В египетских пирамидах древние каменные сооружения , расположенные в Египте . Источники цитируют по крайней мере 118 идентифицированных египетских пирамид. [1] [2] Большинство из них были построены как гробницы для фараонов страны и их супругов в периоды Древнего и Среднего царства . [3] [4] [5]
Самые ранние известные египетские пирамиды найдены в Саккаре , к северо - западу от Мемфиса , хотя по крайней мере один шаг пирамиды , как структура была обнаружена в Саккаре, начиная с первой династии : мастаба 3808, который был приписан к правлению фараона Аджиб , с надписями и другими археологическими остатками того периода, предполагая, что могли быть и другие. [6] Самая ранняя из них - пирамида Джосера, построенная c. 2630–2610 гг. До н. Э. Во время Третьей династии . [7] Эта пирамида и окружающий ее комплекс обычно считаются старейшими монументальными сооружениями в мире, построенными из выделанной каменной кладки . [8]
Самые известные египетские пирамиды находятся в Гизе , на окраине Каира . Некоторые пирамиды Гизы считаются одними из самых больших когда-либо построенных построек. [9] Пирамида Хеопса является крупнейшей египетской пирамидой. Это единственное из семи чудес древнего мира, которые все еще существуют. [10]
Имя
Юникод: 𓍋𓅓𓂋𓉴 | ||||
Пирамида | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Египетские иероглифы |
Название пирамиды на египетском языке - мир . На нем стоит знак O24 Знакового листа Гарднера. Myr предшествуют три других знака, используемых в качестве фонетики. Значение myr неясно, поскольку он ссылается только на сам построенный объект. Напротив, архитектура аналогичного назначения, такая как «храм», пер-ка , представляет собой соединение «дома» и «души». Было высказано предположение, что мир принадлежит к классу таких слов, как джед и анх , которые относятся к объектам, которые уже существовали, когда египетский язык отделился от афроазиатского . Типичный перевод слова myr дается как «высокое место». Согласно графическому анализу myr использует тот же знак O24 , что и benben . Бенбен курган существования , что роза из бездны, монахиня , в египетском мифе о творении. Отношения между миром и бенбеном также связаны с архитектурным элементом пирамид и обелисков, который был назван бенбенет , женской формой слова бенбен .
Иероглиф | Знак | Египтянин | английский | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
O24 | мир | Пирамида | |||||
O24 | Benben | Первобытный курган | |||||
O24 | изгибающийся | Пирамидон |
Историческое развитие
Дизайн египетских пирамид, особенно ступенчатые конструкции самых старых пирамид ( Пирамида Зосера в Саккаре , 2600 г. до н. Э.), Возможно, был эволюцией зиккуратов, построенных в Месопотамии и датированных 4000–3500 гг. До н. Э. [11] [12]
Курганы с мегалитическими памятниками, предшествовавшие предполагаемым более ранним местам в Восточной Сахаре , возникли еще в 4700 г. до н.э. в Сахарском регионе Нигера . [13] Также возможно, что эти мегалитические памятники в Сахарском регионе Нигера и Восточной Сахаре, возможно, служили предшественниками мастаб и пирамид древнего Египта . [13] Во времена додинастического Египта курганы находились в разных местах (например, Накада , Хелуан ). [13]
Со времен раннего династического периода (около 3150–2686 гг. До н. Э.) Египтяне, имевшие достаточные средства, были похоронены в подобных скамьям структурах, известных как мастабы . [14] [15] В Саккаре Мастаба 3808 года, датируемая последней частью 1-й династии, была обнаружена как содержащая большое, независимо построенное ступенчато-пирамидальное строение, заключенное внутри мастабы внешнего фасада дворца. Археологические останки и надписи предполагают, что, возможно, были и другие подобные сооружения, относящиеся к этому периоду. [16]
Первая исторически задокументированная египетская пирамида приписывается египтологами фараону 3-й династии Джосеру . Хотя египтологи часто считают его визиря Имхотепа своим архитектором, сами династические египтяне, одновременно или в многочисленных более поздних династических писаниях о персонаже, не приписывали ему ни проектирования пирамиды Джосера, ни изобретения каменной архитектуры. [17] Пирамида Джосера впервые была построена как квадратный мастаб-подобной структура, которая , как правило , была известна в противном случае иметь прямоугольную форму, и была расширена в несколько раз путем серии аккреционных слоев, чтобы произвести ступенчатую пирамиду структуры , которую мы увидеть сегодня. [18] Египтологи считают, что эта конструкция служила гигантской лестницей, по которой душа умершего фараона могла подняться на небеса. [19]
Хотя попытки создания других пирамид были предприняты во время 3-й династии после Джосера, это была 4-я династия , переходящая от ступенчатой пирамиды к истинной форме пирамиды, которая дала начало великим пирамидам Мейдума , Дахшура и Гизы. Последний фараон 4-й династии, Шепсескаф , не строил пирамиды, а начиная с 5-й династии ; по разным причинам массивный масштаб и точность строительства значительно уменьшились, в результате чего эти более поздние пирамиды стали меньше, менее хорошо построенными и часто построенными в спешке. К концу 6-й династии строительство пирамид в значительной степени прекратилось, и только в Среднем царстве большие пирамиды были построены снова, хотя вместо камня основным строительным материалом был сырцовый кирпич . [20]
Спустя долгое время после окончания периода строительства пирамид в Египте, всплеск строительства пирамид произошел на территории современного Судана , после того как большая часть Египта перешла под власть Королевства Куш , которое тогда базировалось в Напате . Правление Напатана, известное как 25-я династия , длилось с 750 до 664 г. до н. Э. Меройский период кушитской истории, когда королевство было сосредоточено в Мероэ (примерно в период между 300 г. до н.э. и 300 г. н.э.), пережил полномасштабное возрождение строительства пирамид , в ходе которого появилось около 180 гробниц-пирамид, вдохновленных Египтом. построен в окрестностях столиц королевства. [21]
Аль-Азиз Усман (1171–1198), второй султан Айюбидов Египта, пытался разрушить комплекс пирамид Гизы. Он сдался только после того, как повредил пирамиду Менкаура, потому что задача оказалась слишком большой. [22]
Символика пирамиды
Считается, что форма египетских пирамид представляет собой изначальный холм, из которого, по мнению египтян, была создана Земля. Также считается, что форма пирамиды отражает нисходящие солнечные лучи, и большинство пирамид были облицованы полированным, хорошо отражающим белым известняком, чтобы придать им блестящий вид при взгляде с расстояния. Пирамиды также часто называли в связи с солнечной люминесценцией. Например, формальное название Бент-пирамиды в Дахшуре - Южная сияющая пирамида , а Сенусрет II в Эль-Лахуне - Сенусрет Шайнс .
Хотя общепринято считать, что пирамиды были погребальными памятниками, по-прежнему существуют разногласия по поводу конкретных богословских принципов, которые могли их породить. Одно из предположений состоит в том, что они были разработаны как своего рода «машина воскрешения». [23]
Египтяне считали , что область темного в ночном небе , вокруг которых звезды появляются вращаться был физический шлюз в небо. Одна из узких шахт, идущих от главной погребальной камеры через все тело Великой пирамиды, указывает прямо к центру этой части неба. Это говорит о том, что пирамида могла быть спроектирована как средство магического запуска души умершего фараона прямо в обитель богов. [23]
Все египетские пирамиды были построены на западном берегу Нила, который как место заходящего солнца ассоциировался с царством мертвых в египетской мифологии . [24]
Количество и расположение пирамид
In 1842, Karl Richard Lepsius produced the first modern list of pyramids—now known as the Lepsius list of pyramids—in which he counted 67. A great many more have since been discovered. At least 118 Egyptian pyramids have been identified.[3] The location of Pyramid 29, which Lepsius called the "Headless Pyramid", was lost for a second time when the structure was buried by desert sands after Lepsius's survey. It was found again only during an archaeological dig conducted in 2008.[25]
Many pyramids are in a poor state of preservation or buried by desert sands. If visible at all, they may appear as little more than mounds of rubble. As a consequence, archaeologists are continuing to identify and study previously unknown pyramid structures.
The most recent pyramid to be discovered was that of Sesheshet at Saqqara, mother of the Sixth Dynasty pharaoh Teti, announced on 11 November 2008.[4][26]
All of Egypt's pyramids, except the small Third Dynasty pyramid at Zawyet el-Maiyitin, are sited on the west bank of the Nile, and most are grouped together in a number of pyramid fields. The most important of these are listed geographically, from north to south, below.
Abu Rawash
Abu Rawash is the site of Egypt's most northerly pyramid (other than the ruins of Lepsius pyramid number one),[5] the mostly ruined Pyramid of Djedefre, son and successor of Khufu. Originally it was thought that this pyramid had never been completed, but the current archaeological consensus is that not only was it completed, but that it was originally about the same size as the Pyramid of Menkaure, which would have placed it among the half-dozen or so largest pyramids in Egypt.
Its location adjacent to a major crossroads made it an easy source of stone. Quarrying, which began in Roman times, has left little apart from about fifteen courses of stone superimposed upon the natural hillock that formed part of the pyramid's core. A small adjacent satellite pyramid is in a better state of preservation.
Giza
The Giza Plateau is the location of the Pyramid of Khufu (also known as the "Great Pyramid" and the "Pyramid of Cheops"), the somewhat smaller Pyramid of Khafre (or Chephren), the relatively modest-sized Pyramid of Menkaure (or Mykerinus), along with a number of smaller satellite edifices known as "Queen's pyramids", and the Great Sphinx of Giza. Of the three, only Khafre's pyramid retains part of its original polished limestone casing, near its apex. This pyramid appears larger than the adjacent Khufu pyramid by virtue of its more elevated location, and the steeper angle of inclination of its construction—it is, in fact, smaller in both height and volume.
The Giza pyramid complex has been a popular tourist destination since antiquity and was popularized in Hellenistic times when the Great Pyramid was listed by Antipater of Sidon as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Today it is the only one of those wonders still in existence.
Zawyet el-Aryan
This site, halfway between Giza and Abusir, is the location for two unfinished Old Kingdom pyramids. The northern structure's owner is believed to be pharaoh Nebka, while the southern structure, known as the Layer Pyramid, may be attributable to the Third Dynasty pharaoh Khaba, a close successor of Sekhemkhet. If this attribution is correct, Khaba's short reign could explain the seemingly unfinished state of this step pyramid. Today it stands around 17 m (56 ft) high; had it been completed, it is likely to have exceeded 40 m (130 ft).
Abusir
There are a total of fourteen pyramids at this site, which served as the main royal necropolis during the Fifth Dynasty. The quality of construction of the Abusir pyramids is inferior to those of the Fourth Dynasty—perhaps signaling a decrease in royal power or a less vibrant economy. They are smaller than their predecessors and are built of low-quality local limestone.
The three major pyramids are those of Niuserre, which is also the best-preserved, Neferirkare Kakai and Sahure. The site is also home to the incomplete Pyramid of Neferefre. Most of the major pyramids at Abusir were built using similar construction techniques, comprising a rubble core surrounded by steps of mudbricks with a limestone outer casing. The largest of these Fifth Dynasty pyramids, the Pyramid of Neferirkare Kakai, is believed to have been built originally as a step pyramid some 70 m (230 ft) high and then later transformed into a "true" pyramid by having its steps filled in with loose masonry.
Saqqara
Major pyramids located here include the Pyramid of Djoser—generally identified as the world's oldest substantial monumental structure to be built of dressed stone—the Pyramid of Userkaf, the Pyramid of Teti and the Pyramid of Merikare, dating to the First Intermediate Period of Egypt. Also at Saqqara is the Pyramid of Unas, which retains a pyramid causeway that is one of the best-preserved in Egypt. Together with the pyramid of Userkaf, this pyramid was the subject of one of the earliest known restoration attempts, conducted by Khaemweset, a son of Ramesses II.[27] Saqqara is also the location of the incomplete step pyramid of Djoser's successor Sekhemkhet, known as the Buried Pyramid. Archaeologists believe that had this pyramid been completed, it would have been larger than Djoser's.
South of the main pyramid field at Saqqara is a second collection of later, smaller pyramids, including those of Pepi I, Djedkare Isesi, Merenre, Pepi II and Ibi. Most of these are in a poor state of preservation.
The Fourth Dynasty pharaoh Shepseskaf either did not share an interest in or have the capacity to undertake pyramid construction like his predecessors. His tomb, which is also sited at south Saqqara, was instead built as an unusually large mastaba and offering temple complex. It is commonly known as the Mastabat al-Fir’aun.[28]
A previously unknown pyramid was discovered in north Saqqara in late 2008. Believed to be the tomb of Teti's mother, it currently stands approximately 5 m (16 ft) high, although the original height was closer to 14 m (46 ft).
Dahshur
This area is arguably the most important pyramid field in Egypt outside Giza and Saqqara, although until 1996 the site was inaccessible due to its location within a military base and was relatively unknown outside archaeological circles.
The southern Pyramid of Sneferu, commonly known as the Bent Pyramid, is believed to be the first Egyptian pyramid intended by its builders to be a "true" smooth-sided pyramid from the outset; the earlier pyramid at Meidum had smooth sides in its finished state, but it was conceived and built as a step pyramid, before having its steps filled in and concealed beneath a smooth outer casing of dressed stone. As a true smooth-sided structure, the Bent Pyramid was only a partial success—albeit a unique, visually imposing one; it is also the only major Egyptian pyramid to retain a significant proportion of its original smooth outer limestone casing intact. As such it serves as the best contemporary example of how the ancient Egyptians intended their pyramids to look. Several kilometres to the north of the Bent Pyramid is the last—and most successful—of the three pyramids constructed during the reign of Sneferu; the Red Pyramid is the world's first successfully completed smooth-sided pyramid. The structure is also the third-largest pyramid in Egypt, after the pyramids of Khufu and Khafra at Giza.
Also at Dahshur is one of two pyramids built by Amenemhat III, known as the Black Pyramid, as well as a number of small, mostly ruined subsidiary pyramids.
Mazghuna
Located to the south of Dahshur, several mudbrick pyramids were built in this area in the late Middle Kingdom, perhaps for Amenemhat IV and Sobekneferu.
Lisht
Two major pyramids are known to have been built at Lisht: those of Amenemhat I and his son, Senusret I. The latter is surrounded by the ruins of ten smaller subsidiary pyramids. One of these subsidiary pyramids is known to be that of Amenemhat's cousin, Khaba II.[29] The site which is in the vicinity of the oasis of the Faiyum, midway between Dahshur and Meidum, and about 100 kilometres south of Cairo, is believed to be in the vicinity of the ancient city of Itjtawy (the precise location of which remains unknown), which served as the capital of Egypt during the Twelfth Dynasty.
Meidum
The pyramid at Meidum is one of three constructed during the reign of Sneferu, and is believed by some to have been started by that pharaoh's father and predecessor, Huni. However, that attribution is uncertain, as no record of Huni's name has been found at the site. It was constructed as a step pyramid and then later converted into the first "true" smooth-sided pyramid, when the steps were filled in and an outer casing added. The pyramid suffered several catastrophic collapses in ancient and medieval times. Medieval Arab writers described it as having seven steps, although today only the three uppermost of these remain, giving the structure its odd, tower-like appearance. The hill on which the pyramid is situated is not a natural landscape feature, it is the small mountain of debris created when the lower courses and outer casing of the pyramid gave way.
Hawara
Amenemhat III was the last powerful ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty, and the pyramid he built at Hawara, near the Faiyum, is believed to post-date the so-called "Black Pyramid" built by the same ruler at Dahshur. It is the Hawara pyramid that is believed to have been Amenemhet's final resting place.
El Lahun
The Pyramid of Senusret II at El Lahun is the southernmost royal-tomb pyramid structure in Egypt. Its builders reduced the amount of work necessary to construct it by using as its foundation and core a 12-meter-high natural limestone hill.
El-Kurru
Piye, the king of Kush who became the first ruler of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, built a pyramid at El-Kurru. He was the first Egyptian pharaoh to be buried in a pyramid in centuries.
Nuri
Taharqa, a Kushite ruler of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, built his pyramid at Nuri. It was the largest in the area (North Sudan).
Construction dates and heights
The following table lays out the chronology of the construction of most of the major pyramids mentioned here. Each pyramid is identified through the pharaoh who ordered it built, his approximate reign, and its location.
Pyramid / Pharaoh | Reign | Field | Height |
---|---|---|---|
Djoser | c. 2670 BCE | Saqqara | 62 meters (203 feet) |
Sneferu | c. 2612–2589 BCE | Dashur | 104 meters (341 feet) |
Sneferu | c. 2612–2589 BCE | Meidum | 65 meters (213 feet) (ruined) *Would have been 91.65 meters (301 feet) or 175 Egyptian Royal cubits. |
Khufu | c. 2589–2566 BCE | Giza | 146.7 meters (481 feet) or 280 Egyptian Royal cubits |
Djedefre | c. 2566–2558 BCE | Abu Rawash | 60 meters (197 feet) |
Khafre | c. 2558–2532 BCE | Giza | 136.4 meters (448 feet) *Originally: 143.5 m or 471 feet or 274 Egyptian Royal cubits |
Menkaure | c. 2532–2504 BCE | Giza | 65 meters (213 feet) or 125 Egyptian Royal cubits |
Userkaf | c. 2494–2487 BCE | Saqqara | 48 meters (161 feet) |
Sahure | c. 2487–2477 BCE | Abusir | 47 meters (155 feet) |
Neferirkare Kakai | c. 2477–2467 BCE | Abusir | 72.8 meters (239 feet) |
Nyuserre Ini | c. 2416–2392 BCE | Abusir | 51.68 m (169.6 feet) or 99 Egyptian Royal cubits |
Amenemhat I | c. 1991–1962 BCE | Lisht | 55 meters (181 feet) |
Senusret I | c. 1971–1926 BCE | Lisht | 61.25 meters (201 feet) |
Senusret II | c. 1897–1878 BCE | el-Lahun | 48.65 m (159.6 ft; 93 Egyptian Royal cubits) or 47.6 m (156 ft; 91 Egyptian Royal cubits) |
Amenemhat III | c. 1860–1814 BCE | Hawara | 75 meters (246 feet) |
Khendjer | c. 1764–1759 BCE | Saqqara | 37.35 m (122.5 feet), now 1 m (3.3 feet) |
Piye | c. 721 BCE | El-Kurru | 20 meters (66 feet) or 30 meters (99 feet) |
Taharqa | c. 664 BCE | Nuri | 40 meters (132 feet) or 50 meters (164 feet) |
Строительная техника
Constructing the pyramids involved moving huge quantities of stone. In 2013, papyri discovered at the Egyptian desert near the Red Sea by archaeologist Pierre Tallet revealed the Diary of Merer, an official of Egypt involved in transporting limestone along the Nile River. These papyri reveal processes in the building of the Great Pyramid at Giza, the tomb of the Pharaoh Khufu, just outside modern Cairo.[31]
Rather than overland transport of the limestone used in building the pyramid, there is evidence—in the Diary of Merer and from preserved remnants of ancient canals and transport boats—that limestone blocks were transported along the Nile River.[32] It is possible that quarried blocks were then transported to the construction site by wooden sleds, with sand in front of the sled wetted to reduce friction. Droplets of water created bridges between the grains of sand, helping them stick together.[33]
Смотрите также
- Al Ahram (Arabic for "the pyramids"), name of Egyptian newspaper
- Pyramidion
List
- List of Egyptian pyramids
- List of megalithic sites
Рекомендации
- ^ Slackman, Michael (17 November 2008). "In the Shadow of a Long Past, Patiently Awaiting the Future". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 May 2010.
- ^ Mark Lehner (2008). The Complete Pyramids: Solving the Ancient Mysteries. Thames & Hudson. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-500-28547-3.
- ^ a b "Egypt says has found pyramid built for ancient queen". Reuters. 11 November 2008. Retrieved 2 November 2017.
The pyramid, which Hawass said was the 118th found in Egypt, was uncovered near the world's oldest pyramid at Saqqara, a burial ground for the rulers of ancient Egypt.
- ^ a b Slackman, Michael (16 November 2007). "In the Shadow of a Long Past, Patiently Awaiting the Future". The New York Times. Retrieved 17 November 2008.
Deep below the Egyptian desert, archaeologists have found evidence of yet another pyramid, this one constructed 4,300 years ago to store the remains of a pharaoh’s mother. That makes 138 pyramids discovered here so far, and officials say they expect to find more.
- ^ a b Ritter, Michael (2003). "Dating the Pyramids". Archived from the original on 11 May 2008. Retrieved 15 May 2008.
- ^ Archaic Egypt, Walter B Emery p144-145
- ^ Gardner, Helen (1980) [1926]. De La Croix, Horst; Tansey, Richard G. (eds.). Art through the Ages (7th ed.). New York: Harcourt Brave Jovanovitch. p. 68. ISBN 0-15-503758-7.
- ^ Lehner, Mark (1997). The Complete Pyramids. New York: Thames and Hudson. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-500-05084-2.
- ^ Watkin, David (2005). A History of Western Architecture (4th ed.). Laurence King Publishing. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-85669-459-9.
The Great Pyramid...is still one of the largest structures ever raised by man, its plan twice the size of St. Peter's in Rome
- ^ Xu, Bohai (31 January 2019). "The Place where Huni probably Buried". doi:10.31235/osf.io/gnw3k. Cite journal requires
|journal=
(help) - ^ "The stepped design of the Pyramid of Zoser at Saqqara, the oldest known pyramid along the Nile, suggests that it was borrowed from the Mesopotamian ziggurat concept." in Held, Colbert C. (University of Nebraska) (2018). Middle East Patterns, Student Economy Edition: Places, People, and Politics. Routledge. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-429-96199-1.
- ^ Samuels, Charlie (2010). Ancient Science (Prehistory – A.D. 500): Prehistory-A.D. 500. Gareth Stevens Publishing LLLP. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-4339-4137-5.
- ^ a b c Hassan, F. A. "Palaeoclimate, Food And Culture Change In Africa: An Overview". SpringerLink. Droughts, Food and Culture. p. 17.
- ^ [1] Burial customs: mastabas. University College London (2001) Retrieved 14 April 2005
- ^ "Early Dynastic burial customs". Digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk. Retrieved 16 November 2012.
- ^ Archaic Egypt, Walter B Emery pp. 144–45
- ^ A History of Ancient Egypt: From the First Farmers to the Great Pyramid, John Romer pp. 294–95
- ^ The Pyramids, Miroslav Verner pp. 109–24
- ^ Quirke, Stephen (2001). The Cult of Ra: Sun Worship in Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson, pp. 118–20.
- ^ "Old Kingdom of Egypt". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
- ^ Lehner, Mark (1997). The Complete Pyramids. New York: Thames and Hudson. p. 194. ISBN 978-0-500-05084-2.
- ^ Lehner, Mark. The Complete Pyramids, London: Thames and Hudson (1997), p. 41. ISBN 0-500-05084-8
- ^ a b Wilkinson, Toby (2004). "Before the Pyramids". Egypt at its Origins. Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams Proceedings of the International Conference "Origin of the State. Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt", Krakow, 28th August – 1st September 2002. Peeters. p. 1142. ISBN 978-90-429-1469-8. Retrieved 18 June 2015.
A final echo of earlier practices is seen in the domain established by Djoser to supply his mortuary cult. He called it Hr-sb3-/mti-pt, "Horus, the foremost star in the sky". We could not wish for a clearer statement of the belief underlying the Step Pyramid: that it was a resurrection machine designed to propel its royal owner, Horus, to the pre-eminent place among the undying stars.
- ^ "Discovery Channel Nederland". Discoverychannel.co.uk. Archived from the original on 5 December 2004. Retrieved 16 November 2012.
- ^ Kratovac, Katarina (5 June 2008). "Egypt uncovers 'missing' pyramid of a pharaoh". Yahoo News. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 9 June 2008. Retrieved 6 June 2008.
- ^ "New Pyramid Found in Egypt: 4,300-Year-Old Queen's Tomb". News.nationalgeographic.com. 28 October 2010. Retrieved 16 November 2012.
- ^ Kenneth Kitchen: Ramesside Inscriptions, Translated & Annotated, Translations, Volume II, Blackwell Publishers, ISBN 0-631-18435-X, 1996
- ^ [2] The Mastaba of Shepseskaf
- ^ Allen, James; Manuelian, Peter (2005). The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts (Writings from the Ancient World, No. 23). Brill Academic. ISBN 978-90-04-13777-6.
- ^ Terrence McCoy (2 May 2014). "The surprisingly simple way Egyptians moved massive pyramid stones without modern technology". The Washington Post.
- ^ Stille, Alexander. "The World's Oldest Papyrus and What It Can Tell Us About the Great Pyramids". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 26 June 2018.
- ^ Holloway, April. "Archaeologists Announce that New Discoveries Solve Mystery of How the Great Pyramid Was Built". Ancient Origins. Retrieved 26 June 2018.
- ^ "Solved! How Ancient Egyptians Moved Massive Pyramid Stones". Live Science. Retrieved 26 February 2018.
Bibliography
- Edwards, I. E. S., The Pyramids of Egypt Penguin Books Ltd; New edition (1991), ISBN 978-0-14-013634-0
- Lehner, Mark, The Complete Pyramids, Thames & Hudson (1997), ISBN 978-0-500-05084-2
- Mendelssohn, Kurt, The Riddle of the Pyramids, Thames & Hudson Ltd (1974), ISBN 978-0-500-05015-6
Внешние ссылки
- Ancient Egyptians from BBC History
- Pyramids World Heritage Site in panographies – 360-degree interactive imaging
- The Pyramids of Egypt – The meaning and construction of the Egyptian pyramids by Egyptologist Professor Nabil S welim.
- Ancient Authors – A site that quotes descriptions of the "Labyrinth" of Amenemhet III's pyramid at el-Lahun by various ancient authors.
- Ancient Egypt – History & Chronology – A site detailing the major pyramid sites of ancient Egypt and Nubia (Sudan).
Coordinates: 29°58′N 31°08′E / 29.967°N 31.133°E / 29.967; 31.133