Британской энциклопедии ( латинское для «Бритиш Энциклопедию») является общее знание на английском языке энциклопедию , которая в настоящее время публикуется исключительно в качестве онлайн - энциклопедии . Ранее он был опубликован Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. и другими издательствами (для предыдущих изданий). Его написали около 100 штатных редакторов и более 4000 соавторов. Версия 15-го издания 2010 г., состоящая из 32 томов [1] и 32 640 страниц, была последним печатным изданием.
Автор | По состоянию на 2008 г. [Обновить], 4411 названных авторов |
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Иллюстратор | Несколько; начальные гравюры Эндрю Белла |
Страна |
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Язык | Британский английский |
Предмет | Общий |
Опубликовано |
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Издатель | Британская энциклопедия, Inc. |
Дата публикации | 1768–2010 (печатная версия) |
Тип СМИ | 32 тома в твердом переплете (15-е издание, 2010 г.); после 2012 недоступен для печати |
Страницы | 32 640 (15-е издание, 2010 г.) |
ISBN | 978-1-59339-292-5 |
Десятичная дробь Дьюи | 031 |
Класс LC | AE5 .E363 2007 г. |
Текст | Британская энциклопедия в Wikisource |
« Британника» была самой продолжительной энциклопедией на английском языке, издаваемой в течение 244 лет. Впервые он был опубликован между 1768 и 1771 годами в столице Шотландии Эдинбурге в виде трех томов. (Это первое издание доступно в виде факсимиле .) Энциклопедия выросла в размерах: второе издание составило 10 томов [2], а к четвертому изданию (1801–1810 гг.) Оно увеличилось до 20 томов. [3] Его рост в качестве научной работы помог привлечь выдающихся участников, а 9-е (1875–1889 гг.) И 11-е издания (1911 г.) являются знаковыми энциклопедиями в области науки и литературного стиля. Начиная с 11-го издания и после его приобретения американской фирмой, Britannica сокращала и упрощала статьи, чтобы расширить свою привлекательность для североамериканского рынка. В 1933 году « Британника» стала первой энциклопедией, принявшей «непрерывный пересмотр», при которой энциклопедия постоянно переиздается, а каждая статья обновляется по расписанию. [ необходима цитата ] В марте 2012 года Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. объявила, что больше не будет публиковать печатные издания, а сосредоточится на онлайн-версии. [4]
15-е издание имело структуру из трех частей: 12-томный Micropædia с короткими статьями (обычно менее 750 слов), 17-томный Macropdia с длинными статьями (от двух до 310 страниц) и один том Propædia, чтобы дать иерархическую структуру. наброски знаний. Micropædia был предназначен для быстрой проверки фактов и в качестве руководства к Macropædia ; читателям рекомендуется изучить план Propædia, чтобы понять контекст предмета и найти более подробные статьи. На протяжении 70 лет размер Британники оставался неизменным: около 40 миллионов слов по полумиллиону тем. Хотя Британника издается в Соединенных Штатах с 1901 года, по большей части сохраняется британское правописание .
Текущий статус
Версия для печати
С 1985 года Britannica состоит из четырех частей: Micropædia , Macropædia , Propdia и двухтомного указателя. В Британской «сек статьи можно найти в микро- и Macropædia , которая охватывала 12 и 17 томов, соответственно, каждый объем , имеющих примерно одну тысячу страниц. Macropædia 2007 года содержит 699 подробных статей объемом от 2 до 310 страниц, содержащих ссылки и названных авторов. Напротив, Micropædia 2007 года содержит примерно 65 000 статей, подавляющее большинство (около 97%) из которых содержат менее 750 слов, без ссылок и без имен авторов. [5] Micropædia изделия предназначены для быстрой проверки фактов и помощи в поиске более полной информации в Macropædia . В Macropædia статьи предназначены как в качестве авторитетных, хорошо написанных статей на своем подданных и , как хранилища информации , не отнесенные к другим. [6] Самая длинная статья (310 страниц) посвящена США и является результатом слияния статей по отдельным штатам. «Глобальное издание» Британики за 2013 год содержало около сорока тысяч статей. [7]
Информацию можно найти в Britannica , следуя перекрестным ссылкам в Micropædia и Macropædia ; однако они редкие, в среднем по одной перекрестной ссылке на страницу. [8] Таким образом, читатели рекомендуются вместо того, чтобы обратиться к алфавитному индексу или Propædia , который организует Britannica «сек содержания по темам. [9]
Ядром Propædia является «Очерк знаний», цель которого - предоставить логическую основу для всего человеческого знания. [10] В соответствии с Outline консультируется с Британника «с редакторами , чтобы решить , какие статьи должны быть включены в Микро- и Macropædia . [10] План также предназначен для использования в качестве учебного пособия, чтобы представить предметы в их правильной перспективе и предложить серию статей « Британика» для студентов, желающих углубленно изучить тему. [10] Однако библиотеки обнаружили, что он почти не используется, и рецензенты рекомендовали исключить его из энциклопедии. [11] В Propædia также есть цветные прозрачные изображения анатомии человека и несколько приложений, в которых перечислены сотрудники, советники и участники всех трех частей Британники .
Взятые вместе, Micropædia и Macropiadia содержат примерно 40 миллионов слов и 24 000 изображений. [9] Двухтомный указатель насчитывает 2 350 страниц, в которых перечислены 228 274 темы, затронутые в Британнике , вместе с 474 675 подстатьями по этим темам. [8] Britannica обычно предпочитает британское написание над американцем ; [8] например, он использует цвет (не цвет ), центр (не центр ) и энциклопедию (не энциклопедию ). Однако из этого правила есть исключения, такие как защита, а не защита . [12] Общие альтернативные варианты написания снабжены перекрестными ссылками, такими как «Цвет: см. Цвет».
С 1936 года статьи Британники пересматривались на регулярной основе, при этом не менее 10% из них рассматривались для пересмотра каждый год. [8] [13] По данным одного веб-сайта Britannica, 46% его статей были отредактированы за последние три года; [14] однако, по данным другого веб-сайта Britannica, только 35% статей были отредактированы. [15]
Алфавитный указатель статей в Micropædia и Macropædia следует строгим правилам. [16] Диакритические знаки и неанглийские буквы игнорируются, в то время как числовые записи, такие как « 1812 год, война », располагаются по алфавиту, как если бы число было выписано («Восемнадцать-двенадцать, война за»). Статьи с одинаковыми названиями упорядочиваются сначала по лицам, затем по местам, затем по вещам. Правители с одинаковыми именами расположены сначала в алфавитном порядке по странам, а затем в хронологии; таким образом, Карл III во Франции предшествовал Карлу I в Англии , указанному в Британнике как правитель Великобритании и Ирландии. (То есть они расположены в алфавитном порядке, как если бы их названия были «Чарльз, Франция, 3» и «Чарльз, Великобритания и Ирландия, 1».) Точно так же места с одинаковыми названиями упорядочены в алфавитном порядке по странам, а затем по еще меньшим политическим единицам. подразделения.
В марте 2012 года компания объявила, что издание 2010 года станет последней печатной версией. Это было объявлено компанией как шаг, направленный на то, чтобы адаптироваться к времени и сосредоточиться на своем будущем с помощью цифровой дистрибуции. [17] Пиковым годом для печатной энциклопедии стал 1990 год, когда было продано 120 000 комплектов, но в 1996 году оно упало до 40 000. [18] Было напечатано 12 000 комплектов издания 2010 года, из которых 8 000 были проданы по состоянию на 2012 год.[Обновить]. [19] К концу апреля 2012 года оставшиеся копии издания 2010 года были распроданы в интернет-магазине Britannica. По состоянию на 2016 год[Обновить], точная копия первого издания Britannica 1768 года продается в интернет-магазине. [20]
Связанные печатные материалы
«Британника младшая» была впервые опубликована в 1934 году в 12 томах. В 1947 году она была расширена до 15 томов, а в 1963 году переименована в Britannica Junior Encyclopædia . [21] Она была снята с рынка после печати в 1984 году.
Британская детская Британника под редакцией Джона Армитиджа была выпущена в Лондоне в 1960 году. [22] Ее содержание было определено в значительной степени с помощью одиннадцати стандартных тестов, проведенных в Великобритании. [23] Britannica представила Детскую Британнику на рынке США в 1988 году, предназначенную для детей от 7 до 14 лет.
В 1961 году для детей, только учившихся читать, была выпущена 16-томная энциклопедия для детей младшего возраста . [23]
«Моя первая Британика» предназначена для детей в возрасте от шести до 12 лет, а « Британская библиотека открытий» предназначена для детей в возрасте от трех до шести лет (выпущена с 1974 по 1991 год). [24]
Было и существует несколько сокращенных энциклопедий Британики . В однотомной « Краткой энциклопедии« Британника » » 28 000 коротких статей, которые составляют более крупную « Британнику» из 32 томов ; [25] есть авторизованные переводы на такие языки, как китайский [26] и вьетнамский . [27] [28] Книга Комптона от Britannica , впервые опубликованная в 2007 году и включающая в себя бывшую Энциклопедию Комптона , предназначена для детей от 10 до 17 лет и состоит из 26 томов и 11 000 страниц. [29]
С 1938 года Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. ежегодно издает Книгу года, охватывающую события прошлого года. Отдельное издание Книги года названо по году его публикации, хотя издание фактически охватывает события прошлого года. Статьи, относящиеся к изданию 1994 года, размещены в Интернете. [30] [ необходим лучший источник ] Компания также издает несколько специализированных справочных работ, таких как « Шекспир: Основное руководство по жизни и творчеству барда» (Wiley, 2006).
Оптический диск, онлайн-версия и мобильная версия
Britannica Окончательный Справочник Люкс 2012 DVD содержит более 100 000 статей. [31] Это включает в себя обычные статьи « Британика» , а также другие статьи, взятые из « Британской студенческой энциклопедии» и « Британской элементарной энциклопедии». Пакет включает в себя ряд дополнительного контента, включая карты, видео, аудиоклипы, анимацию и веб-ссылки. Он также предлагает учебные инструменты, словари и тезаурусы от Merriam-Webster .
Britannica Online - это веб-сайт с более чем 120 000 статей, который регулярно обновляется. [32] В нем есть ежедневные статьи, обновления и ссылки на новостные репортажи из The New York Times и BBC . По состоянию на 2009 год[Обновить]примерно 60% доходов Encyclopædia Britannica приходилось на онлайн-операции, из которых около 15% приходилось на подписку на потребительские версии веб-сайтов. [33] По состоянию на 2006 г.[Обновить]подписки были доступны на годовой, ежемесячной или еженедельной основе. [34] Специальные планы подписки предлагаются школам, колледжам и библиотекам; такие институциональные подписчики составляют важную часть бизнеса Britannica. С начала 2007 года Britannica сделала статьи свободными, если на них есть гиперссылки с внешнего сайта. Не подписчикам обслуживаются всплывающие окна и реклама. [35]
20 февраля 2007 года Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. объявила о сотрудничестве с компанией AskMeNow, занимающейся поиском мобильных телефонов, над запуском мобильной энциклопедии. [36] Пользователи будут иметь возможность отправить вопрос через текстовое сообщение, и AskMeNow будет искать Britannica «s 28000-статьи краткой энциклопедии , чтобы вернуть ответ на запрос. Планируется также ежедневная рассылка актуальных новинок прямо на мобильные телефоны пользователей.
3 июня 2008 года была объявлена инициатива по облегчению сотрудничества между онлайн-экспертами и научными любителями, вносящими вклад в онлайн-контент Britannica (в духе вики ), под редакционным надзором со стороны сотрудников Britannica. [37] [38] Утвержденные взносы будут зачислены, [39] хотя внесение вклада автоматически дает Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. бессрочную безотзывную лицензию на эти взносы. [40]
On 22 January 2009, Britannica's president, Jorge Cauz, announced that the company would be accepting edits and additions to the online Britannica website from the public. The published edition of the encyclopaedia will not be affected by the changes.[41] Individuals wishing to edit the Britannica website will have to register under their real name and address prior to editing or submitting their content.[42] All edits submitted will be reviewed and checked and will have to be approved by the encyclopaedia's professional staff.[42] Contributions from non-academic users will sit in a separate section from the expert-generated Britannica content,[43] as will content submitted by non-Britannica scholars.[44] Articles written by users, if vetted and approved, will also only be available in a special section of the website, separate from the professional articles.[41][44] Official Britannica material would carry a "Britannica Checked" stamp, to distinguish it from the user-generated content.[45]
On 14 September 2010, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced a partnership with mobile phone development company Concentric Sky to launch a series of iPhone products aimed at the K-12 market.[46] On 20 July 2011, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced that Concentric Sky had ported the Britannica Kids product line to Intel's Intel Atom-based Netbooks[47][48] and on 26 October 2011 that it had launched its encyclopedia as an iPad app.[49] In 2010, Britannica released Britannica ImageQuest, a database of images.[50]
In March 2012, it was announced that the company would cease printing the encyclopaedia set, and that it would focus more on its online version.[51][52]
On 7 June 2018, Britannica released a Google Chrome extension, Britannica Insights, which shows snippets of information from Britannica Online in a sidebar for Google Search results.[53] The Britannica sidebar does not replace Google's sidebar and is instead placed above Google's sidebar.[53] Britannica Insights was also available as a Firefox extension but this was taken down due to a code review issue.[54]
Персонал и менеджмент
Contributors
The 2007 print version of the Britannica has 4,411 contributors, many eminent in their fields, such as Nobel laureate economist Milton Friedman, astronomer Carl Sagan, and surgeon Michael DeBakey.[55] Roughly a quarter of the contributors are deceased, some as long ago as 1947 (Alfred North Whitehead), while another quarter are retired or emeritus. Most (approximately 98%[citation needed]) contribute to only a single article; however, 64 contributed to three articles, 23 contributed to four articles, 10 contributed to five articles, and 8 contributed to more than five articles. An exceptionally prolific contributor is Christine Sutton of the University of Oxford, who contributed 24 articles on particle physics.[citation needed]
While Britannica's authors have included writers such as Albert Einstein,[56] Marie Curie,[57] and Leon Trotsky,[56] as well as notable independent encyclopaedists such as Isaac Asimov,[58] some have been criticized for lack of expertise. In 1911 the historian George L. Burr wrote:
With a temerity almost appalling, [the Britannica contributor, Mr. Philips] ranges over nearly the whole field of European history, political, social, ecclesiastical... The grievance is that [this work] lacks authority. This, too—this reliance on editorial energy instead of on ripe special learning—may, alas, be also counted an "Americanizing": for certainly nothing has so cheapened the scholarship of our American encyclopaedias.[59]
Staff
As of 2007[update] in the fifteenth edition of Britannica, Dale Hoiberg, a sinologist, was listed as Britannica's Senior Vice President and editor-in-chief.[60] Among his predecessors as editors-in-chief were Hugh Chisholm (1902–1924), James Louis Garvin (1926–1932), Franklin Henry Hooper (1932–1938),[61] Walter Yust (1938–1960), Harry Ashmore (1960–1963), Warren E. Preece (1964–1968, 1969–1975), Sir William Haley (1968–1969), Philip W. Goetz (1979–1991),[6] and Robert McHenry (1992–1997).[62] As of 2007[update] Anita Wolff was listed as the Deputy Editor and Theodore Pappas as Executive Editor.[60] Prior Executive Editors include John V. Dodge (1950–1964) and Philip W. Goetz.
Paul T. Armstrong remains the longest working employee of Encyclopædia Britannica. He began his career there in 1934, eventually earning the positions of treasurer, vice president, and chief financial officer in his 58 years with the company, before retiring in 1992.[63]
The 2007 editorial staff of the Britannica included five Senior Editors and nine Associate Editors, supervised by Dale Hoiberg and four others. The editorial staff helped to write the articles of the Micropædia and some sections of the Macropædia.[64] The preparation and publication of the Encyclopædia Britannica required trained staff. According to the final page of the 2007 Propædia, the staff were organized into ten departments:[65]
- Editorial staff (19 editors and 1 executive assistant)
- Art and Cartography (9 employees)
- Compositional Technology and Design (4 employees)
- Copy Department (12 employees)
- Editorial and Publishing Technologies (5 employees)
- Information Management (9 employees)
- Media Asset Management and Production Control (4 employees)
- Reference Librarians (3 employees)
- World Data (5 employees)
- Manufacturing (1 employee)
Some of these departments were organized hierarchically. For example, the copy editors were divided into four copy editors, two senior copy editors, four supervisors, plus a coordinator and a director. Similarly, the Editorial department was headed by Dale Hoiberg and assisted by four others; they oversaw the work of five senior editors, nine associate editors, and one executive assistant.
Britannica had 14 editors in 2019: Adam Augustyn, Patricia Bauer, Brian Duignan, Alison Eldridge, Erik Gregersen, Amy McKenna, Melissa Petruzzello, John P. Rafferty, Michael Ray, Kara Rogers, Amy Tikkanen, Jeff Wallenfeldt, Adam Zeidan, and Alicja Zelazko.[66]
Editorial advisors
The Britannica has an editorial board of advisors, which includes 12 distinguished scholars:[67][68] non-fiction author Nicholas Carr, religion scholar Wendy Doniger, political economist Benjamin M. Friedman, Council on Foreign Relations President Emeritus Leslie H. Gelb, computer scientist David Gelernter, Physics Nobel laureate Murray Gell-Mann, Carnegie Corporation of New York President Vartan Gregorian, philosopher Thomas Nagel, cognitive scientist Donald Norman, musicologist Don Michael Randel, Stewart Sutherland, Baron Sutherland of Houndwood, President of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and cultural anthropologist Michael Wesch.
The Propædia and its Outline of Knowledge were produced by dozens of editorial advisors under the direction of Mortimer J. Adler.[69] Roughly half of these advisors have since died, including some of the Outline's chief architects – Rene Dubos (d. 1982), Loren Eiseley (d. 1977), Harold D. Lasswell (d. 1978), Mark Van Doren (d. 1972), Peter Ritchie Calder (d. 1982) and Mortimer J. Adler (d. 2001). The Propædia also lists just under 4,000 advisors who were consulted for the unsigned Micropædia articles.[70]
Corporate structure
In January 1996, the Britannica was purchased from the Benton Foundation by billionaire Swiss financier Jacqui Safra,[71] who serves as its current Chair of the Board. In 1997, Don Yannias, a long-time associate and investment advisor of Safra, became CEO of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.[72] In 1999, a new company, Britannica.com Inc., was created to develop digital versions of the Britannica; Yannias assumed the role of CEO in the new company, while his former position at the parent company remained vacant for two years. Yannias' tenure at Britannica.com Inc. was marked by missteps, considerable lay-offs, and financial losses.[73] In 2001, Yannias was replaced by Ilan Yeshua, who reunited the leadership of the two companies.[74] Yannias later returned to investment management, but remains on the Britannica's Board of Directors.
In 2003, former management consultant Jorge Aguilar-Cauz was appointed President of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Cauz is the senior executive and reports directly to the Britannica's Board of Directors. Cauz has been pursuing alliances with other companies and extending the Britannica brand to new educational and reference products, continuing the strategy pioneered by former CEO Elkan Harrison Powell in the mid-1930s.[75]
Under Safra's ownership, the company has experienced financial difficulties and has responded by reducing the price of its products and implementing drastic cost cuts. According to a 2003 report in the New York Post, the Britannica management has eliminated employee 401(k) accounts and encouraged the use of free images. These changes have had negative impacts, as freelance contributors have waited up to six months for checks and the Britannica staff have gone years without pay rises.[76]
In the fall of 2017, Karthik Krishnan was appointed global chief executive officer of the Encyclopædia Britannica Group. Krishnan brought a varied perspective to the role based on several high-level positions in digital media, including RELX (Reed Elsevier, FT SE 100) and Rodale, in which he was responsible for "driving business and cultural transformation and accelerating growth".[77]
Taking the reins of the company as it was preparing to mark its 250th anniversary and define the next phase of its digital strategy for consumers and K-12 schools, Krishnan launched a series of new initiatives in his first year.
First was Britannica Insights,[78] a free, downloadable software extension to the Google Chrome browser that served up edited, fact-checked Britannica information with queries on search engines such as Google, Yahoo, and Bing. Its purpose, the company said, was to "provide trusted, verified information" in conjunction with search results that were thought to be increasingly unreliable in the era of misinformation and "fake news."
The product was quickly followed by Britannica School Insights, which provided similar content for subscribers to Britannica's online classroom solutions, and a partnership with YouTube[79] in which verified Britannica content appeared on the site as an antidote to user-generated video content that could be false or misleading.
Krishnan, himself an educator at New York University's Stern School of Business, believes in the "transformative power of education"[80] and set steering the company toward solidifying its place among leaders in educational technology and supplemental curriculum. Krishnan aimed at providing more useful and relevant solutions to customer needs, extending and renewing Britannica's historical emphasis on "Utility",[81] which had been the watchword of its first edition in 1768.
Krishnan also is active in civic affairs, with organizations such as the Urban Enterprise Initiative and Urban Upbound, whose board he serves on.
Соревнование
As the Britannica is a general encyclopaedia, it does not seek to compete with specialized encyclopaedias such as the Encyclopaedia of Mathematics or the Dictionary of the Middle Ages, which can devote much more space to their chosen topics. In its first years, the Britannica's main competitor was the general encyclopaedia of Ephraim Chambers and, soon thereafter, Rees's Cyclopædia and Coleridge's Encyclopædia Metropolitana. In the 20th century, successful competitors included Collier's Encyclopedia, the Encyclopedia Americana, and the World Book Encyclopedia. Nevertheless, from the 9th edition onwards, the Britannica was widely considered to have the greatest authority of any general English-language encyclopaedia,[82] especially because of its broad coverage and eminent authors.[6][8] The print version of the Britannica was significantly more expensive than its competitors.[6][8]
Since the early 1990s, the Britannica has faced new challenges from digital information sources. The Internet, facilitated by the development of search engines, has grown into a common source of information for many people, and provides easy access to reliable original sources and expert opinions, thanks in part to initiatives such as Google Books, MIT's release of its educational materials and the open PubMed Central library of the National Library of Medicine.[83][84] In general, the Internet tends to provide more current coverage than print media, due to the ease with which material on the Internet can be updated.[85] In rapidly changing fields such as science, technology, politics, culture and modern history, the Britannica has struggled to stay up to date, a problem first analysed systematically by its former editor Walter Yust.[86] Eventually, the Britannica turned to focus more on its online edition.[87]
Print encyclopaedias
The Encyclopædia Britannica has been compared with other print encyclopaedias, both qualitatively and quantitatively.[5][6][8] A well-known comparison is that of Kenneth Kister, who gave a qualitative and quantitative comparison of the Britannica with two comparable encyclopaedias, Collier's Encyclopedia and the Encyclopedia Americana.[6] For the quantitative analysis, ten articles were selected at random—circumcision, Charles Drew, Galileo, Philip Glass, heart disease, IQ, panda bear, sexual harassment, Shroud of Turin and Uzbekistan—and letter grades of A–D or F were awarded in four categories: coverage, accuracy, clarity, and recency. In all four categories and for all three encyclopaedias, the four average grades fell between B− and B+, chiefly because none of the encyclopaedias had an article on sexual harassment in 1994. In the accuracy category, the Britannica received one "D" and seven "A"s, Encyclopedia Americana received eight "A"s, and Collier's received one "D" and seven "A"s; thus, Britannica received an average score of 92% for accuracy to Americana's 95% and Collier's 92%. In the timeliness category, Britannica averaged an 86% to Americana's 90% and Collier's 85%.[citation needed]
In 2013, the President of Encyclopædia Britannica announced that after 244 years, the encyclopedia would cease print production and all future editions would be entirely digital.[88]
Digital encyclopaedias on optical media
The most notable competitor of the Britannica among CD/DVD-ROM digital encyclopaedias was Encarta,[89] now discontinued, a modern, multimedia encyclopaedia that incorporated three print encyclopaedias: Funk & Wagnalls, Collier's and the New Merit Scholar's Encyclopedia. Encarta was the top-selling multimedia encyclopaedia, based on total US retail sales from January 2000 to February 2006.[90] Both occupied the same price range, with the 2007 Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate CD or DVD costing US$40–50[91][92] and the Microsoft Encarta Premium 2007 DVD costing US$45.[93] The Britannica contains 100,000 articles and Merriam-Webster's Dictionary and Thesaurus (US only), and offers Primary and Secondary School editions.[92] Encarta contained 66,000 articles, a user-friendly Visual Browser, interactive maps, math, language and homework tools, a US and UK dictionary, and a youth edition.[93] Like Encarta, the Britannica has been criticized for being biased towards United States audiences; the United Kingdom-related articles are updated less often, maps of the United States are more detailed than those of other countries, and it lacks a UK dictionary.[89] Like the Britannica, Encarta was available online by subscription, although some content could be accessed free.[94]
Internet encyclopaedias
The dominant internet encyclopaedia and main alternative to Britannica is Wikipedia.[95][96][97] The key differences between the two lie in accessibility; the model of participation they bring to an encyclopedic project; their respective style sheets and editorial policies; relative ages; the number of subjects treated; the number of languages in which articles are written and made available; and their underlying economic models: unlike Britannica, Wikipedia is a not-for-profit and is not connected with traditional profit- and contract-based publishing distribution networks.
The 699 printed Macropædia articles are generally written by identified contributors, and the roughly 65,000 printed Micropædia articles are the work of the editorial staff and identified outside consultants. Thus, a Britannica article either has known authorship or a set of possible authors (the editorial staff). With the exception of the editorial staff, most of the Britannica's contributors are experts in their field—some are Nobel laureates.[55] By contrast, the articles of Wikipedia are written by people of unknown degrees of expertise: most do not claim any particular expertise, and of those who do, many are anonymous and have no verifiable credentials.[98] It is for this lack of institutional vetting, or certification, that former Britannica editor-in-chief Robert McHenry notes his belief that Wikipedia cannot hope to rival the Britannica in accuracy.[99]
In 2005, the journal Nature chose articles from both websites in a wide range of science topics and sent them to what it called "relevant" field experts for peer review. The experts then compared the competing articles—one from each site on a given topic—side by side, but were not told which article came from which site. Nature got back 42 usable reviews.
In the end, the journal found just eight serious errors, such as general misunderstandings of vital concepts: four from each site. It also discovered many factual errors, omissions or misleading statements: 162 in Wikipedia and 123 in Britannica, an average of 3.86 mistakes per article for Wikipedia and 2.92 for Britannica.[98][100] Although Britannica was revealed as the more accurate encyclopedia, with fewer errors, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. in its detailed 20-page rebuttal called Nature's study flawed and misleading[101] and called for a "prompt" retraction. It noted that two of the articles in the study were taken from a Britannica yearbook and not the encyclopaedia, and another two were from Compton's Encyclopedia (called the Britannica Student Encyclopedia on the company's website). The rebuttal went on to mention that some of the articles presented to reviewers were combinations of several articles, and that other articles were merely excerpts but were penalized for factual omissions. The company also noted that several of what Nature called errors were minor spelling variations, and that others were matters of interpretation. Nature defended its story and declined to retract, stating that, as it was comparing Wikipedia with the web version of Britannica, it used whatever relevant material was available on Britannica's website.[102]
Interviewed in February 2009, the managing director of Britannica UK said:
Wikipedia is a fun site to use and has a lot of interesting entries on there, but their approach wouldn't work for Encyclopædia Britannica. My job is to create more awareness of our very different approaches to publishing in the public mind. They're a chisel, we're a drill, and you need to have the correct tool for the job.[33]
In a January 2016 press release, Britannica called Wikipedia "an impressive achievement."[103]
Критические и популярные оценки
Reputation
Since the 3rd edition, the Britannica has enjoyed a popular and critical reputation for general excellence.[5][6][8] The 3rd and the 9th editions were pirated for sale in the United States,[104] beginning with Dobson's Encyclopaedia.[105] On the release of the 14th edition, Time magazine dubbed the Britannica the "Patriarch of the Library".[106] In a related advertisement, naturalist William Beebe was quoted as saying that the Britannica was "beyond comparison because there is no competitor."[107] References to the Britannica can be found throughout English literature, most notably in one of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's favourite Sherlock Holmes stories, "The Red-Headed League". The tale was highlighted by the Lord Mayor of London, Gilbert Inglefield, at the bicentennial of the Britannica.[108]
The Britannica has a reputation for summarising knowledge.[82] To further their education, some people have devoted themselves to reading the entire Britannica, taking anywhere from three to 22 years to do so.[104] When Fat'h Ali became the Shah of Persia in 1797, he was given a set of the Britannica's 3rd edition, which he read completely; after this feat, he extended his royal title to include "Most Formidable Lord and Master of the Encyclopædia Britannica".[108] Writer George Bernard Shaw claimed to have read the complete 9th edition—except for the science articles[104]—and Richard Evelyn Byrd took the Britannica as reading material for his five-month stay at the South Pole in 1934, while Philip Beaver read it during a sailing expedition. More recently, A.J. Jacobs, an editor at Esquire magazine, read the entire 2002 version of the 15th edition, describing his experiences in the well-received 2004 book, The Know-It-All: One Man's Humble Quest to Become the Smartest Person in the World. Only two people are known to have read two independent editions: the author C. S. Forester[104] and Amos Urban Shirk, an American businessman who read the 11th and 14th editions, devoting roughly three hours per night for four and a half years to read the 11th.[109] Several editors-in-chief of the Britannica are likely to have read their editions completely, such as William Smellie (1st edition), William Robertson Smith (9th edition), and Walter Yust (14th edition).
Awards
The CD/DVD-ROM version of the Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite, received the 2004 Distinguished Achievement Award from the Association of Educational Publishers.[110] On 15 July 2009, Encyclopædia Britannica was awarded a spot as one of "Top Ten Superbrands in the UK" by a panel of more than 2,000 independent reviewers, as reported by the BBC.[111]
Coverage of topics
Topics are chosen in part by reference to the Propædia "Outline of Knowledge".[10] The bulk of the Britannica is devoted to geography (26% of the Macropædia), biography (14%), biology and medicine (11%), literature (7%), physics and astronomy (6%), religion (5%), art (4%), Western philosophy (4%), and law (3%).[6] A complementary study of the Micropædia found that geography accounted for 25% of articles, science 18%, social sciences 17%, biography 17%, and all other humanities 25%.[8] Writing in 1992, one reviewer judged that the "range, depth, and catholicity of coverage [of the Britannica] are unsurpassed by any other general Encyclopaedia."[112]
The Britannica does not cover topics in equivalent detail; for example, the whole of Buddhism and most other religions is covered in a single Macropædia article, whereas 14 articles are devoted to Christianity, comprising nearly half of all religion articles.[113] However, the Britannica has been lauded as the least biased of general Encyclopaedias marketed to Western readers[6] and praised for its biographies of important women of all eras.[8]
It can be stated without fear of contradiction that the 15th edition of the Britannica accords non-Western cultural, social, and scientific developments more notice than any general English-language encyclopedia currently on the market.
— Kenneth Kister, in Kister's Best Encyclopedias (1994)
Criticism of editorial decisions
On rare occasions, the Britannica has been criticized for its editorial choices. Given its roughly constant size, the encyclopaedia has needed to reduce or eliminate some topics to accommodate others, resulting in controversial decisions. The initial 15th edition (1974–1985) was faulted for having reduced or eliminated coverage of children's literature, military decorations, and the French poet Joachim du Bellay; editorial mistakes were also alleged, such as inconsistent sorting of Japanese biographies.[114] Its elimination of the index was condemned, as was the apparently arbitrary division of articles into the Micropædia and Macropædia.[6][115] Summing up, one critic called the initial 15th edition a "qualified failure...[that] cares more for juggling its format than for preserving."[114] More recently, reviewers from the American Library Association were surprised to find that most educational articles had been eliminated from the 1992 Macropædia, along with the article on psychology.[11]
Some very few Britannica-appointed contributors are mistaken. A notorious instance from the Britannica's early years is the rejection of Newtonian gravity by George Gleig, the chief editor of the 3rd edition (1788–1797), who wrote that gravity was caused by the classical element of fire.[104] The Britannica has also staunchly defended a scientific approach to cultural topics, as it did with William Robertson Smith's articles on religion in the 9th edition, particularly his article stating that the Bible was not historically accurate (1875).[104]
Other criticisms
The Britannica has received criticism, especially as editions become outdated. It is expensive to produce a completely new edition of the Britannica,[a] and its editors delay for as long as fiscally sensible (usually about 25 years).[13] For example, despite continuous revision, the 14th edition became outdated after 35 years (1929–1964). When American physicist Harvey Einbinder detailed its failings in his 1964 book, The Myth of the Britannica,[116] the encyclopaedia was provoked to produce the 15th edition, which required 10 years of work.[6] It is still difficult to keep the Britannica current; one recent critic writes, "it is not difficult to find articles that are out-of-date or in need of revision", noting that the longer Macropædia articles are more likely to be outdated than the shorter Micropædia articles.[6] Information in the Micropædia is sometimes inconsistent with the corresponding Macropædia article(s), mainly because of the failure to update one or the other.[5][8] The bibliographies of the Macropædia articles have been criticized for being more out-of-date than the articles themselves.[5][6][8]
In 2005, 12-year-old schoolboy Lucian George found several inaccuracies in the Britannica‘s entries on Poland and wildlife in Eastern Europe.[117]
In 2010, an inaccurate entry about the Irish Civil War was discussed in the Irish press following a decision of the Department of Education and Science to pay for online access.[118][119]
Writing about the 3rd edition (1788–1797), Britannica's chief editor George Gleig observed that "perfection seems to be incompatible with the nature of works constructed on such a plan, and embracing such a variety of subjects."[120] In March 2006, the Britannica wrote, "we in no way mean to imply that Britannica is error-free; we have never made such a claim"[101] (although in 1962 Britannica's sales department famously said of the 14th edition "It is truth. It is unquestionable fact.")[121] The sentiment is expressed by its original editor, William Smellie:
With regard to errors in general, whether falling under the denomination of mental, typographical or accidental, we are conscious of being able to point out a greater number than any critic whatever. Men who are acquainted with the innumerable difficulties attending the execution of a work of such an extensive nature will make proper allowances. To these we appeal, and shall rest satisfied with the judgment they pronounce.[122]
However, Jorge Cauz (president of Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.) asserted in 2012 that "Britannica [...] will always be factually correct."[1]
История
Past owners have included, in chronological order, the Edinburgh, Scotland printers Colin Macfarquhar and Andrew Bell, Scottish bookseller Archibald Constable, Scottish publisher A & C Black, Horace Everett Hooper, Sears Roebuck and William Benton.
The present owner of Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. is Jacqui Safra, a Brazilian billionaire and actor. Recent advances in information technology and the rise of electronic encyclopaedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite, Encarta and Wikipedia have reduced the demand for print encyclopaedias.[123] To remain competitive, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. has stressed the reputation of the Britannica, reduced its price and production costs, and developed electronic versions on CD-ROM, DVD, and the World Wide Web. Since the early 1930s, the company has promoted spin-off reference works.[13]
Editions
The Britannica has been issued in 15 editions, with multi-volume supplements to the 3rd and 4th editions (see the Table below). The 5th and 6th editions were reprints of the 4th, the 10th edition was only a supplement to the 9th, just as the 12th and 13th editions were supplements to the 11th. The 15th underwent massive re-organization in 1985, but the updated, current version is still known as the 15th. The 14th and 15th editions were edited every year throughout their runs, so that later printings of each were entirely different from early ones.
Throughout history, the Britannica has had two aims: to be an excellent reference book, and to provide educational material.[124] In 1974, the 15th edition adopted a third goal: to systematize all human knowledge.[10] The history of the Britannica can be divided into five eras, punctuated by changes in management, or re-organization of the dictionary.
1768–1826
In the first era (1st–6th editions, 1768–1826), the Britannica was managed and published by its founders, Colin Macfarquhar and Andrew Bell, by Archibald Constable, and by others. The Britannica was first published between December 1768[125] and 1771 in Edinburgh as the Encyclopædia Britannica, or, A Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, compiled upon a New Plan. In part, it was conceived in reaction to the French Encyclopédie of Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert (published 1751–72), which had been inspired by Chambers's Cyclopaedia (first edition 1728). It went on sale 10 December.[126]
The Britannica of this period was primarily a Scottish enterprise, and it is one of the most enduring legacies of the Scottish Enlightenment.[127] In this era, the Britannica moved from being a three-volume set (1st edition) compiled by one young editor—William Smellie[128]—to a 20-volume set written by numerous authorities.[129] Several other encyclopaedias competed throughout this period, among them editions of Abraham Rees's Cyclopædia and Coleridge's Encyclopædia Metropolitana and David Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopædia.
1827–1901
During the second era (7th–9th editions, 1827–1901), the Britannica was managed by the Edinburgh publishing firm A & C Black. Although some contributors were again recruited through friendships of the chief editors, notably Macvey Napier, others were attracted by the Britannica's reputation. The contributors often came from other countries and included the world's most respected authorities in their fields. A general index of all articles was included for the first time in the 7th edition, a practice maintained until 1974.
Production of the 9th edition was overseen by Thomas Spencer Baynes, the first English-born editor-in-chief. Dubbed the "Scholar's Edition", the 9th edition is the most scholarly of all Britannicas.[6][104] After 1880, Baynes was assisted by William Robertson Smith.[130] No biographies of living persons were included.[131] James Clerk Maxwell and Thomas Huxley were special advisors on science.[132] However, by the close of the 19th century, the 9th edition was outdated, and the Britannica faced financial difficulties.
1901–1973
In the third era (10th–14th editions, 1901–1973), the Britannica was managed by American businessmen who introduced direct marketing and door-to-door sales. The American owners gradually simplified articles, making them less scholarly for a mass market. The 10th edition was an eleven-volume supplement (including one each of maps and an index) to the 9th, numbered as volumes 25–35, but the 11th edition was a completely new work, and is still praised for excellence; its owner, Horace Hooper, lavished enormous effort on its perfection.[104]
When Hooper fell into financial difficulties, the Britannica was managed by Sears Roebuck for 18 years (1920–1923, 1928–1943). In 1932, the vice-president of Sears, Elkan Harrison Powell, assumed presidency of the Britannica; in 1936, he began the policy of continuous revision. This was a departure from earlier practice, in which the articles were not changed until a new edition was produced, at roughly 25-year intervals, some articles unchanged from earlier editions.[13] Powell developed new educational products that built upon the Britannica's reputation.
In 1943, Sears donated the Encyclopædia Britannica to the University of Chicago. William Benton, then a vice president of the University, provided the working capital for its operation. The stock was divided between Benton and the University, with the University holding an option on the stock.[133] Benton became chairman of the board and managed the Britannica until his death in 1973.[134] Benton set up the Benton Foundation, which managed the Britannica until 1996, and whose sole beneficiary was the University of Chicago.[135] In 1968, near the end of this era, the Britannica celebrated its bicentennial.
1974–1994
In the fourth era (1974–94), the Britannica introduced its 15th edition, which was re-organized into three parts: the Micropædia, the Macropædia, and the Propædia. Under Mortimer J. Adler (member of the Board of Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica since its inception in 1949, and its chair from 1974; director of editorial planning for the 15th edition of Britannica from 1965),[136] the Britannica sought not only to be a good reference work and educational tool, but to systematize all human knowledge. The absence of a separate index and the grouping of articles into parallel encyclopaedias (the Micro- and Macropædia) provoked a "firestorm of criticism" of the initial 15th edition.[6][115] In response, the 15th edition was completely re-organized and indexed for a re-release in 1985. This second version of the 15th edition continued to be published and revised until the 2010 print version. The official title of the 15th edition is the New Encyclopædia Britannica, although it has also been promoted as Britannica 3.[6]
On 9 March 1976 the US Federal Trade Commission entered an opinion and order enjoining Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. from using: a) deceptive advertising practices in recruiting sales agents and obtaining sales leads, and b) deceptive sales practices in the door-to-door presentations of its sales agents.[137]
1994–present
In the fifth era (1994–present), digital versions have been developed and released on optical media and online. In 1996, the Britannica was bought by Jacqui Safra at well below its estimated value, owing to the company's financial difficulties. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. split in 1999. One part retained the company name and developed the print version, and the other, Britannica.com Inc., developed digital versions. Since 2001, the two companies have shared a CEO, Ilan Yeshua, who has continued Powell's strategy of introducing new products with the Britannica name. In March 2012, Britannica's president, Jorge Cauz, announced that it would not produce any new print editions of the encyclopaedia, with the 2010 15th edition being the last. The company will focus only on the online edition and other educational tools.[1][138]
Britannica's final print edition was in 2010, a 32-volume set.[1] Britannica Global Edition was also printed in 2010. It contained 30 volumes and 18,251 pages, with 8,500 photographs, maps, flags, and illustrations in smaller "compact" volumes. It contained over 40,000 articles written by scholars from across the world, including Nobel Prize winners. Unlike the 15th edition, it did not contain Macro- and Micropædia sections, but ran A through Z as all editions up to the 14th had. The following is Britannica's description of the work:[7]
The editors of Encyclopædia Britannica, the world standard in reference since 1768, present the Britannica Global Edition. Developed specifically to provide comprehensive and global coverage of the world around us, this unique product contains thousands of timely, relevant, and essential articles drawn from the Encyclopædia Britannica itself, as well as from the Britannica Concise Encyclopedia, the Britannica Encyclopedia of World Religions, and Compton's by Britannica. Written by international experts and scholars, the articles in this collection reflect the standards that have been the hallmark of the leading English-language encyclopedia for over 240 years.
In 2020, Encyclopaedia Britannica inc. released the Britannica All New Children's Encyclopedia: What We Know and What We Don't, an encyclopedia aimed primarily at younger readers, covering major topics. The Encyclopedia was widely praised for bringing back the print format.[139][140]
Dedications
The Britannica was dedicated to the reigning British monarch from 1788 to 1901 and then, upon its sale to an American partnership, to the British monarch and the President of the United States.[6] Thus, the 11th edition is "dedicated by Permission to His Majesty George the Fifth, King of Great Britain and Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas, Emperor of India, and to William Howard Taft, President of the United States of America."[141] The order of the dedications has changed with the relative power of the United States and Britain, and with relative sales; the 1954 version of the 14th edition is "Dedicated by Permission to the Heads of the Two English-Speaking Peoples, Dwight David Eisenhower, President of the United States of America, and Her Majesty, Queen Elizabeth the Second."[86] Consistent with this tradition, the 2007 version of the current 15th edition was "dedicated by permission to the current President of the United States of America, George W. Bush, and Her Majesty, Queen Elizabeth II",[142] while the 2010 version of the current 15th edition is "dedicated by permission to Barack Obama, President of the United States of America, and Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II."[143]
Краткое изложение выпуска
Edition / supplement | Publication years | Size | Sales | Chief editor(s) | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1st | 1768–1771 | 3 volumes, 2,391 pages,[b] 160 plates | 3,000[c] | William Smellie | Largely the work of one editor, Smellie; An estimated 3,000 sets were eventually sold, priced at £12 apiece; 30 articles longer than three pages. The pages were bound in three equally sized volumes covering Aa–Bzo, Caaba–Lythrum, and Macao–Zyglophyllum. |
2nd | 1777–1784 | 10 volumes, 8,595 pages, 340 plates | 1,500[104] | James Tytler | Largely the work of one editor, Tytler; 150 long articles; pagination errors; all maps under "Geography" article; 1,500 sets sold[104] |
3rd | 1788–1797 | 18 volumes, 14,579 pages, 542 plates | 10,000 or 13,000[d] | Colin Macfarquhar and George Gleig | £42,000 profit on 10,000 copies sold; first dedication to monarch; pirated by Moore in Dublin and Thomas Dobson in Philadelphia |
supplement to 3rd | 1801, revised in 1803 | 2 volumes, 1,624 pages, 50 plates | George Gleig | Copyright owned by Thomas Bonar | |
4th | 1801–1810 | 20 volumes, 16,033 pages, 581 plates | 4,000[147] | James Millar | Authors first allowed to retain copyright. Material in the supplement to 3rd not incorporated due to copyright issues. |
5th | 1815–1817 | 20 volumes, 16,017 pages, 582 plates | James Millar | Reprint of the 4th edition. Financial losses by Millar and Andrew Bell's heirs; EB rights sold to Archibald Constable | |
supplement to 5th | 1816–1824 | 6 volumes, 4,933 pages, 125 plates1 | 10,500[104] | Macvey Napier | Famous contributors recruited, such as Sir Humphry Davy, Sir Walter Scott, Malthus |
6th | 1820–1823 | 20 volumes | Charles Maclaren | Reprint of the 4th and 5th editions with modern font. Constable went bankrupt on 19 January 1826; EB rights eventually secured by Adam Black | |
7th | 1830–1842 | 21 volumes, 17,101 pages, 506 plates, plus a 187-page index volume | 5,000[104] | Macvey Napier, assisted by James Browne, LLD | Widening network of famous contributors, such as Sir David Brewster, Thomas de Quincey, Antonio Panizzi; 5,000 sets sold[104] |
8th | 1853–1860 | 21 volumes, 17,957 pages, 402 plates; plus a 239-page index volume, published 18612 | 8,000 | Thomas Stewart Traill | Many long articles were copied from the 7th edition; 344 contributors including William Thomson; authorized American sets printed by Little, Brown in Boston; 8,000 sets sold altogether |
9th | 1875–1889 | 24 volumes, plus a 499-page index volume labeled Volume 25 | 55,000 authorized[e] plus 500,000 pirated sets | Thomas Spencer Baynes (1875–80); then W. Robertson Smith | Some carry-over from 8th edition, but mostly a new work; high point of scholarship; 10,000 sets sold by Britannica and 45,000 authorized sets made in the US by Little, Brown in Boston and Schribners' Sons in NY, but pirated widely (500,000 sets) in the US.3 |
10th, supplement to 9th | 1902–1903 | 11 volumes, plus the 24 volumes of the 9th. Volume 34 containing 124 detailed country maps with index of 250,000 names 4 | 70,000 | Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace and Hugh Chisholm in London; Arthur T. Hadley and Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City | American partnership bought EB rights on 9 May 1901; high-pressure sales methods |
11th | 1910–1911 | 28 volumes, plus volume 29 index | 1,000,000 | Hugh Chisholm in London, Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City | Another high point of scholarship and writing; more articles than the 9th, but shorter and simpler; financial difficulties for owner, Horace Everett Hooper; EB rights sold to Sears Roebuck in 1920 |
12th, supplement to 11th | 1921–1922 | 3 volumes with own index, plus the 29 volumes of the 11th5 | Hugh Chisholm in London, Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City | Summarized state of the world before, during, and after World War I | |
13th, supplement to 11th | 1926 | 3 volumes with own index, plus the 29 volumes of the 11th6 | James Louis Garvin in London, Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City | Replaced 12th edition volumes; improved perspective of the events of 1910–1926 | |
14th | 1929–1933 | 24 volumes 7 | James Louis Garvin in London, Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City | Publication just before Great Depression was financially catastrophic[citation needed] | |
revised 14th | 1933–1973 | 24 volumes 7 | Franklin Henry Hooper until 1938; then Walter Yust, Harry Ashmore, Warren E. Preece, William Haley | Began continuous revision in 1936: every article revised at least twice every decade | |
15th | 1974–1984 | 30 volumes 8 | Warren E. Preece, then Philip W. Goetz | Introduced three-part structure; division of articles into Micropædia and Macropædia; Propædia Outline of Knowledge; separate index eliminated | |
1985–2010 | 32 volumes 9 | Philip W. Goetz, then Robert McHenry, currently Dale Hoiberg | Restored two-volume index; some Micropædia and Macropædia articles merged; slightly longer overall; new versions were issued every few years. This edition is the last printed edition. | ||
Global | 2009 | 30 compact volumes | Dale Hoiberg | Unlike the 15th edition, it did not contain Macro- and Micropedia sections, but ran A through Z as all editions up to the 14th had. |
Edition notes 1Supplement to the fourth, fifth, and sixth editions of the Encyclopædia Britannica. With preliminary dissertations on the history of the sciences. 2 The 7th to 14th editions included a separate index volume. 3 The 9th edition featured articles by notables of the day, such as James Clerk Maxwell on electricity and magnetism, and William Thomson (who became Lord Kelvin) on heat. 4 The 10th edition included a maps volume and a cumulative index volume for the 9th and 10th edition volumes: the new volumes, constituting, in combination with the existing volumes of the 9th ed., the 10th ed. ... and also supplying a new, distinctive, and independent library of reference dealing with recent events and developments 5 Vols. 30–32 ... the New volumes constituting, in combination with the twenty-nine volumes of the eleventh edition, the twelfth edition 6 This supplement replaced the previous supplement: The three new supplementary volumes constituting, with the volumes of the latest standard edition, the thirteenth edition. 7 At this point Encyclopædia Britannica began almost annual revisions. New revisions of the 14th edition appeared every year between 1929 and 1973 with the exceptions of 1931, 1934 and 1935.[149] 8 Annual revisions were published every year between 1974 and 2007 with the exceptions of 1996, 1999, 2000, 2004 and 2006.[149] The 15th edition (introduced as "Britannica 3") was published in three parts: a 10-volume Micropædia (which contained short articles and served as an index), a 19-volume Macropædia, plus the Propædia (see text). 9 In 1985, the system was modified by adding a separate two-volume index; the Macropædia articles were further consolidated into fewer, larger ones (for example, the previously separate articles about the 50 US states were all included into the "United States of America" article), with some medium-length articles moved to the Micropædia. The Micropædia had 12 vols. and the Macropædia 17. The first CD-ROM edition was issued in 1994. At that time also an online version was offered for paid subscription. In 1999 this was offered free, and no revised print versions appeared. The experiment was ended in 2001 and a new printed set was issued in 2001. |
Смотрите также
- Encyclopædia Britannica Films
- Great Books of the Western World
- List of encyclopedias by branch of knowledge
- List of encyclopedias by date
- List of encyclopedias by language § English
- List of online encyclopedias
Заметки
- ^ According to Kister, the initial 15th edition (1974) required over $32 million to produce.[6]
- ^ Vol. I has (viii), 697, (i) pages, but 10 unpaginated pages are added between pages 586 and 587. Vol. II has (iii), 1009, (ii) pages, but page numbers 175-176 as well as page numbers 425-426 were used twice; additionally page numbers 311-410 were not used. Vol. III has (iii), 953, (i) pages, but page numbers 679-878 were not used.[144]
- ^ Archibald Constable estimated in 1812 that there had been 3,500 copies printed, but revised his estimate to 3,000 in 1821.[145]
- ^ According to Smellie, it was 10,000, as quoted by Robert Kerr in his "Memoirs of William Smellie." Archibald Constable was quoted as saying the production started at 5,000 and concluded at 13,000.[146]
- ^ 10,000 sets sold by Britannica plus 45,000 genuine American reprints by Scribner's Sons, and "several hundred thousand sets of mutilated and fraudulent 9th editions were sold..."[148] Most sources estimate there were 500,000 pirated sets.
Рекомендации
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- ^ Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur: How Blogs, MySpace, YouTube, and the Rest of Today's User-generated Media are Destroying Our Economy, Our Culture, and Our Values. Doubleday. p. 44. ISBN 9780385520812.
- ^ "Isaac Asimov". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 24 May 2019.
- ^ Burr, George L. (1911). "The Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information". American Historical Review. 17 (1): 103–109. doi:10.2307/1832843. JSTOR 1832843.
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- ^ Goetz, Philip W. (2007). "The New Encyclopædia Britannica". Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc (15th edition, Propædia ed.): 524–530. Bibcode:1991neb..book.....G.
- ^ Goetz, Philip W. (2007). "The New Encyclopædia Britannica". Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc (15th edition, Propædia ed.): 675–744. Bibcode:1991neb..book.....G.
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- ^ Group, Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Encyclopaedia Britannica Group Appoints Karthik Krishnan as Global Chief Executive Officer". www.prnewswire.com. Retrieved 3 December 2018.
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- ^ a b Encyclopædia Britannica (14th ed.). 1954. p. 3.
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- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Kogan, Herman (1958). The Great EB: The Story of the Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. LCCN 58008379.
- ^ Arner, Robert D. (1991). Dobson's Encyclopaedia: The Publisher, Text, and Publication of America's First Britannica, 1789–1803. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-3092-5.
- ^ "Patriarch Revised". Time. XIV (13). 23 September 1929. pp. 66–69.
- ^ "A Completely New Encyclopaedia (sic) Britannica". Time. XIV (12). 16 September 1929. pp. 2–3.
- ^ a b Banquet at Guildhall in the City of London, Tuesday 15 October 1968: Celebrating the 200th Anniversary of the Encyclopædia Britannica and the 25th Anniversary of the Honorable William Benton as its Chair and publisher. United Kingdom: Encyclopædia Britannica International, Ltd. 1968.
- ^ "Reader". The New Yorker. 9. 3 March 1934. p. 17.
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- ^ Lang, JP (1992). Reference Sources for Small and Medium-Sized Libraries (5th ed.). Chicago: American Library Association. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-8389-3406-7.
- ^ Goetz, Philip W. (2007). "The New Encyclopædia Britannica". Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc (15th edition, Macropædia ed.). Bibcode:1991neb..book.....G.
- ^ a b Prescott, Peter S. (8 July 1974). "The Fifteenth Britannica". Newsweek. pp. 71–72.
- ^ a b
- Baker, John F. (14 January 1974). "A New Britannica Is Born". Publishers Weekly. pp. 64–65.
- Wolff, Geoffrey (June 1974). "Britannica 3, History of". The Atlantic. pp. 37–47.
- Cole, Dorothy Ethlyn (June 1974). "Britannica 3 as a Reference Tool: A Review". Wilson Library Bulletin. pp. 821–825.
Britannica 3 is difficult to use ... the division of content between Micropædia and Macropædia makes it necessary to consult another volume in the majority of cases; indeed, it was our experience that even simple searches might involve eight or nine volumes.
- Davis, Robert Gorham (1 December 1974). "Subject: The Universe". The New York Times Book Review. pp. 98–100.
- Hazo, Robert G. (9 March 1975). "The Guest Word". The New York Times Book Review. p. 31.
- McCracken, Samuel (February 1976). "The Scandal of 'Britannica 3'". Commentary. pp. 63–68.
This arrangement has nothing to recommend it except commercial novelty.
- Waite, Dennis V. (21 June 1976). "Encyclopædia Britannica: EB 3, Two Years Later". Publishers Weekly. pp. 44–45.
- Wolff, Geoffrey (November 1976). "Britannica 3, Failures of". The Atlantic. pp. 107–110.
It is called the Micropædia, for 'little knowledge', and little knowledge is what it provides. It has proved to be grotesquely inadequate as an index, radically constricting the utility of the Macropædia.
- ^ Einbinder, Harvey (1964). The Myth of the Britannica. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-384-14050-9.
- ^ "Schoolboy spots errors in Encyclopaedia Britannica". The Guardian. 26 January 2005. Retrieved 10 April 2021.
- ^ Cunningham, Grainne (3 February 2010). "Britannica errors spark unholy row". Irish Independent. Retrieved 30 August 2010.
- ^ Sheehy, Clodagh (4 February 2010). "Are they taking the Mick? It's the encyclopedia that thinks the Civil War was between the north and south". Evening Herald (Dublin).
- ^ Supplement to the Encyclopædia or Dictionary of Arts, Sciences and Miscellaneous Literature. 1803. pp. iv.
- ^ Stockwell, Foster. A History of Information Storage and Retrieval. p. 116.
- ^ William Smellie in the Preface to the 1st edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ Day, Peter (17 December 1997). "Encyclopaedia Britannica changes to survive". BBC News. Retrieved 27 March 2007.
Sales plummeted from 100,000 a year to just 20,000.
- ^ "Encyclopedias and Dictionaries". Encyclopædia Britannica. 18 (15th ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2007. pp. 257–286.
- ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. 9 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 377.
- ^ @Britannica (6 December 2017). "Our early history is described in our "Encyclopædia Britannica" entry:" (Tweet). Retrieved 6 December 2017 – via Twitter. "Encyclopædia Britannica"
- ^ Herman, Arthur (2002). How the Scots Invented the Modern World. Three Rivers Press. ISBN 978-0-609-80999-0.
- ^ Krapp, Philip; Balou, Patricia K. (1992). Collier's Encyclopedia. 9. New York: Macmillan Educational Company. p. 135. LCCN 91061165. The Britannica's 1st edition is described as "deplorably inaccurate and unscientific" in places.
- ^ Frank Kafker; Jeff Loveland, eds. (2009). The Early Britannica. Oxford University Press.
- ^ Cousin, John William (1910), "Baynes, Thomas Spencer", A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature, London: J. M. Dent & Sons – via Wikisource
- ^ Baynes, T. S., ed. (1878). . Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (9th ed.). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
- ^ Baynes, T. S., ed. (1875–1889). . Encyclopædia Britannica (9th ed.). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
- ^ Chicago Tribune, 22 February 1945
- ^ Chicago Tribune, 28 January 1943
- ^ Feder, Barnaby J. (19 December 1995). "Deal Is Set for Encyclopaedia Britannica". The New York Times. Retrieved 2 May 2020.
- ^ Mortimer J. Adler, A Guidebook to Learning: for the lifelong pursuit of wisdom. Macmillan Publishing Company, New York, 1986, p. 88
- ^ "In the Matter of Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. et al" (PDF). pp. 421–541.
- ^ Pepitone, Julianne (13 March 2012). "Encyclopedia Britannica to stop printing books". CNN. Retrieved 14 March 2012.
- ^ "The new Children's Britannica: a fantastic voyage through the history of the world". www.telegraph.co.uk.
- ^ "Why printed encyclopedias for children are more important than ever". The Independent. 19 November 2020.
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1910. p. 3.
- ^ Goetz, Philip W. (1991). "The New Encyclopædia Britannica". Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc (15th edition, Propædia ed.): 3. Bibcode:1991neb..book.....G.
- ^ The New Encyclopædia Britannica, Propædia: Outline of Knowledge and Guide to the Britannica, 15th edition, 2010.
- ^ Kafker & Loveland (2009), p. 22.
- ^ Kafker & Loveland (2009), p. 58.
- ^ "Encyclopedia". Britannica. Volume 8 (14th ed.). p. 374.
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has extra text (help) - ^ Baynes, T. S., ed. (1878). "Encyclopedia". Encyclopædia Britannica. 8 (9th ed.). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
- ^ "Encyclopedia". Britannica. Volume 8 (14th ed.). p. 376.
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has extra text (help) - ^ a b Encyclopædia Britannica (15th ed.). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. interior flap. Missing or empty
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дальнейшее чтение
- Boyles, Denis. (2016) Everything Explained That Is Explainable: On the Creation of the Encyclopædia Britannica's Celebrated Eleventh Edition, 1910–1911 (2016) online review
- Einbinder, Harvey (1964). The Myth of the Britannica. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-384-14050-9.
- Greenstein, Shane, and Michelle Devereux (2006). "The Crisis at Encyclopædia Britannica" case history, Kellogg School of Management, Northwestern University.
- Jacobs, Arnold Stephen, Jr. (2004). The Know-It-All: One Man's Humble Quest to Become the Smartest Person in the World. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-5062-7.
- Kister, Kenneth F. (1994). Kister's Best Encyclopedias: A Comparative Guide to General and Specialized Encyclopedias (2nd ed.). Phoenix, Arizona: Oryx Press. ISBN 978-0-89774-744-8.
- Kogan, Herman (1958). The Great EB: The Story of the Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. LCCN 58008379.
- Lee, Timothy. Techdirt Interviews Britannica President Jorge Cauz, Techdirt.com, 2 June 2008
Внешние ссылки
- Official website
- Works by or about Encyclopædia Britannica at Internet Archive
- Works by Encyclopædia Britannica at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Encyclopaedia Britannica at the National Library of Scotland, first ten editions (and supplements) in PDF format.
- Encyclopaedia Britannica at the Online Books Page, currently including the 1st, 3rd, 4th, 6th and 11th editions in multiple formats.
- 3rd edition, (1797, first volume, use search facility for others) at Bavarian State Library MDZ-Reader | Band | Encyclopaedia Britannica; or, a dictionary of arts, sciences, and miscellaneous literature | Encyclopaedia Britannica; or, a dictionary of arts, sciences, and miscellaneous literature
- 7th edition (1842), fulltext via Hathi Trust
- 8th edition (1860, index volume, use search facility for others) at Bavarian State Library MDZ-Reader | Band | The Encyclopaedia Britannica, or Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature | The Encyclopaedia Britannica, or Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature
- Scribner's 9th Edition (1878) archive.org
- 9th and 10th (1902) editions 1902Encyclopedia.com