69–70.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 95; Service 2004, p. 195; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 71–72.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 195.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 71; Service 2004, p. 194; Kotkin 2014, pp. 475–476; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 68–69.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 98–99; Service 2004, p. 195; Kotkin 2014, p. 477, 478; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 69.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 74; Service 2004, p. 206; Kotkin 2014, p. 485.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 99–100, 103; Volkogonov 1991, pp. 72–74; Service 2004, pp. 210–211; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 70–71.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 100–101; Volkogonov 1991, pp. 53, 79–82; Service 2004, pp. 208–209; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 71.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 528.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 104; Montefiore 2003, p. 30; Service 2004, p. 219; Kotkin 2014, p. 534; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 79.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 110; Montefiore 2003, p. 30; Service 2004, p. 219; Kotkin 2014, pp. 542–543.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 130; Montefiore 2003, p. 30; Service 2004, p. 221; Kotkin 2014, p. 540.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 111–112; Volkogonov 1991, pp. 117–118; Service 2004, p. 221; Kotkin 2014, p. 544.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 222–224; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 79.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 111; Volkogonov 1991, pp. 93–94; Service 2004, pp. 222–224; Kotkin 2014, pp. 546–548; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 79.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 426.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 453.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 455.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 469.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 432.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, pp. 495–496.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 127; Service 2004, p. 235.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 127; Service 2004, p. 238.
- ^ Fainsod & Hough 1979, p. 111.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 136.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 27.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 98; Kotkin 2014, p. 474; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 52.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 214–215, 217.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 87.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 225.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 227.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 228.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 228; Kotkin 2014, p. 563.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 240.
- ^ a b Service 2004, pp. 240–243; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 82–83.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 126; Conquest 2008, p. 11; Kotkin 2014, p. 614; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 83.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 137, 138; Kotkin 2014, p. 614.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 247; Kotkin 2014, pp. 614, 618; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 91.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 85.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 139, 151; Service 2004, pp. 282–283; Conquest 2008, pp. 11–12; Kotkin 2014, pp. 676–677; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 85.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 164; Service 2004, p. 282.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 276.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 277–278.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 277, 280; Conquest 2008, pp. 12–13.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 278.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 39.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 130.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 130; Volkogonov 1991, p. 160; Kotkin 2014, p. 689.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 244.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 392; Kotkin 2014, pp. 626–631; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 89–90.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 273.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 256.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 254.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 172–173; Service 2004, p. 256; Kotkin 2014, pp. 638–639.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 144, 146; Service 2004, p. 258.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 256; Kotkin 2014, p. 571.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 253; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 101.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 147–148; Service 2004, pp. 257–258; Kotkin 2014, pp. 661, 668–669, 679–684; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 102–103.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 258; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 103.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 258.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 258; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 105.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 267.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 160; Volkogonov 1991, p. 166.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 167.
- ^ a b Sandle 1999, p. 231.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 265–266; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 110–111.
- ^ Sandle 1999, p. 234.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 266; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 112.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 113.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 271.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 270.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 270; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 116.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 272; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 116.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 272.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 270; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 113–114.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 160; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 114.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 174.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 172; Service 2004, p. 260; Kotkin 2014, p. 708.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 158; Service 2004, p. 266; Conquest 2008, p. 18.
- ^ Sandle 1999, pp. 227, 229.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 259.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 274.
- ^ a b c Service 2004, p. 265.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 118.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 186, 190.
- ^ Sandle 1999, pp. 231–233.
- ^ Sandle 1999, pp. 241–242.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 269.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 300.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 152–153; Sandle 1999, p. 214; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 107–108.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 108.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 152–155; Service 2004, p. 259; Kotkin 2014, pp. 687, 702–704, 709; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 107.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 268.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 155.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 324.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 326.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 301.
- ^ Sandle 1999, pp. 244, 246.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 299.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 304.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, pp. 111, 127; Service 2004, p. 308.
- ^ Sandle 1999, p. 246; Montefiore 2003, p. 85.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 302–303.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 211, 276–277; Service 2004, p. 307.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 157.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 191.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 325.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 379.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 183–184.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 282.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 261.
- ^ McDermott 1995, pp. 410–411; Conquest 1991, p. 176; Service 2004, pp. 261, 383; Kotkin 2014, p. 720.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 173.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 289; Kotkin 2014, p. 595.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 289.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 169; Montefiore 2003, p. 90; Service 2004, pp. 291–292.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, pp. 94, 95; Service 2004, pp. 292, 294.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 297.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 316.
- ^ a b c Service 2004, p. 310.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 310; Davies & Wheatcroft 2006, p. 627.
- ^ a b Davies & Wheatcroft 2006, p. 628.
- ^ a b c Service 2004, p. 318.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 312; Conquest 2008, pp. 19–20; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 117.
- ^ a b Khlevniuk 2015, p. 117.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 119.
- ^ Ellman 2005, p. 823.
- ^ Ellman 2005, p. 824; Davies & Wheatcroft 2006, pp. 628, 631.
- ^ Ellman 2005, pp. 823–824; Davies & Wheatcroft 2006, p. 626; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 117.
- ^ Ellman 2005, p. 834.
- ^ Davies & Wheatcroft 2006, p. 626.
- ^ Ellman 2005, p. 824; Davies & Wheatcroft 2006, pp. 627–628; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 120.
- ^ a b Davies & Wheatcroft 2006, p. 627.
- ^ Ellman 2005, p. 833; Kuromiya 2008, p. 665.
- ^ Davies & Wheatcroft 2006, p. 628; Ellman 2007, p. 664.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 164; Kotkin 2014, p. 724.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 319.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 212; Volkogonov 1991, pp. 552–443; Service 2004, p. 361.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 212.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 361.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 362.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 216.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 386.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 217.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 176; Montefiore 2003, p. 116; Service 2004, p. 340.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 218; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 123, 135.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 135.
- ^ Haslam 1979, pp. 682–683; Conquest 1991, p. 218; Service 2004, p. 385; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 135.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 392; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 154.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 219; Service 2004, p. 387.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 154.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 387, 389.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 156.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 392.
- ^ a b Khlevniuk 2015, p. 126.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 125.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 179; Montefiore 2003, pp. 126–127; Service 2004, p. 314; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 128–129.
- ^ Overy 2004, p. 327.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 128, 137.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 347.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 315.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 139.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 314–317.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, pp. 139, 154–155, 164–172, 175–176; Service 2004, p. 320; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 139.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 139–140.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, pp. 192–193; Service 2004, p. 346; Conquest 2008, p. 24; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 140.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 176–177.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 349.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 391.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 141, 150.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 350; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 150–151.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, pp. 203–204; Service 2004, pp. 350–351; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 150.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 204; Service 2004, pp. 351, 390; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 151.
- ^ a b c Khlevniuk 2015, p. 151.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 394.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 230; Service 2004, p. 394; Overy 2004, p. 338; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 174.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 201; Service 2004, p. 349; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 140.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 137–138, 147.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 140.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 204.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 151, 159.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 152.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 347–248; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 125, 156–157.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 153, 156–157.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 367.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 245.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 209; Service 2004, p. 369; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 160.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 162.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 157.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 159.
- ^ Harris 2017, pp. 1–5, 16.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 308.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 220–221; Service 2004, pp. 380–381.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 392–393; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 163, 168–169.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 185–186.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 232–233, 236.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 399–400.
- ^ Nekrich 1997, p. 109.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 220; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 166.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 220; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 168, 169.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 221; Roberts 1992, pp. 57–78; Service 2004, p. 399; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 166.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 222; Roberts 1992, pp. 57–78; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 169.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 222; Roberts 2006, p. 43.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 223; Service 2004, pp. 402–403; Wettig 2008, p. 20.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 224.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 224; Service 2004, p. 405.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 228; Service 2004, p. 403; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 172–173.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 279; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 173.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 403; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 173.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 227; Service 2004, pp. 404–405; Wettig 2008, pp. 20–21; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 173.
- ^ Brackman 2001, p. 341; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 173.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 170.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 229; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 170.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 229; Service 2004, p. 405.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 229; Service 2004, p. 406.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 231; Brackman 2001, pp. 341, 343; Roberts 2006, p. 58.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 233; Roberts 2006, p. 63.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 234; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 180.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 410–411; Roberts 2006, p. 82; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 198.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 408–409, 411–412; Roberts 2006, p. 67; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 199–200, 202.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 414–415; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 206–207.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 413.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 420.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 417; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 201–202.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 235; Service 2004, p. 416.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 418.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 417.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 248–249; Service 2004, p. 420; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 214–215.
- ^ Glantz 2001, p. 26.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 421, 424; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 220.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 482; Roberts 2006, p. 90.
- ^ Gellately 2007, p. 391.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 239–240; Roberts 2006, p. 98; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 209.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 241; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 210.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 241–242; Service 2004, p. 521.
- ^ Roberts 2006, p. 132; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 223.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 423.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 422.
- ^ Overy 2004, p. 568.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 211.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 421.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 442–443; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 242–243.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 441.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 442.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 446.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 446–447.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 260; Service 2004, p. 444.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 254; Service 2004, p. 424; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 221–222.
- ^ Roberts 2006, pp. 117–8.
- ^ Roberts 2006, p. 124.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 425.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 426.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 427.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 428; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 225.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 225.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 429; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 226.
- ^ Roberts 2006, p. 155.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 255; Roberts 2006, p. 156; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 227.
- ^ Roberts 2006, p. 159.
- ^ Roberts 2006, p. 163.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 452.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 466.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 317; Service 2004, p. 466.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 458.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 252; Service 2004, p. 460; Khlevniuk 2015.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 456.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 460.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 262; Service 2004, p. 460; Roberts 2006, p. 180; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 229–230.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 462.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 463.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 244, 251; Service 2004, p. 461, 469; Roberts 2006, p. 185; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 223, 229.
- ^ Roberts 2006, pp. 186–7.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 464–465; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 244.
- ^ Roberts 2006, pp. 194–5.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 469; Roberts 2006, pp. 199–201.
- ^ a b c Service 2004, p. 492.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 258; Service 2004, p. 492; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 232–233.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 233.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 264; Service 2004, p. 465; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 244.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 465–466.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 465–466; Roberts 2006, pp. 241–244.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 471; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 245.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 471–472; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 244.
- ^ a b c Service 2004, p. 473.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 474; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 247.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 479–480.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 265; Service 2004, p. 473; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 234.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 265–266; Service 2004, p. 473; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 235.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 474.
- ^ Glantz 1983.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 476; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 248–249.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 268; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 248.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 267; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 249.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 267; Service 2004, p. 475.
- ^ Roberts 2006, pp. 274–5.
- ^ a b Wettig 2008, pp. 90–1.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 506.
- ^ a b c Service 2004, p. 481.
- ^ a b c Service 2004, p. 484.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 493; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 247.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 480–481.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 479.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 541.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 543–544.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 548.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 485; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 262.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 485.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 493; Roberts 2006, p. 202.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 268.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 482.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 482–483.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 482; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 261.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 500.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 496.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 497.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 497; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 274–278.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 289.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 269; Service 2004, p. 491.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 526; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 268.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 531–532; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 272–273.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 534.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 303.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 534–535; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 282.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 300–301.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 498; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 261.
- ^ Ellman 2000, pp. 611, 618–620.
- ^ Ellman 2000, p. 622; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 261.
- ^ a b Khlevniuk 2015, p. 299.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 502–503.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 503.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 487.
- ^ Gaddis 2005, p. 57.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 508.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 508; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 293.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 297.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 502.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 504; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 267.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 504.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 494.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 507; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 281.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 551.
- ^ Roberts 2002, pp. 96–98.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 264.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 296; Service 2004, pp. 548–549; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 290.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 517.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 483.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 518.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 279; Service 2004, p. 503.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 286; Service 2004, p. 506; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 267.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 511.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 286–287; Service 2004, p. 515.
- ^ a b c Service 2004, p. 515.
- ^ a b c Service 2004, p. 516.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 287.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 507.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 280; Service 2004, p. 507; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 281.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 476.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 512, 513.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 513.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 301; Service 2004, p. 509; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 286.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 509.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 553.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 509; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 287–291.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 552; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 287.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 552; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 294.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 302; Service 2004, p. 553; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 294–295.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 554.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 554; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 295–296.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 555–556; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 296.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 291.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 285.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 291; Service 2004, p. 577; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 284.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 567; Brackman 2001, pp. 384–5.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 291; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 308–309.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 576–577.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 290.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 286.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 577; Overy 2004, p. 565; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 309.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 571.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 572; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 195.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 309; Etinger 1995, p. 104; Service 2004, p. 576; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 307.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 309; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 307–308.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 308; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 307.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 308.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 304–305.
- ^ a b c Service 2004, p. 560.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 564–565.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 307; Service 2004, pp. 566–567.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 578.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 579; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 306.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 305–306.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 311; Volkogonov 1991, pp. 571–572; Service 2004, pp. 582–584; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 142, 191.
- ^ a b c Conquest 1991, p. 312.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 311–312; Volkogonov 1991, p. 572; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 142.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 312; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 250.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 313; Volkogonov 1991, p. 574; Service 2004, p. 586; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 313.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 313; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 313–314.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 189.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 587.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 588.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 588; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 314.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 317.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 588; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 317.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 576; Service 2004, p. 589; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 318.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 319.
- ^ Li 2009, p. 75.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 310.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 586–587.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 312.
- ^ Ra'anan 2006, p. 20.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 591.
- ^ a b Khlevniuk 2015, p. 315.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 593.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 316.
- ^ Etinger 1995, pp. 120–121; Conquest 1991, p. 314; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 314.
- ^ Rieber 2005, p. 32.
- ^ a b c d Service 2004, p. 9.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. xi.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 336.
- ^ a b Rieber 2005, p. 43.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 67.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 136; Kotkin 2014, p. 205; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 47.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 7.
- ^ McDermott 2006, p. 7.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 92; Kotkin 2014, p. 462.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 93; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 7.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 93.
- ^ Sandle 1999, p. 216.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 93–94.
- ^ Sandle 1999, p. 214; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 8.
- ^ a b Khlevniuk 2015, p. 8.
- ^ a b c Service 2004, p. 94.
- ^ a b Sandle 1999, p. 211.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 86; Kotkin 2014, pp. 10, 699.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 545.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 92.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 211.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 95; Montefiore 2007, p. 211.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 179–180.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 67.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 531.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 93–94.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 333; Kotkin 2014, p. 586.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 158.
- ^ Sandle 1999, p. 256; Service 2004, p. 333; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 94.
- ^ Kotkin 2017, p. 7.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 352.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 357.
- ^ Sandle 1999, pp. 208–209.
- ^ a b Sandle 1999, p. 209.
- ^ Sandle 1999, p. 261.
- ^ Sandle 1999, p. 210.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 98.
- ^ Overy 2004, p. 552.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 99.
- ^ Overy 2004, p. 565.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, pp. 310, 579.
- ^ a b c Service 2004, p. 5.
- ^ a b Kotkin 2014, p. 4.
- ^ a b Conquest 1991, p. 1.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 1; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 97.
- ^ a b Khlevniuk 2015, p. 97.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 66–67.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 1; Montefiore 2003, p. 2; Montefiore 2007, p. 42; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 97.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 579.
- ^ Rieber 2005, p. 18.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 85.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 268.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 183; Volkogonov 1991, p. 5; Kotkin 2017, p. 5.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 37.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 149; Volkogonov 1991, p. 49; Service 2004, p. 334; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 52.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, pp. xx–xxi.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 329.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 21; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 97.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 395.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 12; Volkogonov 1991, p. 5.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 12.
- ^ Kotkin 2017, p. 4.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 25; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 13–14.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 21, 29, 33–34.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 44.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 9–10.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 167; Kotkin 2017, p. 1.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 282; Volkogonov 1991, p. 146; Service 2004, pp. 435, 438, 574; Kotkin 2017, p. 1.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 311; Volkogonov 1991, p. 102; Montefiore 2003, pp. 36–37; Service 2004, pp. 497–498.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 102; Service 2004, p. 498.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 60.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 60; Service 2004, p. 525.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 525.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, pp. 35, 60.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 331.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 102, 227.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 195; Kotkin 2017, p. 3.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 64.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 191.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, pp. 57–58; Kotkin 2014, p. 594.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 102.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, pp. 66–67; Service 2004, p. 296.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 215; Montefiore 2003, p. 103; Service 2004, p. 295.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 178.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 572.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. xvi; Volkogonov 1991, p. xxiii; Service 2004, p. 4; Montefiore 2007, p. xxiv.
- ^ a b Montefiore 2007, p. xxiv.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 343.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 8; Service 2004, p. 337.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 193, 274; Volkogonov 1991, p. 63; Service 2004, p. 115; Kotkin 2014, p. 425; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 148.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 42; Montefiore 2007, p. 353; Kotkin 2014, pp. 424, 465, 597.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 115.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 4–5.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 145.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 317; Volkogonov 1991, p. xxvi; McDermott 2006, p. 13.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. xvi; Service 2004, p. 18; McDermott 2006, p. 13.
- ^ McDermott 2006, pp. 12–13.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 42; Kotkin 2014, p. 424.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 424.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 342.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 120; Kotkin 2014, p. 648.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 337.
- ^ a b Khlevniuk 2015, p. 145.
- ^ McCauley 2003, p. 92; Montefiore 2003, pp. 49–50; Kotkin 2014, pp. 117, 465; Kotkin 2017, p. 5.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 41.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 338; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 53.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 318; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 7.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 4; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 7.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 8.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 334.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 258; Montefiore 2007, p. 285.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 4, 344.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 597; Kotkin 2017, p. 6.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 10, 344; Kotkin 2017, p. 5.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 336; Kotkin 2014, p. 736.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 175.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 42.
- ^ McDermott 2006, p. 12.
- ^ Leffler 2007, pp. 55–56.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 620.
- ^ a b Montefiore 2007, p. 60.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 96.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 73; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 6.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 6.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, pp. 127, 148.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 131.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 86; Service 2004, p. 9; McDermott 2006, p. 19; Kotkin 2017, pp. 1–2, 5.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 93.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 86; Kotkin 2014, p. 117, 676.
- ^ McCauley 2003, p. 93; Montefiore 2003, p. 86; Service 2004, p. 560; McDermott 2006, p. 19.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 86.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 127; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 2–3.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 282; McCauley 2003, p. 90.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 145.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, pp. 58, 507; Kotkin 2017, p. 1.
- ^ Kotkin 2017, p. 1.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 283; Service 2004, p. 437.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 522.
- ^ McCauley 2003, p. 90; Service 2004, pp. 437, 522–523; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 5.
- ^ a b Montefiore 2007, p. 24.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 3–4.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 319, 637.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 55.
- ^ Etinger 1995, p. 103; Montefiore 2007, p. 165.
- ^ Etinger 1995, p. 103; Rappaport 1999, p. 297.
- ^ Pinkus 1984, pp. 107–108; Brackman 2001, p. 390.
- ^ Brent & Naumov 2004, p. 184.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 8.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 567–568.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 77.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 237.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 49; Fitzpatrick 2015, p. 65.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 49.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 9.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 151.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 112.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 135.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 522; Montefiore 2003, p. 135; Montefiore 2007, p. 368.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 73.
- ^ a b Montefiore 2007, p. 209.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 80; Montefiore 2007, p. 209.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 80.
- ^ McCauley 2003, p. 90.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 5.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 4.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 202.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 149; Service 2004, p. 64; Montefiore 2007, p. 167; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 25.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, pp. 150–151; Montefiore 2007, p. 364.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 8.
- ^ a b Montefiore 2003, p. 9.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 13; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 255.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 12.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 154; Montefiore 2003, p. 16; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 255.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 257, 259–260.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 215; Volkogonov 1991, p. 153; Montefiore 2003, pp. 9, 227; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 256.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 260; Service 2004, p. 521.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 250, 259.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 260.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, pp. 142–144.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 144.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 521.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 365.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 252.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 365–366.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 366.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. xi.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 108; Service 2004, p. 5.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. xxii.
- ^ a b c McDermott 2006, p. 1.
- ^ a b c Service 2004, p. 3.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 546; Service 2004, p. 3.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 602.
- ^ Wheatcroft 1999.
- ^ Ellman 2002, p. 1164.
- ^ Cheremukhin et al. 2013; Dower & Markevich 2018, p. 246.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 602; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 190.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 732.
- ^ McCauley 2003, p. 8; Service 2004, p. 52; Montefiore 2007, p. 9; Kotkin 2014, p. xii; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 12.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 194; Volkogonov 1991, p. 31; Service 2004, p. 370.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 77.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 124.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 215.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. xvii; McDermott 2006, p. 5.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. xviii.
- ^ McDermott 2006, p. 2.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 370.
- ^ McDermott 2006, pp. 5–6.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 8, 9.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 596.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 182.
- ^ a b Khlevniuk 2015, p. ix.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 4.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 13.
- ^ a b c Service 2004, p. 6.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. xiii.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 6; Montefiore 2007, p. xxi.
- ^ Sandle 1999, pp. 265–266.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 173.
- ^ Ellman 2002, p. 1163–1164.
- ^ Getty, Rittersporn & Zemskov 1993, p. 1022.
- ^ Ellman 2002, p. 1162–1163.
- ^ Getty, Rittersporn & Zemskov 1993, p. 1024.
- ^ Healey 2018, p. 1049: "New studies using declassified Gulag archives have provisionally established a consensus on mortality and 'inhumanity.' The tentative consensus says that once secret records of the Gulag administration in Moscow show a lower death toll than expected from memoir sources, generally between 1.5 and 1.7 million (out of 18 million who passed through) for the years from 1930 to 1953."
- ^ Wheatcroft 1996, pp. 1334, 1348; Ellman 2002, p. 1172.
- ^ Davies & Wheatcroft 2004, p. 401.
- ^ Rosefielde 1996.
- ^ Snyder 2010, p. 384; Snyder 2011.
- ^ Moore 2012, p. 367.
- ^ Associated Press, 28 November 2006.
- ^ RIA Novosti, 13 January 2010; The New York Review of Books, 26 May 2010.
- ^ Tauger 2001, p. 1.
- ^ Davies & Wheatcroft 2004, pp. xiv, 441; Davies & Wheatcroft 2006, p. 628; Ghodsee 2014.
- ^ Naimark 2008, p. 46; Kuromiya 2008, p. 667.
- ^ Kuromiya 2008, p. 668.
- ^ Naimark 2008, p. 45.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 314.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 592.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 314; Volkogonov 1991, pp. 577–579; Service 2004, p. 594.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 594.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 576; Service 2004, p. 594.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 595.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 315; Service 2004, p. 595.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 315.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 596.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 596–597.
- ^ BBC, 5 June 2018.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 598.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 7.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 599.
- ^ The Guardian, 29 December 2008.
- ^ The Washington Post, 15 February 2017; The Daily Telegraph, 16 April 2019; BBC, 18 April 2019.
- ^ a b Khlevniuk 2015, p. x.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 597.
- ^ BBC, 5 March 2013.
- ^ Pew Research Center, 29 June 2017.
- ^ Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1 March 2013; The Moscow Times, 2 March 2013.
- ^ The New York Review of Books, 26 May 2010.
- ^ RIA Novosti, 25 February 2011.
- ^ Ukrayinska Pravda, 4 March 2015.
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- "Ukraine Court Finds Bolsheviks Guilty of Holodomor Genocide". RIA Novosti. 13 January 2010. Archived from the original on 16 January 2010. Retrieved 13 January 2010.
- "Ukraine Stands by Its View of Stalin as Villain – President (Update 1)". RIA Novosti. 25 February 2011. Archived from the original on 23 May 2013. Retrieved 23 May 2013.
- "Wall of Grief: Putin Opens First Soviet Victims Memorial". BBC. 5 June 2018. Archived from the original on 5 June 2018. Retrieved 30 October 2017.
- "Why So Many Russian like Dictator Stalin". BBC News. 18 April 2019. Archived from the original on 19 July 2019. Retrieved 11 June 2019.
Further reading
- Applebaum, Anne (2003). Gulag: A History. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-7679-0056-0.
- Bideleux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (1998). A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-05024-8.
- Boobbyer, Phillip (2000). The Stalin Era. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7679-0056-0.
- Conquest, Robert (1997). "Victims of Stalinism: A Comment" (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. 49 (7): 1317–1319. doi:10.1080/09668139708412501.
- Davies, Sarah (1997). Popular Opinion in Stalin's Russia: Terror, Propaganda and Dissent, 1934–1941. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-52-156676-6.
- Davies, Sarah; Harris, James, eds. (2005). Stalin: A New History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-13-944663-1.
- Davies, Sarah; Harris, James, eds. (2014). Stalin's World: Dictating the Soviet Order. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-30-018281-1.
- Edmonds, Robin (1992). The Big Three: Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin in Peace and War (revised ed.). London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-010402-8.
- Feis, Herbert (1957). Churchill-Roosevelt-Stalin: The War They Waged and the Peace They Sought.
- Fitzpatrick, Sheila (1996). Stalin's Peasants: Resistance and Survival in the Russian Village After Collectivization. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510459-2.
- Fitzpatrick, Sheila (2000). Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Soviet Russia in the 1930s. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-505001-1.
- Getty, J. Arch (1987). Origins of the Great Purges: The Soviet Communist Party Reconsidered, 1933–1938. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-52-133570-6.
- Getty, J. Arch (1993). Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-52-144670-9.
- Getty, J. Arch (2013). Practicing Stalinism: Bolsheviks, Boyars, and the Persistence of Tradition. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-30-016929-4.
- Hasegawa, Tsuyoshi (2005). Racing the Enemy: Stalin, Truman, and the Surrender of Japan.
- Khlevniuk, Oleg V. (2009). Master of the House: Stalin and His Inner Circle. Translated by Seligman Favorov, Nora. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11066-1.
- Kun, Miklós (2003). Stalin: An Unknown Portrait. Translated by Bodóczky, Miklós; Hideg, Rachel; Higed, János; Vörös, Miklós. Budapest: Central European University Press. ISBN 963-9241-19-9.
- Kuromiya, Hiroaki (2005). Stalin: Profiles in Power. New York.
- Murphy, David E. (2006). What Stalin Knew: The Enigma of Barbarossa. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11981-7.
- Nekrich, Aleksandr Moiseevich; Ulam, Adam Bruno; Freeze, Gregory L. (1997). Pariahs, Partners, Predators: German-Soviet Relations, 1922–1941. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-10676-4.
- Ostrovsky, Aleksander (2002). Кто стоял за спиной Сталина? [Who stood behind Stalin's back?]. Moscow: Neva, Olma Media Group. ISBN 978-5-7654-1771-3.
- Plamper, Jan (2012). The Stalin Cult: A Study in the Alchemy of Power. New Haven.
- Radzinsky, Edvard (1997). Stalin: The First In-Depth Biography Based on Explosive New Documents from Russia's Secret Archive. New York.
- Rayfield, Donald (2005). Stalin and His Hangmen: The Tyrant and Those Who Killed For Him. New York: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-191419-0.
- Rieber, A. J. (2001). "Stalin, Man of the Borderlands". American Historical Review. 106 (4): 1651–1691. doi:10.2307/2692742. JSTOR 2692742.
- Roberts, Geoffrey (2007). "Stalin at the Tehran, Yalta, and Potsdam conferences". Journal of Cold War Studies. 9 (4): 6–40. doi:10.1162/jcws.2007.9.4.6. S2CID 57564917.
- Stalin's Correspondence With Churchill Attlee Roosevelt And Truman 1941-45. 1958.
- Thurston, Robert W. (1998). Life and Terror in Stalin's Russia, 1934–1941. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-07442-0.
- Torchinov, V.A.; Leontyuk, A.M. (2000). Around Stalin. An historical and biographical reference. St Petersburg: Philological Faculty Saint-Petersburg University. ISBN 978-5-846-50005-1.
- Tucker, Robert C. (1973). Stalin as Revolutionary: 1879–1929: A Study in History and Personality. New York, Norton.
- Tucker, Robert C. (1990). Stalin in Power: The Revolution from Above, 1928–1941. New York.
- Ulam, Adam B. (1973). Stalin: The Man and His Era. New York: New York, Viking Press.
- Uldricks, Teddy J. (2009). "War, Politics and Memory: Russian Historians Reevaluate the Origins of World War II". History and Memory. 21 (2): 60–82. doi:10.2979/his.2009.21.2.60. S2CID 153650494.
- van Ree, Erik (2002). The Political Thought of Joseph Stalin: A Study in Twentieth-Century Revolutionary Patriotism. London and New York.
- Weinberg, Gerhard L. (1994). A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II.
- Wheatcroft, Stephen G. (1999). "Victims of Stalinism and the Soviet Secret Police: The Comparability and Reliability of the Archival Data. Not the Last Word" (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. 51 (2): 340–342. doi:10.1080/09668139999056.
- Wheeler-Bennett, John W. (1946). "Twenty Years of Russo-German Relations: 1919-1939". Foreign Affairs. 25 (1): 23–43. doi:10.2307/20030017. JSTOR 20030017.
External links
Definitions from Wiktionary- Media from Wikimedia Commons
- Quotations from Wikiquote
- Texts from Wikisource
- Data from Wikidata
- Joseph Stalin at the Encyclopædia Britannica
- Stalin Library (with all 13 volumes of Stalin's works and "volume 14")
- Library of Congress: Revelations from the Russian Archives
- Electronic archive of Stalin's letters and presentations
- Stalin digital archive
- Joseph Stalin Newsreels // Net-Film Newsreels and Documentary Films Archive
- Stalin Biography from Spartacus Educational
- A List of Key Documentary Material on Stalin
- Stalinka: The Digital Library of Staliniana
- Electronic archive of Stalin’s letters and presentations
- A List of Key Documentary Material on Stalin
- Newspaper clippings about Joseph Stalin in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
| Political offices | ||
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| Preceded by Vyacheslav Molotov | Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union Council of People's Commissars until 1946 1941–1953 | Succeeded by Georgy Malenkov |
| Preceded by Semyon Timoshenko | Minister of Defence of the Soviet Union People's Commissar until 1946 1941–1947 | Succeeded by Nikolai Bulganin |
| Party political offices | ||
| Preceded by Vyacheslav Molotov as Responsible Secretary | General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union 1922–1952 | Succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev as First Secretary |
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General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union | ||||||
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