Портал: подводное плавание

Темы портала: Деятельность; Культура; География; Здоровье; История; Математика; Природа; Люди; Философия; Религия; Общество; Технологии; Случайный портал

Подводное плавание

Пузырьки выдыхаемого воздуха поднимаются на рифе Giant's Castle, Miller's Point, Южная Африка

Определение темы

Подводный дайвинг можно описать следующим образом:

Человеческая деятельность- преднамеренная, целенаправленная, осознанная и субъективно значимая последовательность действий. Подводное ныряние практикуется как часть занятия или отдыха, когда практикующий погружается под поверхность воды или другой жидкости на период, который может варьироваться от секунд до порядка суток за раз, либо при воздействии окружающей среды. давление или изоляция с помощью устойчивого к давлению костюма, для взаимодействия с подводной средой для удовольствия, соревновательного спорта или в качестве средства достижения места работы для получения прибыли или в поисках знаний, и может вообще не использовать никакого оборудования или диапазон оборудования, который может включать дыхательные аппараты, защитную одежду для окружающей среды, вспомогательные средства зрения, средства связи, движение, маневренность, плавучесть и оборудование для обеспечения безопасности, а также инструменты для выполнения поставленных задач.

Объем портала

Объем этого портала включает в себя технологии, поддерживающие дайвинг, физиологические и медицинские аспекты дайвинга, навыки и процедуры дайвинга, а также обучение и регистрацию дайверов, подводные занятия, которые в некоторой степени зависят от дайвинга, экономически, коммерчески, безопасно. , а также правовые аспекты дайвинга, биографические данные известных дайверов, изобретателей и производителей оборудования, связанного с дайвингом, и исследователей, занимающихся дайвингом.

Введение в подводное плавание

Водолазы с надводным снабжением едут со сцены к подводному месту

Подводное плавание как деятельность человека - это практика погружения под поверхность воды для взаимодействия с окружающей средой. Погружение в воду и воздействие высокого давления окружающей среды имеют физиологические эффекты, которые ограничивают глубину и продолжительностьпогружений,возможных при погружениях с давлением окружающей среды . Люди физиологически и анатомически не адаптированы к условиям окружающей среды, в которых они живут, и было разработано различное оборудование для увеличения глубины и продолжительности погружений человека, а также для выполнения различных видов работы.

При погружении под давлением окружающей среды дайвер напрямую подвергается давлению окружающей воды. Водолаз, работающий под давлением окружающей среды, может нырять на задержке дыхания или использовать дыхательный аппарат для подводного плавания с аквалангом или с поверхности , а метод погружения с насыщением снижает риск декомпрессионной болезни (ДКБ) после длительных глубоких погружений. Атмосферные водолазные костюмы (ADS) могут использоваться для изоляции дайвера от высокого давления окружающей среды. Подводные аппараты с экипажем могут увеличивать диапазон глубин, а дистанционно управляемые или роботизированные машины могут снизить риск для людей.

Окружающая среда подвергает дайвера широкому спектру опасностей, и хотя риски в значительной степени контролируются соответствующими навыками дайвинга , обучением , типами оборудования и дыхательными газами.При использовании в зависимости от режима, глубины и цели погружения он остается относительно опасным занятием. Профессиональный дайвинг обычно регулируется законодательством о безопасности и гигиене труда, в то время как рекреационный дайвинг может вообще не регулироваться. Дайвинг ограничен максимальной глубиной около 40 метров (130 футов) для развлекательного подводного плавания с аквалангом, 530 метров (1740 футов) для коммерческого погружения с насыщением и 610 метров (2000 футов) в атмосферных костюмах. Дайвинг также ограничен условиями, которые не являются чрезмерно опасными, хотя допустимый уровень риска может варьироваться.

Рекреационный дайвинг (иногда его называют спортивным дайвингом или подводным плаванием) является популярным видом отдыха. Технический дайвинг - это разновидность любительского дайвинга в особо сложных условиях. Профессиональный дайвинг (коммерческий дайвинг, дайвинг в исследовательских целях или для получения финансовой выгоды) предполагает работу под водой. Дайвинг в целях общественной безопасности - это подводная работа, выполняемая правоохранительными органами, пожарно-спасательными службами и группами подводных поисково-спасательных дайверов. Военный водолазный дайвинг включает боевое ныряние, клиренс и содержание судов . Глубоководный дайвинг - это подводное плавание, обычно с надводным оборудованием, и часто подразумевает использованиестандартная водолазная форма с традиционным медным шлемом. Каски плавание любая форма подводного плавания с шлемом , в том числе стандартный медный шлем, и другие формы свободного потока и легких шлемов спроса . История дайвинга на задержке дыхания восходит, по крайней мере, к классическим временам, и есть свидетельства доисторической охоты и сбора морепродуктов, которые могли быть связаны с подводным плаванием. Технические достижения, позволяющие подавать водолазу для дыхания под водой при атмосферном давлении, появились недавно, а автономные дыхательные системы развивались ускоренными темпами после Второй мировой войны . ( Полная статья ... )

Как пользоваться этим порталом

Есть несколько способов найти контент в Википедии.
Если у вас есть полезная строка для поиска, поиск в Google весьма эффективен.
Поиск в Википедии приведет вас прямо к статье, если вы знаете точное название или если в Википедии есть перенаправление на статью. Он также предложит другие статьи в Википедии, которые могут иметь отношение к вашим критериям поиска.
Поле навигации внизу страниц, относящихся к проекту, содержит ссылки на перечисленные статьи. (В настоящее время недоступно для мобильных устройств).
Если вам нужен список статей в проекте, которые вы можете просматривать в поисках вдохновения, или узнаваемый заголовок статьи, то есть несколько других способов:
- Схема подводного плавания - это иерархический список всех статей, который не всегда может быть актуальным.
- Указатель подводного плавания - это алфавитный список статей (также не всегда актуальный). В нем есть подиндексы для некоторых связанных групп статей, таких как:
  - Индекс рекреационных дайв-сайтов
  - Индекс подводных ныряльщиков
- Глоссарий терминов подводных водолазных алфавитный список терминов , часто используемых в дайвинге и их значение в этом контексте. Полезный справочник. Определение часто будет содержать ссылку на подробную основную статью или раздел статьи, посвященный данному термину. Если вы не можете найти термин и разумно уверен , что это термин , дайвинг общего пользования на английском языке, оставьте записку на странице обсуждения.
Категория: Подводное погружение и связанные подкатегории также должны содержать список всех статей, вероятно, в иерархической структуре, отличной от той, которая используется для навигационного окна и списка структуры. Иногда система категорий может быть более подходящей для поиска информации. Это также полезно для поддержки Википедии и отслеживания связности статей.
Если у вас есть неограниченное время и нет специальной цели, вы можете спуститься в кроличью нору - прочитайте корневую статью Подводное погружение и нажмите на любую ссылку, которая вам интересна. Читайте, пока не найдете другую интересную ссылку, и нажмите на нее, в противном случае нажмите стрелку в браузере, чтобы вернуться, и продолжайте. Остановитесь, когда реальность вторгается, или вам становится скучно, вы устали, хотите пить или вспыхивает пожар.
Ни одна из этих систем не является совершенной или законченной. Если вы обнаружите ошибку или упущение, сообщите нам об этом или исправьте, если знаете, как это сделать. Это краудсорсинговый проект - вы можете быть одним из многих.

Обновить, добавив новые элементы ниже (очистить)

Режимы дайвинга

Указатель режимов дайвинга

Водолаз Saturation работает над затонувшим кораблем USS Monitor на глубине 70 м (230 футов).

Погружение с насыщением - это погружение на периоды, достаточные для того, чтобы привести все ткани в равновесие с парциальным давлением инертных компонентов дыхательного газа. Это техника дайвинга, которая позволяет дайверам снизить риск декомпрессионной болезни («поворотов»), когда они работают на больших глубинах в течение длительных периодов времени, потому что после насыщения время декомпрессии не увеличивается с дальнейшим погружением. Водолазы с насыщением обычно дышат гелий-кислородной смесью, чтобы предотвратить азотный наркоз , но на небольших глубинах погружения с насыщением проводились на смесях найтрокса.

При погружении с насыщением дайверы живут в среде с повышенным давлением, которая может представлять собой систему насыщения на поверхности или среду обитания под водой с давлением окружающей среды, когда они не находятся в воде. Перемещение в жилые помещения с герметичной поверхностью и из них на эквивалентную глубину осуществляется в закрытом водолазном колпаке с избыточным давлением. Это может продолжаться до нескольких недель, и они сбрасываются до поверхностного давления только один раз, в конце срока службы. Ограничивая таким образом количество декомпрессий, значительно снижается риск декомпрессионной болезни и сводится к минимуму время, затрачиваемое на декомпрессию.

Это очень специализированный вид дайвинга; из 3300 коммерческих водолазов, нанятых в США в 2015 году, только 336 занимались насыщением. ( Полная статья ... )
Recreational scuba diver

Scuba diving is a mode of underwater diving where the diver uses a self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (scuba), which is completely independent of surface supply, to breathe underwater. Scuba divers carry their own source of breathing gas, usually compressed air, allowing them greater independence and freedom of movement than surface-supplied divers, and longer underwater endurance than breath-hold divers. Although the use of compressed air is common, a mixture of air and oxygen called enriched air or nitrox has become popular due to its benefit of reduced nitrogen intake during long or repetitive dives. Open circuit scuba systems discharge the breathing gas into the environment as it is exhaled, and consist of one or more diving cylinders containing breathing gas at high pressure which is supplied to the diver through a regulator. They may include additional cylinders for range extension, decompression gas or emergency breathing gas. Closed-circuit or semi-closed circuit rebreather scuba systems allow recycling of exhaled gases. The volume of gas used is reduced compared to that of open circuit, so a smaller cylinder or cylinders may be used for an equivalent dive duration. Rebreathers extend the time spent underwater compared to open circuit for the same gas consumption; they produce fewer bubbles and less noise than open circuit scuba which makes them attractive to covert military divers to avoid detection, scientific divers to avoid disturbing marine animals, and media divers to avoid bubble interference.

Scuba diving may be done recreationally or professionally in a number of applications, including scientific, military and public safety roles, but most commercial diving uses surface-supplied diving equipment when this is practicable. Scuba divers engaged in armed forces covert operations may be referred to as frogmen, combat divers or attack swimmers.

A scuba diver primarily moves underwater by using fins attached to the feet, but external propulsion can be provided by a diver propulsion vehicle, or a sled pulled from the surface. Other equipment needed for scuba diving includes a mask to improve underwater vision, exposure protection (ie: a wet suit or dry suit), equipment to control buoyancy, a diving regulator to control the pressure of breathing gas for diving, and equipment related to the specific circumstances and purpose of the dive. Some scuba divers use a snorkel when swimming on the surface. Scuba divers are trained in the procedures and skills appropriate to their level of certification by instructors affiliated to the diver certification organisations which issue these certifications. These include standard operating procedures for using the equipment and dealing with the general hazards of the underwater environment, and emergency procedures for self-help and assistance of a similarly equipped diver experiencing problems. A minimum level of fitness and health is required by most training organisations, but a higher level of fitness may be appropriate for some applications. (Full article...)
Freediver with monofin, ascending

Freediving, free-diving, free diving, breath-hold diving, or skin diving is a form of underwater diving that relies on breath-holding until resurfacing rather than the use of breathing apparatus such as scuba gear.

Besides the limits of breath-hold, immersion in water and exposure to high ambient pressure also have physiological effects that limit the depths and duration possible in freediving.

Examples of freediving activities are traditional fishing techniques, competitive and non-competitive freediving, competitive and non-competitive spearfishing and freediving photography, synchronised swimming, underwater football, underwater rugby, underwater hockey, underwater target shooting and snorkeling. There are also a range of "competitive apnea" disciplines; in which competitors attempt to attain great depths, times, or distances on a single breath.

Historically, the term free diving was also used to refer to scuba diving, due to the freedom of movement compared with surface supplied diving. (Full article...)
Atmospheric diving suit

An atmospheric diving suit (ADS) is a small one-person articulated anthropomorphic submersible which resembles a suit of armour, with elaborate pressure joints to allow articulation while maintaining an internal pressure of one atmosphere. The ADS can be used for very deep dives of up to 2,300 feet (700 m) for many hours, and eliminates the majority of significant physiological dangers associated with deep diving; the occupant need not decompress, there is no need for special gas mixtures, nor is there danger of decompression sickness or nitrogen narcosis. Divers do not even need to be skilled swimmers, but the disadvantage is limited dexterity.

Atmospheric diving suits in current use include the Newtsuit, Hardsuit and the WASP, all of which are self-contained hard suits that incorporate propulsion units. The hardsuit is constructed from cast aluminum (forged aluminum in a version constructed for the US Navy for submarine rescue); the upper hull is made from cast aluminum, while the bottom dome is machined aluminum. The WASP is of glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) body tube construction. (Full article...)
Surface-supplied diver at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California

Surface-supplied diving is diving using equipment supplied with breathing gas using a diver's umbilical from the surface, either from the shore or from a diving support vessel, sometimes indirectly via a diving bell. This is different from scuba diving, where the diver's breathing equipment is completely self-contained and there is no link to the surface. The primary advantages of conventional surface supplied diving are lower risk of drowning and considerably larger breathing gas supply than scuba, allowing longer working periods and safer decompression. Disadvantages are the absolute limitation on diver mobility imposed by the length of the umbilical, encumbrance by the umbilical, and high logistical and equipment costs compared with scuba. The disadvantages restrict use of this mode of diving to applications where the diver operates within a small area, which is common in commercial diving work.

The copper helmeted free-flow standard diving dress is the version which made commercial diving a viable occupation, and although still used in some regions, this heavy equipment has been superseded by lighter free-flow helmets, and to a large extent, lightweight demand helmets, band masks and full-face diving masks. Breathing gases used include air, heliox, nitrox and trimix.

Saturation diving is a mode of surface supplied diving in which the divers live under pressure in a saturation system or underwater habitat and are decompressed only at the end of a tour of duty.

Airline, or hookah diving, and "compressor diving" are lower technology variants also using a breathing air supply from the surface. (Full article...)
Surface-supplied divers riding a stage to the underwater workplace

Underwater diving, as a human activity, is the practice of descending below the water's surface to interact with the environment.
Immersion in water and exposure to high ambient pressure have physiological effects that limit the depths and duration possible in ambient pressure diving. Humans are not physiologically and anatomically well adapted to the environmental conditions of diving, and various equipment has been developed to extend the depth and duration of human dives, and allow different types of work to be done.

In ambient pressure diving, the diver is directly exposed to the pressure of the surrounding water. The ambient pressure diver may dive on breath-hold, or use breathing apparatus for scuba diving or surface-supplied diving, and the saturation diving technique reduces the risk of decompression sickness (DCS) after long-duration deep dives. Atmospheric diving suits (ADS) may be used to isolate the diver from high ambient pressure. Crewed submersibles can extend depth range, and remotely controlled or robotic machines can reduce risk to humans.

The environment exposes the diver to a wide range of hazards, and though the risks are largely controlled by appropriate diving skills, training, types of equipment and breathing gases used depending on the mode, depth and purpose of diving, it remains a relatively dangerous activity. Professional diving is usually regulated by occupational health and safety legislation, while recreational diving may be entirely unregulated.
Diving activities are restricted to maximum depths of about 40 metres (130 ft) for recreational scuba diving, 530 metres (1,740 ft) for commercial saturation diving, and 610 metres (2,000 ft) wearing atmospheric suits. Diving is also restricted to conditions which are not excessively hazardous, though the level of risk acceptable can vary.

Recreational diving (sometimes called sport diving or subaquatics) is a popular leisure activity. Technical diving is a form of recreational diving under especially challenging conditions. Professional diving (commercial diving, diving for research purposes, or for financial gain) involves working underwater. Public safety diving is the underwater work done by law enforcement, fire rescue, and underwater search and recovery dive teams. Military diving includes combat diving, clearance diving and ships husbandry.
Deep sea diving is underwater diving, usually with surface-supplied equipment, and often refers to the use of standard diving dress with the traditional copper helmet. Hard hat diving is any form of diving with a helmet, including the standard copper helmet, and other forms of free-flow and lightweight demand helmets.
The history of breath-hold diving goes back at least to classical times, and there is evidence of prehistoric hunting and gathering of seafoods that may have involved underwater swimming. Technical advances allowing the provision of breathing gas to a diver underwater at ambient pressure are recent, and self-contained breathing systems developed at an accelerated rate following the Second World War. (Full article...)

Дайвинг и вспомогательное оборудование

Указатель водолазного и вспомогательного оборудования

Обычный пояс для акваланга с быстроразъемной пряжкой

Система взвешивания для дайвинга - это балластный груз, добавляемый к водолазу или водолазному снаряжению для противодействия избыточной плавучести. Они могут использоваться дайверами или на таком оборудовании, как водолазные колокола, подводные аппараты или кожухи для камер.

Дайверы износ весовых систем Водолаза , вес пояса или вес , чтобы противодействовать плавучести другого водолазного снаряжения , такие , как гидрокостюм и алюминиевые водолазные цилиндры, и плавучесть водолаза. Аквалангист должен иметь достаточный вес, чтобы иметь небольшую отрицательную плавучесть в конце погружения, когда была использована большая часть дыхательного газа, и должен поддерживать нейтральную плавучесть на безопасных или обязательных декомпрессионных остановках. Во время погружения плавучесть регулируется путем регулировки объема воздуха в устройстве компенсации плавучести (BCD) и сухом костюме , если он надет.для достижения отрицательной, нейтральной или положительной плавучести по мере необходимости. Требуемый вес определяется максимальной общей положительной плавучестью полностью экипированного, но невзвешенного дайвера, ожидаемой во время погружения, с пустым компенсатором плавучести и обычно надутым сухим костюмом. Это зависит от массы и состава тела дайвера, плавучести другого надетого водолазного снаряжения (особенно гидрокостюма ), солености воды , веса потребляемого дыхательного газа и температуры воды. Обычно он находится в диапазоне от 2 кг (4,4 фунта) до 15 кг (33 фунта). Вес можно распределить, чтобы настроить дайвера в соответствии с целями погружения.

Водолазы с поверхностным питанием могут иметь более тяжелый вес для облегчения подводной работы и могут быть не в состоянии достичь нейтральной плавучести и полагаться на водолазную площадку, колокол, шлангокабель, спасательный трос, швартовку или швартовку для возвращения на поверхность.

Фри-дайверы также могут использовать утяжелители для снижения плавучести гидрокостюма. Однако они с большей вероятностью будут весить для получения нейтральной плавучести на определенной глубине, и их взвешивание должно учитывать не только сжатие костюма с глубиной, но также сжатие воздуха в их легких и, как следствие, потерю плавучести. . Поскольку у них нет необходимости в декомпрессии, им не нужно сохранять нейтральную плавучесть у поверхности в конце погружения.

Если у грузов есть метод быстрого освобождения, они могут стать полезным механизмом спасения: их можно сбросить в экстренной ситуации, чтобы обеспечить мгновенное увеличение плавучести, которое должно вернуть дайвера на поверхность. Падение веса увеличивает риск баротравмы и декомпрессионной болезни.из-за возможности неконтролируемого всплытия на поверхность. Этот риск может быть оправдан только тогда, когда чрезвычайная ситуация опасна для жизни или риск декомпрессионной болезни невелик, как в случае фридайвинга и подводного плавания с аквалангом, когда глубина погружения намного ниже бездекомпрессионного предела. Часто дайверы очень внимательно следят за тем, чтобы грузы не упали случайно, и дайверы с тяжелым весом могут расположить свои грузы так, чтобы отдельные части общего веса можно было сбрасывать индивидуально, что позволяет несколько более контролируемое аварийное всплытие.

Гири обычно изготавливаются из свинца из-за его высокой плотности , относительно низкой стоимости, простоты литья в подходящие формы и устойчивости к коррозии.. Свинец можно отливать в блоки, литые формы с прорезями для ремней или в форме гранул, известных как « дробь », и переносить в мешках. Есть некоторые опасения, но мало свидетельств того, что свинцовые гири для ныряния могут представлять токсическую опасность для пользователей и окружающей среды. ( Полная статья ... )
Snorkeler wearing a clear silicone diving mask

A diving mask (also half mask, dive mask or scuba mask) is an item of diving equipment that allows underwater divers, including scuba divers, free-divers, and snorkelers, to see clearly underwater. Surface supplied divers usually use a full face mask or diving helmet, but in some systems the half mask may be used. When the human eye is in direct contact with water as opposed to air, its normal environment, light entering the eye is refracted by a different angle and the eye is unable to focus the light on the retina. By providing an air space in front of the eyes, the eye is able to focus nearly normally. The shape of the air space in the mask slightly affects the ability to focus. Corrective lenses can be fitted to the inside surface of the viewport or contact lenses may be worn inside the mask to allow normal vision for people with focusing defects.

When the diver descends, the ambient pressure rises, and it becomes necessary to equalise the pressure inside the mask with the external ambient pressure to avoid the barotrauma known as mask squeeze, This is done by allowing sufficient air to flow out through the nose into the mask to relieve the pressure difference. This requires the nose to be included in the airspace of the mask. Equalisation during ascent is automatic as excess air inside the mask easily leaks out past the seal.

A wide range of viewport shapes and internal volumes are available, and each design will generally fit some shapes of face better than others. A good comfortable fit and a reliable seal around the edges of the rubber skirt is important to the correct function of the mask.
Nine national and international standards relating to diving masks are known to exist: British standard BS 4532:1969 (amended 1977); USSR and CIS standard GOST 20568:1975 (Active); German standard DIN 7877:1980; Polish Industry Standard BN-82/8444-17.01 (Active). American national standard ANSI Z87.11:1985 (Active); Austrian standard ÖNORM S 4225:1988; Chinese national standard CNS 12497:1989 (Active); Chinese national standard CNS 12498:1989 (Active); and European standard EN 16805:2015 (Active). (Full article...)
Diving regulator: First and second stages, low pressure inflator hose and submersible pressure gauge

A diving regulator is a pressure regulator that controls the pressure of breathing gas for diving. The most commonly recognised application is to reduce pressurized breathing gas to ambient pressure and deliver it to the diver, but there are also other types of gas pressure regulator used for diving applications. The gas may be air or one of a variety of specially blended breathing gases. The gas may be supplied from a scuba cylinder carried by the diver or via a hose from a compressor or high-pressure storage cylinders at the surface in surface-supplied diving. A gas pressure regulator has one or more valves in series which reduce pressure from the source, and use the downstream pressure as feedback to control the delivered pressure, or the upstream pressure as feedback to prevent excessive flow rates, lowering the pressure at each stage.

The terms "regulator" and "demand valve" are often used interchangeably, but a demand valve is the final stage pressure-reduction regulator that delivers gas only while the diver is inhaling and reduces the gas pressure to approximately ambient. In single-hose regulators, the demand valve is either held in the diver's mouth by a mouthpiece or attached to the full-face mask or helmet. In twin-hose regulators the demand valve is included in the body of the regulator which is usually attached directly to the cylinder valve or manifold outlet, with a remote mouthpiece supplied at ambient pressure.

A pressure-reduction regulator is used to control the delivery pressure of the gas supplied to a free-flow helmet or full-face mask, in which the flow is continuous, to maintain the downstream pressure which is provided by the ambient pressure of the exhaust and the flow resistance of the delivery system (mainly the umbilical and exhaust valve) and not much influenced by the breathing of the diver. Diving rebreather systems may also use regulators to control the flow of fresh gas, and demand valves, known as automatic diluent valves, to maintain the volume in the breathing loop during descent. Gas reclaim systems and built-in breathing systems (BIBS) use a different kind of regulator to control the flow of exhaled gas to the return hose and through the topside reclaim system, these are of the back-pressure regulator class.

The performance of a regulator is measured by the cracking pressure and added mechanical work of breathing, and the capacity to deliver breathing gas at peak inspiratory flow rate at high ambient pressures without excessive pressure drop, and without excessive dead space. For some cold water diving applications the capacity to deliver high flow rates at low ambient temperatures without jamming due to regulator freezing is important. (Full article...)
Typical Nitrox cylinder marking

Nitrox refers to any gas mixture composed (excepting trace gases) of nitrogen and oxygen. This includes atmospheric air, which is approximately 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% other gases, primarily argon. In the usual application, underwater diving, nitrox is normally distinguished from air and handled differently. The most common use of nitrox mixtures containing oxygen in higher proportions than atmospheric air is in scuba diving, where the reduced partial pressure of nitrogen is advantageous in reducing nitrogen uptake in the body's tissues, thereby extending the practicable underwater dive time by reducing the decompression requirement, or reducing the risk of decompression sickness (also known as the bends).

Nitrox is used to a lesser extent in surface-supplied diving, as these advantages are reduced by the more complex logistical requirements for nitrox compared to the use of simple low-pressure compressors for breathing gas supply. Nitrox can also be used in hyperbaric treatment of decompression illness, usually at pressures where pure oxygen would be hazardous. Nitrox is not a safer gas than compressed air in all respects; although its use can reduce the risk of decompression sickness, it increases the risk of oxygen toxicity and fire.

Though not generally referred to as nitrox, an oxygen-enriched air mixture is routinely provided at normal surface ambient pressure as oxygen therapy to patients with compromised respiration and circulation. (Full article...)
A pair of demand valves fitted to a scuba regulator

In underwater diving, an alternative air source, or more generally alternative breathing gas source, is a secondary supply of air or other breathing gas for use by the diver in an emergency. Examples include an auxiliary demand valve, a pony bottle and bailout bottle.

An alternative air source may be fully redundant (completely independent of any part of the main air supply system) or non-redundant, if it can be compromised by any failure of the main air supply. From the diver's point of view, air supplied by a buddy or rescue diver is fully redundant, as it is unaffected by the diver's own air supply in any way, but a second regulator on a double cylinder valve or a secondary demand valve (octopus) is not redundant to the diver carrying it, as it is attached to his or her main air supply. Decompression gas can be considered an alternative gas supply only when the risk of breathing it at the current depth is acceptable.

Effective use of any alternate air source requires competence in the associated skill set. The procedures for receiving air from another diver or from one's own equipment are most effective and least likely to result in a life-threatening incident if well trained to the extent that they do not distract the diver from other essential matters. A major difference from buddy breathing is that the diver using a redundant alternative air source need not alternate breathing with the donor, which can be a substantial advantage in many circumstances. There is a further significant advantage when the alternate air source is carried by the diver using it, in that it is not necessary to locate the buddy before it is available, but this comes at the cost of extra equipment. (Full article...)
Surface supplied diver on diving stage

There are several categories of decompression equipment used to help divers decompress, which is the process required to allow divers to return to the surface safely after spending time underwater at higher pressures.

Decompression obligation for a given dive profile must be calculated and monitored to ensure that the risk of decompression sickness is controlled. Some equipment is specifically for these functions, both during planning before the dive and during the dive. Other equipment is used to mark the underwater position of the diver, as a position reference in low visibility or currents, or to assist the diver's ascent and control the depth.

Decompression may be shortened (or accelerated) by breathing an oxygen-rich "decompression gas" such as a nitrox blend or pure oxygen. The high partial pressure of oxygen in such decompression mixes produces the effect known as the oxygen window. This decompression gas is often carried by scuba divers in side-slung cylinders. Cave divers who can only return by a single route, can leave decompression gas cylinders attached to the guideline at the points where they will be used. Surface-supplied divers will have the composition of the breathing gas controlled at the gas panel.

Divers with long decompression obligations may be decompressed inside gas filled hyperbaric chambers in the water or at the surface, and in the extreme case, saturation divers are only decompressed at the end of a tour of duty that may be several weeks long. (Full article...)
Israeli Navy Underwater Missions Unit transfers equipment using lifting-bags

A lifting bag is an item of diving equipment consisting of a robust and air-tight bag with straps, which is used to lift heavy objects underwater by means of the bag's buoyancy. The heavy object can either be moved horizontally underwater by the diver or sent unaccompanied to the surface.

Lift bag appropriate capacity should match the task at hand. If the lift bag is grossly oversized a runaway or otherwise out of control ascent may result. Commercially available lifting bags may incorporate dump valves to allow the operator to control the buoyancy during ascent, but this is a hazardous operation with high risk of entanglement in an uncontrolled lift or sinking. If a single bag is insufficient, multiple bags may be used, and should be distributed to suit the load.

There are also lifting bags used on land as short lift jacks for lifting cars or heavy loads or lifting bags which are used in machines as a type of pneumatic actuator which provides load over a large area. These lifting bags of the AS/CR type are for example used in the brake mechanism of rollercoasters. (Full article...)
Diving cylinders to be filled at a diving air compressor station

A diving cylinder, scuba tank or diving tank is a gas cylinder used to store and transport the high pressure breathing gas required by a scuba set. It may also be used for surface-supplied diving or as decompression gas or an emergency gas supply for surface supplied diving or scuba. Cylinders provide gas to the diver through the demand valve of a diving regulator or the breathing loop of a diving rebreather.

Diving cylinders are usually manufactured from aluminium or steel alloys, and are normally fitted with one of two common types of cylinder valve for filling and connection to the regulator. Other accessories such as manifolds, cylinder bands, protective nets and boots and carrying handles may be provided. Various configurations of harness may be used to carry the cylinder or cylinders while diving, depending on the application. Cylinders used for scuba typically have an internal volume (known as water capacity) of between 3 and 18 litres (0.11 and 0.64 cu ft) and a maximum working pressure rating from 184 to 300 bars (2,670 to 4,350 psi). Cylinders are also available in smaller sizes, such as 0.5, 1.5 and 2 litres, however these are often used for purposes such as inflation of surface marker buoys, drysuits and buoyancy compensators rather than breathing. Scuba divers may dive with a single cylinder, a pair of similar cylinders, or a main cylinder and a smaller "pony" cylinder, carried on the diver's back or clipped onto the harness at the sides. Paired cylinders may be manifolded together or independent. In some cases, more than two cylinders are needed.

When pressurised, a cylinder carries an equivalent volume of free gas greater than its water capacity, because the gas is compressed up to several hundred times atmospheric pressure. The selection of an appropriate set of diving cylinders for a diving operation is based on the amount of gas required to safely complete the dive. Diving cylinders are most commonly filled with air, but because the main components of air can cause problems when breathed underwater at higher ambient pressure, divers may choose to breathe from cylinders filled with mixtures of gases other than air. Many jurisdictions have regulations that govern the filling, recording of contents, and labelling for diving cylinders. Periodic inspection and testing of cylinders is often obligatory to ensure the safety of operators of filling stations. Pressurised diving cylinders are considered dangerous goods for commercial transportation, and regional and international standards for colouring and labelling may also apply. (Full article...)
Line Arrow Marker

In cave (and occasionally wreck) diving, line markers are used for orientation as a visual and tactile reference on a permanent guideline. Directional markers (commonly a notched acute isosceles triangle in basic outline), are also known as line arrows or Dorff arrows, and point the way to an exit. Line arrows may mark the location of a "jump" location in a cave when two are placed adjacent to each other. Two adjacent arrows facing away from each other, mark a point in the cave where the diver is equidistant from two exits. Arrow direction can be identified by feel in low visibility.

Non-directional markers ("cookies") are purely personal markers that mark specific spots, or the direction of one's chosen exit at line intersections where there are options. Their shape does not provide a tactile indication of direction as this could cause confusion in low visibility. One important reason to be adequately trained before cave diving is that incorrect marking can confuse and fatally endanger not only oneself, but also other divers. (Full article...)
A liveaboard dive boat on the Similan Islands, Thailand

A dive boat is a boat that recreational divers or professional scuba divers use to reach a dive site which they could not conveniently reach by swimming from the shore. Dive boats may be propelled by wind or muscle power, but are usually powered by internal combustion engines. Some features, like convenient access from the water, are common to all dive boats, while others depend on the specific application or region where they are used. The vessel may be extensively modified to make it fit for purpose, or may be used without much adaptation if it is already usable.

Dive boats may simply transport divers and their equipment to and from the dive site for a single dive, or may provide longer term support and shelter for day trips or periods of several consecutive days. Deployment of divers may be while moored, at anchor, or under way, (also known as live-boating or live-boat diving). There are a range of specialised procedures for boat diving, which include water entry and exit, avoiding injury by the dive boat, and keeping the dive boat crew aware of the location of the divers in the water.

There are also procedures used by the boat crew, to avoid injuring the divers in the water, keeping track of where they are during a dive, recalling the divers in an emergency, and ensuring that none are left behind. (Full article...)
Filling a spare air bailout cylinder

A bailout bottle (BoB) or, more formally, bailout cylinder is a scuba cylinder carried by an underwater diver for use as an emergency supply of breathing gas in the event of a primary gas supply failure. A bailout cylinder may be carried by a scuba diver in addition to the primary scuba set, or by a surface supplied diver using either free-flow or demand systems. The bailout gas is not intended for use during the dive except in an emergency. The term may refer to just the cylinder, or the bailout set or emergency gas supply (EGS), which is the cylinder with the gas delivery system attached. The bailout set or bailout system is the combination of the emergency gas cylinder with the gas delivery system to the diver, which includes a diving regulator with either a demand valve, a bailout block, or a bailout valve (BOV).

In solo diving, a buddy bottle is a bailout cylinder carried as a substitute for an emergency gas supply from a diving buddy.

Rebreathers also have bailout systems, often including an open-circuit bailout bottle. (Full article...)
Surface supplied commercial diving equipment on display at a trade show

Diving equipment is equipment used by underwater divers to make diving activities possible, easier, safer and/or more comfortable. This may be equipment primarily intended for this purpose, or equipment intended for other purposes which is found to be suitable for diving use.

The fundamental item of diving equipment used by divers is underwater breathing apparatus, such as scuba equipment, and surface-supplied diving equipment, but there are other important pieces of equipment that make diving safer, more convenient or more efficient. Diving equipment used by recreational scuba divers is mostly personal equipment carried by the diver, but professional divers, particularly when operating in the surface supplied or saturation mode, use a large amount of support equipment not carried by the diver.

Equipment which is used for underwater work or other activities which is not directly related to the activity of diving, or which has not been designed or modified specifically for underwater use by divers is excluded. (Full article...)
Offshore support vessel Toisa Perseus with, in the background, the fifth-generation deepwater drillship Discoverer Enterprise, over the Thunder Horse Oil Field. Both are equipped with DP systems.

Dynamic positioning (DP) is a computer-controlled system to automatically maintain a vessel's position and heading by using its own propellers and thrusters. Position reference sensors, combined with wind sensors, motion sensors and gyrocompasses, provide information to the computer pertaining to the vessel's position and the magnitude and direction of environmental forces affecting its position. Examples of vessel types that employ DP include, but are not limited to, ships and semi-submersible mobile offshore drilling units (MODU), oceanographic research vessels, cable layer ships and cruise ships.

The computer program contains a mathematical model of the vessel that includes information pertaining to the wind and current drag of the vessel and the location of the thrusters. This knowledge, combined with the sensor information, allows the computer to calculate the required steering angle and thruster output for each thruster. This allows operations at sea where mooring or anchoring is not feasible due to deep water, congestion on the sea bottom (pipelines, templates) or other problems.

Dynamic positioning may either be absolute in that the position is locked to a fixed point over the bottom, or relative to a moving object like another ship or an underwater vehicle. One may also position the ship at a favorable angle towards wind, waves and current, called weathervaning.

Dynamic positioning is used by much of the offshore oil industry, for example in the North Sea, Persian Gulf, Gulf of Mexico, West Africa, and off the coast of Brazil. There are currently more than 1800 DP ships. (Full article...)
Trimix scuba cylinder label

A breathing gas is a mixture of gaseous chemical elements and compounds used for respiration. Air is the most common, and only natural, breathing gas. But other mixtures of gases, or pure oxygen, are also used in breathing equipment and enclosed habitats such as scuba equipment, surface supplied diving equipment, recompression chambers, high-altitude mountaineering, high-flying aircraft, submarines, space suits, spacecraft, medical life support and first aid equipment, and anaesthetic machines.

Oxygen is the essential component for any breathing gas, at a partial pressure of between roughly 0.16 and 1.60 bar at the ambient pressure. The oxygen is usually the only metabolically active component unless the gas is an anaesthetic mixture. Some of the oxygen in the breathing gas is consumed by the metabolic processes, and the inert components are unchanged, and serve mainly to dilute the oxygen to an appropriate concentration, and are therefore also known as diluent gases. Most breathing gases therefore are a mixture of oxygen and one or more inert gases. Other breathing gases have been developed to improve on the performance of ordinary air by reducing the risk of decompression sickness, reducing the duration of decompression stops, reducing nitrogen narcosis or allowing safer deep diving.

A safe breathing gas for hyperbaric use has three essential features:
- It must contain sufficient oxygen to support life, consciousness and work rate of the breather.
- It must not contain harmful contaminants. Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are common poisons which may contaminate breathing gases. There are many other possibilities.
- It must not become toxic when being breathed at high pressure such as when underwater. Oxygen and nitrogen are examples of gases that become toxic under pressure.
The techniques used to fill diving cylinders with gases other than air are called gas blending.

Breathing gases for use at ambient pressures below normal atmospheric pressure are usually air enriched with oxygen to provide sufficient oxygen to maintain life and consciousness, or to allow higher levels of exertion than would be possible using air. It is common to provide the additional oxygen as a pure gas added to the breathing air at inhalation, or though a life-support system. (Full article...)
Two divers, one wearing a 1 atmosphere diving suit and the other standard diving dress, preparing to explore the wreck of the RMS Lusitania, 1935

A diving suit is a garment or device designed to protect a diver from the underwater environment. A diving suit may also incorporate a breathing gas supply (i.e. Standard diving dress or atmospheric diving suit). but in most cases applies only to the environmental protective covering worn by the diver. The breathing gas supply is usually referred to separately. There is no generic term for the combination of suit and breathing apparatus alone. It is generally referred to as diving equipment or dive gear along with any other equipment necessary for the dive.

Diving suits can be divided into two classes: "soft" or ambient pressure diving suits – examples are wetsuits, dry suits, semi-dry suits and dive skins – and "hard" or atmospheric pressure diving suits, armored suits that keep the diver at atmospheric pressure at any depth within the operating range of the suit. (Full article...)

Дайвинг процедуры

Указатель дайвинг-процедур

Дайвер с аквалангом в горном озере Лай-да-Марморера ( 1680 метров над уровнем моря)

Высотный дайвинг - это подводное плавание с аквалангом или водолазным снаряжением, поставляемым с поверхности, где поверхность находится на высоте 300 метров (980 футов) или более над уровнем моря (например, в горном озере). Высота важна для погружений, поскольку она влияет на требования к декомпрессии для погружения, поэтому глубины остановки и время декомпрессии, используемые для погружений на высоте, отличаются от тех, которые используются для того же профиля погружения.на уровне моря. Таблицы ВМС США рекомендуют не делать никаких изменений для погружений на высоте менее 91 метра (299 футов), а для погружений на глубину от 91 до 300 метров требуется корректировка для погружений на глубину более 44 метров (144 футов) в морской воде. Компьютеры декомпрессии, произведенные в последнее время, могут автоматически компенсировать высоту. ( Полная статья ... )
A decompression dive may require the use of more than one gas mixture

Scuba gas planning is the aspect of dive planning which deals with the calculation or estimation of the amounts and mixtures of gases to be used for a planned dive profile. It usually assumes that the dive profile, including decompression, is known, but the process may be iterative, involving changes to the dive profile as a consequence of the gas requirement calculation, or changes to the gas mixtures chosen. Use of calculated reserves based on planned dive profile and estimated gas consumption rates rather than an arbitrary pressure is sometimes referred to as rock bottom gas management. The purpose of gas planning is to ensure that for all reasonably foreseeable contingencies, the divers of a team have sufficient breathing gas to safely return to a place where more breathing gas is available. In almost all cases this will be the surface.

Gas planning includes the following aspects:
- Choice of breathing gases
- Choice of Scuba configuration
- Estimation of gas required for the planned dive, including bottom gas, travel gas, and decompression gases, as appropriate to the profile.
- Estimation of gas quantities for reasonably foreseeable contingencies. Under stress it is likely that a diver will increase breathing rate and decrease swimming speed. Both of these lead to a higher gas consumption during an emergency exit or ascent.
- Choice of cylinders to carry the required gases. Each cylinder volume and working pressure must be sufficient to contain the required quantity of gas.
- Calculation of the pressures for each of the gases in each of the cylinders to provide the required quantities.
- Specifying the critical pressures of relevant gas mixtures for appropriate stages (waypoints) of the planned dive profile.
Gas planning is one of the stages of scuba gas management. The other stages include:
- Knowledge of personal and team members' gas consumption rates under varying conditions
  basic consumption at the surface for variations in workload
  variation in consumption due to depth variation
  variation in consumption due to dive conditions and personal physical and mental condition
- Monitoring the contents of the cylinders during a dive
- Awareness of the critical pressures and using them to manage the dive
- Efficient use of the available gas during the planned dive and during an emergency
- Limiting the risk of equipment malfunctions that could cause a loss of breathing gas
(Full article...)
Saturation diver working on the USS Monitor wreck at 70 m (230 ft) depth.

Saturation diving is diving for periods long enough to bring all tissues into equilibrium with the partial pressures of the inert components of the breathing gas. It is a diving technique that allows divers to reduce the risk of decompression sickness ("the bends") when they work at great depths for long periods of time because once saturated, decompression time does not increase with further exposure. Saturation divers typically breathe a helium–oxygen mixture to prevent nitrogen narcosis, but at shallow depths saturation diving has been done on nitrox mixtures.

In saturation diving, the divers live in a pressurized environment, which can be a saturation system on the surface, or an ambient pressure underwater habitat when not in the water. Transfer to and from the pressurised surface living quarters to the equivalent depth is done in a closed, pressurised diving bell. This may be maintained for up to several weeks, and they are decompressed to surface pressure only once, at the end of their tour of duty. By limiting the number of decompressions in this way, the risk of decompression sickness is significantly reduced, and the time spent decompressing is minimised.

It is a very specialized form of diving; of the 3,300 commercial divers employed in the United States in 2015, only 336 were saturation divers. (Full article...)
Divers using the anchor cable as an aid to depth control during a decompression stop

The practice of decompression by divers comprises the planning and monitoring of the profile indicated by the algorithms or tables of the chosen decompression model, to allow asymptomatic and harmless release of excess inert gases dissolved in the tissues as a result of breathing at ambient pressures greater than surface atmospheric pressure, the equipment available and appropriate to the circumstances of the dive, and the procedures authorized for the equipment and profile to be used. There is a large range of options in all of these aspects.

Decompression may be continuous or staged, where the ascent is interrupted by stops at regular depth intervals, but the entire ascent is part of the decompression, and ascent rate can be critical to harmless elimination of inert gas. What is commonly known as no-decompression diving, or more accurately no-stop decompression, relies on limiting ascent rate for avoidance of excessive bubble formation. Staged decompression may include deep stops depending on the theoretical model used for calculating the ascent schedule. Omission of decompression theoretically required for a dive profile exposes the diver to significantly higher risk of symptomatic decompression sickness, and in severe cases, serious injury or death. The risk is related to the severity of exposure and the level of supersaturation of tissues in the diver. Procedures for emergency management of omitted decompression and symptomatic decompression sickness have been published. These procedures are generally effective, but vary in effectiveness from case to case.

The procedures used for decompression depend on the mode of diving, the available equipment, the site and environment, and the actual dive profile. Standardized procedures have been developed which provide an acceptable level of risk in the circumstances for which they are appropriate. Different sets of procedures are used by commercial, military, scientific and recreational divers, though there is considerable overlap where similar equipment is used, and some concepts are common to all decompression procedures. (Full article...)
In-water recompression (IWR) or underwater oxygen treatment is the emergency treatment of decompression sickness (DCS) by returning the diver underwater to help the gas bubbles in the tissues, which are causing the symptoms, to resolve. It is a procedure that exposes the diver to significant risk which should be compared with the risk associated with the available options. Some authorities recommend that it is only be used when the time to travel to the nearest recompression chamber is too long to save the victim's life, others take a more pragmatic approach, and accept that in some circumstances IWR is the best available option. The risks may noy be justified for case of mild symptoms likely to resolve spontaneously, or for cases where the diver is likely to be unsafe in the water, but in-water recompression may be justified in cases where severe outcomes are likely, if conducted by a competent and suitably equipped team.

Carrying out in-water recompression when there is a nearby recompression chamber or without suitable equipment and training is never a desirable option. The risk of the procedure is due to the diver suffering from DCS being seriously ill and may become paralysed, unconscious or stop breathing while under water. Any one of these events is likely to result in the diver drowning or asphyxiating or suffering further injury during a subsequent rescue to the surface. This risk can be reduced by improving airway security by using surface supplied gas and a helmet ot full-face mask.

Several schedules have been published for in-water recompression treatment, but little data on their efficacy is available. (Full article...)
The hand signal "OK"

Diver communications are the methods used by divers to communicate with each other or with surface members of the dive team. In professional diving, communication is usually between a single working diver and the diving supervisor at the surface control point. This is considered important both for managing the diving work, and as a safety measure for monitoring the condition of the diver. The traditional method of communication was by line signals, but this has been superseded by voice communication, and line signals are now used in emergencies when voice communications have failed. Surface supplied divers often carry a closed circuit video camera on the helmet which allows the surface team to see what the diver is doing and to be involved in inspection tasks. This can also be used to transmit hand signals to the surface if voice communications fails. Underwater slates may be used to write text messages which can be shown to other divers, and there are some dive computers which allow a limited number of pre-programmed text messages to be sent through-water to other divers or surface personnel with compatible equipment.

Communication between divers and between surface personnel and divers is imperfect at best, and non-existent at worst, as a consequence of the physical characteristics of water. This prevents divers from performing at their full potential. Voice communication is the most generally useful format underwater, as visual forms are more affected by visibility, and written communication and signing are relatively slow and restricted by diving equipment.

Recreational divers do not usually have access to voice communication equipment, and it does not generally work with a standard scuba demand valve, so they use other signals. Hand signals are generally used when visibility allows, and there are a range of commonly used signals, with some variations. These signals are often also used by professional divers to communicate with other divers. There is also a range of other special purpose non-verbal signals, mostly used for safety and emergency communications. (Full article...)
Diver at the wreck of the Hilma Hooker, Netherlands Antilles.

Wreck diving is recreational diving where the wreckage of ships, aircraft and other artificial structures are explored. Although most wreck dive sites are at shipwrecks, there is an increasing trend to scuttle retired ships to create artificial reef sites. Diving to crashed aircraft can also be considered wreck diving. The recreation of wreck diving makes no distinction as to how the vessel ended up on the bottom.

Some wreck diving involves penetration of the wreckage, making a direct ascent to the surface impossible for a part of the dive. (Full article...)
A Navy buddy diver team checking their gauges together

Buddy diving is the use of the buddy system by scuba divers. It is a set of safety procedures intended to improve the chances of avoiding or surviving accidents in or under water by having divers dive in a group of two or sometimes three. When using the buddy system, members of the group dive together and co-operate with each other, so that they can help or rescue each other in the event of an emergency. This is most effective if both divers are competent in all relevant skills and sufficiently aware of the situation that they can respond in time, which is a matter of both attitude and competence.

In recreational diving, a pair of divers is usually considered best for buddy diving. With threesomes, one diver can easily lose the attention of the other two, and groups of more than three divers are not using the buddy system. The system is likely to be effective in mitigating out-of-air emergencies, non-diving medical emergencies and entrapment in ropes or nets. When used with the buddy check it can help avoid the omission, misuse and failure of diving equipment.

In technical diving activities such as cave diving, threesomes are considered an acceptable practice. This is usually referred to as team diving to distinguish it from buddy diving in pairs.

When professional divers dive as buddy pairs their responsibility to each other is specified as part of standard operating procedures, code of practice or governing legislation. (Full article...)
Freediver with monofin, ascending

Freediving, free-diving, free diving, breath-hold diving, or skin diving is a form of underwater diving that relies on breath-holding until resurfacing rather than the use of breathing apparatus such as scuba gear.

Besides the limits of breath-hold, immersion in water and exposure to high ambient pressure also have physiological effects that limit the depths and duration possible in freediving.

Examples of freediving activities are traditional fishing techniques, competitive and non-competitive freediving, competitive and non-competitive spearfishing and freediving photography, synchronised swimming, underwater football, underwater rugby, underwater hockey, underwater target shooting and snorkeling. There are also a range of "competitive apnea" disciplines; in which competitors attempt to attain great depths, times, or distances on a single breath.

Historically, the term free diving was also used to refer to scuba diving, due to the freedom of movement compared with surface supplied diving. (Full article...)
A dive team listens to a safety brief from their dive supervisor

The diving supervisor is the professional diving team member who is directly responsible for the diving operation's safety and the management of any incidents or accidents that may occur during the operation; the supervisor is required to be available at the control point of the diving operation for the diving operation's duration, and to manage the planned dive and any contingencies that may occur. Details of competence, requirements, qualifications, registration and formal appointment differ depending on jurisdiction and relevant codes of practice. Diving supervisors are used in commercial diving, military diving, public safety diving and scientific diving operations.

The control point is the place where the supervisor can best monitor the status of the diver and progress of the dive. For scuba dives this is commonly on deck of the dive boat where there is a good view of the surface above the operational area, or on the shore at a nearby point where the divers can be seen when surfaced. For surface supplied diving, the view of the water is usually still necessary, and a view of the line tenders handling the umbilicals is also required, unless there is live video feed from the divers and two-way audio communications with the tenders. The control position also includes the gas panel and communications panel, so the supervisor can remain as fully informed as practicable of the status of the divers and their life support systems during the dive. For bell diving and saturation diving the situation is more complex and the control position may well be inside a compartment where the communications, control and monitoring equipment for the bell and life-support systems are set up.

In recreational diving the term is used to refer to persons managing a recreational dive, with certification such as Divemaster,
Dive Control Specialist, Dive Coordinator, etc. (Full article...)
Air, oxygen and helium partial pressure gas blending system

Gas blending for scuba diving (or gas mixing) is the filling of diving cylinders with non-air breathing gases such as nitrox, trimix and heliox. Use of these gases is generally intended to improve overall safety of the planned dive, by reducing the risk of decompression sickness and/or nitrogen narcosis, and may improve ease of breathing.

Filling cylinders with a mixture of gases has dangers for both the filler and the diver. During filling there is a risk of fire due to use of oxygen and a risk of explosion due to the use of high-pressure gases. The composition of the mix must be safe for the depth and duration of the planned dive. If the concentration of oxygen is too lean the diver may lose consciousness due to hypoxia and if it is too rich the diver may suffer oxygen toxicity. The concentration of inert gases, such as nitrogen and helium, are planned and checked to avoid nitrogen narcosis and decompression sickness.

Methods used include batch mixing by partial pressure or by mass fraction, and continuous blending processes. Completed blends are analysed for composition for the safety of the user. Gas blenders may be required by legislation to prove competence if filling for other persons. (Full article...)
The instructor monitors a trainee practicing diving skills

Scuba skills are the skills required to dive safely using self-contained underwater breathing apparatus, (scuba). Most of these skills are relevant to both open circuit and rebreather scuba, and many are also relevant to surface-supplied diving. Those skills which are critical to the safety of the diver may require more practice than is usually provided during training to achieve reliable long-term proficiency

Some of the skills are generally accepted by recreational diver certification agencies as necessary for any scuba diver to be considered competent to dive without direct supervision, and others are more advanced, though some diver certification and accreditation organizations may consider some of these to also be essential for minimum acceptable entry level competence. Divers are instructed and assessed on these skills during basic and advanced training, and are expected to remain competent at their level of certification, either by practice or refresher courses.

The skills include selection, functional testing, preparation and transport of scuba equipment, dive planning, preparation for a dive, kitting up for the dive, water entry, descent, breathing underwater, monitoring the dive profile (depth, time and decompression status), personal breathing gas management, situational awareness, communicating with the dive team, buoyancy and trim control, mobility in the water, ascent, emergency and rescue procedures, exit from the water, unkitting after the dive, cleaning and preparation of equipment for storage and recording the dive, within the scope of the diver's certification.

Some scuba skills are only relevant to specific environments, activities or equipment. (Full article...)
Divers decompressing in the water at the end of a dive

The decompression of a diver is the reduction in ambient pressure experienced during ascent from depth. It is also the process of elimination of dissolved inert gases from the diver's body, which occurs during the ascent, largely during pauses in the ascent known as decompression stops, and after surfacing until the gas concentrations reach equilibrium. Divers breathing gas at ambient pressure need to ascend at a rate determined by their exposure to pressure and the breathing gas in use. A diver who only breathes gas at atmospheric pressure when free-diving or snorkelling will not usually need to decompress, Divers using an atmospheric diving suit do not need to decompress as they are never exposed to high ambient pressure.

When a diver descends in the water the hydrostatic pressure, and therefore the ambient pressure, rises. Because breathing gas is supplied at ambient pressure, some of this gas dissolves into the diver's blood and is transferred by the blood to other tissues. Inert gas such as nitrogen or helium continues to be taken up until the gas dissolved in the diver is in a state of equilibrium with the breathing gas in the diver's lungs, at which point the diver is saturated for that depth and breathing mixture, or the depth, and therefore the pressure, is changed, or the partial pressures of the gases are changed by modifying the breathing gas mixture. During ascent, the ambient pressure is reduced, and at some stage the inert gases dissolved in any given tissue will be at a higher concentration than the equilibrium state and start to diffuse out again. If the pressure reduction is sufficient, excess gas may form bubbles, which may lead to decompression sickness, a possibly debilitating or life-threatening condition. It is essential that divers manage their decompression to avoid excessive bubble formation and decompression sickness. A mismanaged decompression usually results from reducing the ambient pressure too quickly for the amount of gas in solution to be eliminated safely. These bubbles may block arterial blood supply to tissues or directly cause tissue damage. If the decompression is effective, the asymptomatic venous microbubbles present after most dives are eliminated from the diver's body in the alveolar capillary beds of the lungs. If they are not given enough time, or more bubbles are created than can be eliminated safely, the bubbles grow in size and number causing the symptoms and injuries of decompression sickness. The immediate goal of controlled decompression is to avoid development of symptoms of bubble formation in the tissues of the diver, and the long-term goal is to avoid complications due to sub-clinical decompression injury.

The mechanisms of bubble formation and the damage bubbles cause has been the subject of medical research for a considerable time and several hypotheses have been advanced and tested. Tables and algorithms for predicting the outcome of decompression schedules for specified hyperbaric exposures have been proposed, tested and used, and in many cases, superseded. Although constantly refined and generally considered acceptably reliable, the actual outcome for any individual diver remains slightly unpredictable. Although decompression retains some risk, this is now generally considered acceptable for dives within the well tested range of normal recreational and professional diving. Nevertheless, all currently popular decompression procedures advise a 'safety stop' additional to any stops required by the algorithm, usually of about three to five minutes at 3 to 6 metres (10 to 20 ft), even on an otherwise continuous no-stop ascent.

Decompression may be continuous or staged. A staged decompression ascent is interrupted by decompression stops at calculated depth intervals, but the entire ascent is actually part of the decompression and the ascent rate is critical to harmless elimination of inert gas. A no-decompression dive, or more accurately, a dive with no-stop decompression, relies on limiting the ascent rate for avoidance of excessive bubble formation in the fastest tissues. The elapsed time at surface pressure immediately after a dive is also an important part of decompression and can be thought of as the last decompression stop of a dive. It can take up to 24 hours for the body to return to its normal atmospheric levels of inert gas saturation after a dive. When time is spent on the surface between dives this is known as the "surface interval" and is considered when calculating decompression requirements for the subsequent dive. (Full article...)
Recreational scuba diver

Scuba diving is a mode of underwater diving where the diver uses a self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (scuba), which is completely independent of surface supply, to breathe underwater. Scuba divers carry their own source of breathing gas, usually compressed air, allowing them greater independence and freedom of movement than surface-supplied divers, and longer underwater endurance than breath-hold divers. Although the use of compressed air is common, a mixture of air and oxygen called enriched air or nitrox has become popular due to its benefit of reduced nitrogen intake during long or repetitive dives. Open circuit scuba systems discharge the breathing gas into the environment as it is exhaled, and consist of one or more diving cylinders containing breathing gas at high pressure which is supplied to the diver through a regulator. They may include additional cylinders for range extension, decompression gas or emergency breathing gas. Closed-circuit or semi-closed circuit rebreather scuba systems allow recycling of exhaled gases. The volume of gas used is reduced compared to that of open circuit, so a smaller cylinder or cylinders may be used for an equivalent dive duration. Rebreathers extend the time spent underwater compared to open circuit for the same gas consumption; they produce fewer bubbles and less noise than open circuit scuba which makes them attractive to covert military divers to avoid detection, scientific divers to avoid disturbing marine animals, and media divers to avoid bubble interference.

Scuba diving may be done recreationally or professionally in a number of applications, including scientific, military and public safety roles, but most commercial diving uses surface-supplied diving equipment when this is practicable. Scuba divers engaged in armed forces covert operations may be referred to as frogmen, combat divers or attack swimmers.

A scuba diver primarily moves underwater by using fins attached to the feet, but external propulsion can be provided by a diver propulsion vehicle, or a sled pulled from the surface. Other equipment needed for scuba diving includes a mask to improve underwater vision, exposure protection (ie: a wet suit or dry suit), equipment to control buoyancy, a diving regulator to control the pressure of breathing gas for diving, and equipment related to the specific circumstances and purpose of the dive. Some scuba divers use a snorkel when swimming on the surface. Scuba divers are trained in the procedures and skills appropriate to their level of certification by instructors affiliated to the diver certification organisations which issue these certifications. These include standard operating procedures for using the equipment and dealing with the general hazards of the underwater environment, and emergency procedures for self-help and assistance of a similarly equipped diver experiencing problems. A minimum level of fitness and health is required by most training organisations, but a higher level of fitness may be appropriate for some applications. (Full article...)
Buddy breathing is a rescue technique used in scuba diving "out of gas" emergencies, when two divers share one demand valve, alternately breathing from it. Techniques have been developed for buddy breathing from both twin-hose and single hose regulators, but to a large extent it has been superseded by safer and more reliable techniques using additional equipment, such as the use of a bailout cylinder or breathing through a secondary demand valve on the rescuer's regulator.

Running out of breathing gas most commonly happens as a result of poor gas management. It can also happen due to unforeseen exertion or breathing equipment failure. Equipment failure resulting in the loss of all gas could be caused by failure of a pressure retaining component such as an O-ring or hose in the regulator or, in cold conditions, a freezing of water in the regulator resulting in a free flow from the demand valve. (Full article...)

Наука дайвинга

Индекс науки о подводном плавании

Аквалангист декомпрессии при запланированной остановке во время всплытия после погружения

Теория декомпрессии - это исследование и моделирование переноса инертного газового компонента дыхательных газов от газа в легких к тканям и обратно во время воздействия изменений давления окружающей среды. В случае подводного плавания и работы со сжатым воздухом это в основном связано с давлением окружающей среды, превышающим местное давление на поверхности, но астронавты, высотные альпинисты и путешественники в самолетах, которые не находятся под давлением на уровне моря, обычно подвергаются воздействию атмосферного давления в меньшей степени. чем стандартное атмосферное давление на уровне моря. Во всех случаях симптомы, вызванные декомпрессией, возникают в течение или в течение относительно короткого периода часов, а иногда и дней после значительного снижения давления.

Термин «декомпрессия» происходит от снижения давления окружающей среды, испытываемого организмом, и относится как к снижению давления, так и к процессу удаления растворенных инертных газов из тканей во время и после этого снижения давления. Поглощение газа тканями происходит в растворенном состоянии, и для его удаления также требуется растворение газа, однако достаточное снижение давления окружающей среды может вызвать образование пузырьков в тканях, что может привести к повреждению тканей и появлению симптомов, известных как декомпрессия. болезнь, а также задерживает выведение газа.

Моделирование декомпрессии пытается объяснить и предсказать механизм удаления газа и образования пузырьков в организме во время и после изменений давления окружающей среды, а также предоставляет математические модели, которые пытаются предсказать приемлемо низкий риск и разумно осуществимые процедуры декомпрессии в полевых условиях.
Обе детерминированные и вероятностные модели использовались и все еще используются. ( Полная статья ... )
In diving, the oxygen window is the difference between the partial pressure of oxygen (ppO₂) in arterial blood and the ppO₂ in body tissues. It is caused by metabolic consumption of oxygen. (Full article...)
The ambient pressure on an object is the pressure of the surrounding medium, such as a gas or liquid, in contact with the object. (Full article...)
Cold shock response is a series of cardio-respiratory responses caused by sudden immersion in cold water.

In cold water immersions, cold shock response is perhaps the most common cause of death, such as by falling through thin ice. The immediate shock of the cold causes involuntary inhalation, which, if underwater, can result in drowning. The cold water can also cause heart attack due to vasoconstriction; the heart has to work harder to pump the same volume of blood throughout the body. For people with existing cardiovascular disease, the additional workload can result in cardiac arrest. Inhalation of water (and thus drowning) may result from hyperventilation. Some people are much better able to survive swimming in very cold water due to body or mental conditioning. (Full article...)
Scuba diver with bifocal lenses fitted to a mask

Underwater, objects are less visible because of lower levels of natural illumination caused by rapid attenuation of light with distance passed through the water. They are also blurred by scattering of light between the object and the viewer, also resulting in lower contrast. These effects vary with wavelength of the light, and color and turbidity of the water. The vertebrate eye is usually either optimised for underwater vision or air vision, as is the case in the human eye. The visual acuity of the air-optimised eye is severely adversely affected by the difference in refractive index between air and water when immersed in direct contact. Provision of an airspace between the cornea and the water can compensate, but has the side effect of scale and distance distortion. The diver learns to compensate for these distortions. Artificial illumination is effective to improve illumination at short range.

Stereoscopic acuity, the ability to judge relative distances of different objects, is considerably reduced underwater, and this is affected by the field of vision. A narrow field of vision caused by a small viewport in a helmet results in greatly reduced stereoacuity, and associated loss of hand-eye coordination.

At very short range in clear water distance is underestimated, in accordance with magnification due to refraction through the flat lens of the mask, but at greater distances - greater than arm's reach, the distance tends to be overestimated to a degree influenced by turbidity. Both relative and absolute depth perception are reduced underwater. Loss of contrast results in overestimation, and magnification effects account for underestimation at short range.

Divers can to a large extent adapt to these effects over time and with practice.

Light rays bend when they travel from one medium to another; the amount of bending is determined by the refractive indices of the two media. If one medium has a particular curved shape, it functions as a lens. The cornea, humours, and crystalline lens of the eye together form a lens that focuses images on the retina. The human eye is adapted for viewing in air. Water, however, has approximately the same refractive index as the cornea (both about 1.33), effectively eliminating the cornea's focusing properties. When immersed in water, instead of focusing images on the retina, they are focused behind the retina, resulting in an extremely blurred image from hypermetropia. (Full article...)
Scuba diver decompressing at a planned stop during ascent from a dive

The physiology of decompression involves a complex interaction of gas solubility, partial pressures and concentration gradients, diffusion, bulk transport and bubble mechanics in living tissues. Gas is breathed at ambient pressure, and some of this gas dissolves into the blood and other fluids. Inert gas continues to be taken up until the gas dissolved in the tissues is in a state of equilibrium with the gas in the lungs, (see: "Saturation diving"), or the ambient pressure is reduced until the inert gases dissolved in the tissues are at a higher concentration than the equilibrium state, and start diffusing out again.

The absorption of gases in liquids depends on the solubility of the specific gas in the specific liquid, the concentration of gas, customarily measured by partial pressure, and temperature. In the study of decompression theory the behaviour of gases dissolved in the tissues is investigated and modeled for variations of pressure over time. Once dissolved, distribution of the dissolved gas may be by diffusion, where there is no bulk flow of the solvent, or by perfusion where the solvent (blood) is circulated around the diver's body, where gas can diffuse to local regions of lower concentration. Given sufficient time at a specific partial pressure in the breathing gas, the concentration in the tissues will stabilise, or saturate, at a rate depending on the solubility, diffusion rate and perfusion. If the concentration of the inert gas in the breathing gas is reduced below that of any of the tissues, there will be a tendency for gas to return from the tissues to the breathing gas. This is known as outgassing, and occurs during decompression, when the reduction in ambient pressure or a change of breathing gas reduces the partial pressure of the inert gas in the lungs.

The combined concentrations of gases in any given tissue will depend on the history of pressure and gas composition. Under equilibrium conditions, the total concentration of dissolved gases will be less than the ambient pressure, as oxygen is metabolised in the tissues, and the carbon dioxide produced is much more soluble. However, during a reduction in ambient pressure, the rate of pressure reduction may exceed the rate at which gas can be eliminated by diffusion and perfusion, and if the concentration gets too high, it may reach a stage where bubble formation can occur in the supersaturated tissues. When the pressure of gases in a bubble exceed the combined external pressures of ambient pressure and the surface tension from the bubble - liquid interface, the bubbles will grow, and this growth can cause damage to tissues. Symptoms caused by this damage are known as Decompression sickness.

The actual rates of diffusion and perfusion, and the solubility of gases in specific tissues are not generally known, and vary considerably. However mathematical models have been proposed which approximate the real situation to a greater or lesser extent, and these models are used to predict whether symptomatic bubble formation is likely to occur for a given pressure exposure profile. (Full article...)
The diving reflex, also known as the diving response and mammalian diving reflex, is a set of physiological responses to immersion that overrides the basic homeostatic reflexes, and is found in all air-breathing vertebrates studied to date. It optimizes respiration by preferentially distributing oxygen stores to the heart and brain, enabling submersion for an extended time.

The diving reflex is exhibited strongly in aquatic mammals, such as seals, otters, dolphins, and muskrats, and exists as a lesser response in other animals, including adult humans, babies up to 6 months old (see infant swimming), and diving birds, such as ducks and penguins.

The diving reflex is triggered specifically by chilling and wetting the nostrils and face while breath-holding, and is sustained via neural processing originating in the carotid chemoreceptors. The most noticeable effects are on the cardiovascular system, which displays peripheral vasoconstriction, slowed heart rate, redirection of blood to the vital organs to conserve oxygen, release of red blood cells stored in the spleen, and, in humans, heart rhythm irregularities. Although aquatic animals have evolved profound physiological adaptations to conserve oxygen during submersion, the apnea and its duration, bradycardia, vasoconstriction, and redistribution of cardiac output occur also in terrestrial animals as a neural response, but the effects are more profound in natural divers. (Full article...)
In a mixture of gases, each constituent gas has a partial pressure which is the notional pressure of that constituent gas if it alone occupied the entire volume of the original mixture at the same temperature. The total pressure of an ideal gas mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of the gases in the mixture (Dalton's Law).

The partial pressure of a gas is a measure of thermodynamic activity of the gas's molecules. Gases dissolve, diffuse, and react according to their partial pressures, and not according to their concentrations in gas mixtures or liquids. This general property of gases is also true in chemical reactions of gases in biology. For example, the necessary amount of oxygen for human respiration, and the amount that is toxic, is set by the partial pressure of oxygen alone. This is true across a very wide range of different concentrations of oxygen present in various inhaled breathing gases or dissolved in blood. The partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide are important parameters in tests of arterial blood gases, but can also be measured in, for example, cerebrospinal fluid. (Full article...)
Upwelling is an oceanographic phenomenon that involves wind-driven motion of dense, cooler, and usually nutrient-rich water from deep water towards the ocean surface, replacing the warmer, usually nutrient-depleted surface water. The nutrient-rich upwelled water stimulates the growth and reproduction of primary producers such as phytoplankton. Due to the biomass of phytoplankton and presence of cool water in these regions, upwelling zones can be identified by cool sea surface temperatures (SST) and high concentrations of chlorophyll-a.

The increased availability of nutrients in upwelling regions results in high levels of primary production and thus fishery production. Approximately 25% of the total global marine fish catches come from five upwellings that occupy only 5% of the total ocean area. Upwellings that are driven by coastal currents or diverging open ocean have the greatest impact on nutrient-enriched waters and global fishery yields. (Full article...)
Example for a dissolved solid (left).

Solubility is the property of a solid, liquid or gaseous chemical substance called solute to dissolve in a solid, liquid or gaseous solvent. The solubility of a substance fundamentally depends on the physical and chemical properties of the solute and solvent as well as on temperature, pressure and presence of other chemicals (including changes to the pH) of the solution. The extent of the solubility of a substance in a specific solvent is measured as the saturation concentration, where adding more solute does not increase the concentration of the solution and begins to precipitate the excess amount of solute.

Insolubility is the inability to dissolve in a solid, liquid or gaseous solvent.

Most often, the solvent is a liquid, which can be a pure substance or a mixture. One may also speak of solid solution, but rarely of solution in a gas (see vapor–liquid equilibrium instead).

Under certain conditions, the equilibrium solubility can be exceeded to give a so-called supersaturated solution, which is metastable. Metastability of crystals can also lead to apparent differences in the amount of a chemical that dissolves depending on its crystalline form or particle size. A supersaturated solution generally crystallises when 'seed' crystals are introduced and rapid equilibration occurs. Phenylsalicylate is one such simple observable substance when fully melted and then cooled below its fusion point.

Solubility is not to be confused with the ability to dissolve a substance, because the solution might also occur because of a chemical reaction. For example, zinc dissolves (with effervescence) in hydrochloric acid as a result of a chemical reaction releasing hydrogen gas in a displacement reaction. The zinc ions are soluble in the acid.

The solubility of a substance is an entirely different property from the rate of solution, which is how fast it dissolves. The smaller a particle is, the faster it dissolves although there are many factors to add to this generalization.

Crucially, solubility applies to all areas of chemistry, geochemistry, inorganic, physical, organic and biochemistry. In all cases it will depend on the physical conditions (temperature, pressure and concentration) and the enthalpy and entropy directly relating to the solvents and solutes concerned.
By far the most common solvent in chemistry is water which is a solvent for most ionic compounds as well as a wide range of organic substances. This is a crucial factor in acidity and alkalinity and much environmental and geochemical work. (Full article...)
Turbidity standards of 5, 50, and 500 NTU

Turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by large numbers of individual particles that are generally invisible to the naked eye, similar to smoke in air. The measurement of turbidity is a key test of water quality.

Fluids can contain suspended solid matter consisting of particles of many different sizes. While some suspended material will be large enough and heavy enough to settle rapidly to the bottom of the container if a liquid sample is left to stand (the settable solids), very small particles will settle only very slowly or not at all if the sample is regularly agitated or the particles are colloidal. These small solid particles cause the liquid to appear turbid.

Turbidity (or haze) is also applied to transparent solids such as glass or plastic. In plastic production, haze is defined as the percentage of light that is deflected more than 2.5° from the incoming light direction. (Full article...)
Dead space is the volume of air that is inhaled that does not take part in the gas exchange, because it either remains in the conducting airways or reaches alveoli that are not perfused or poorly perfused. In other words, not all the air in each breath is available for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Mammals breathe in and out of their lungs, wasting that part of the inhalation which remains in the conducting airways where no gas exchange can occur.

Benefits do accrue to a seemingly wasteful design for ventilation that includes dead space.
1. Carbon dioxide is retained, making a bicarbonate-buffered blood and interstitium possible.
2. Inspired air is brought to body temperature, increasing the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen, improving O₂ uptake.
3. Particulate matter is trapped on the mucus that lines the conducting airways, allowing its removal by mucociliary transport.
4. Inspired air is humidified, improving the quality of airway mucus.
In humans, about a third of every resting breath has no change in O₂ and CO₂ levels. In adults, it is usually in the range of 150 mL.

Dead space can be increased (and better envisioned) by breathing through a long tube, such as a snorkel. Even though one end of the snorkel is open to the air, when the wearer breathes in, they inhale a significant quantity of air that remained in the snorkel from the previous exhalation. Thus, a snorkel increases the person's dead space by adding even more "airway" that doesn't participate in gas exchange. (Full article...)
The physiology of underwater diving is the physiological adaptations to diving of air-breathing vertebrates that have returned to the ocean from terrestrial lineages. They are a diverse group that include sea snakes, sea turtles, the marine iguana, saltwater crocodiles, penguins, pinnipeds, cetaceans, sea otters, manatees and dugongs. All known diving vertebrates dive to feed, and the extent of the diving in terms of depth and duration are influenced by feeding strategies, but also, in some cases, with predator avoidance. Diving behaviour is inextricably linked with the physiological adaptations for diving and often the behaviour leads to investigation of the physiology that makes the behaviour possible, so they are considered together where possible. Most diving vertebrates make relatively short shallow dives. Sea snakes, crocodiles and marine iguanas only dive in inshore waters and seldom dive deeper than 10 m. Some of these groups can make much deeper and longer dives. Emperor penguins regularly dive to depths of 400 to 500 m for 4 to 5 minutes, often dive for 8 to 12 minutes and have a maximum endurance of about 22 minutes. Elephant seals stay at sea for between 2 and 8 months and dive continuously, spending 90% of their time underwater and averaging 20 minutes per dive with less than 3 minutes at the surface between dives. Their maximum dive duration is about 2 hours and they routinely feed at depths between 300 and 600 m, though they can exceed depths of 1600 m. Beaked whales have been found to routinely dive to forage at depths between 835 and 1070 m, and remain submerged for about 50 minutes. Their maximum recorded depth is 1888 m, and maximum duration is 85 minutes.

Air-breathing marine vertebrates that dive to feed must deal with the effects of pressure at depth, hypoxia during apnea, and the need to find and capture their food. Adaptations to diving can be associated with these three requirements. Adaptations to pressure must deal with the mechanical effects of pressure on gas-filled cavities, solubility changes of gases under pressure, and possible direct effects of pressure on the metabolism, while adaptations to breath-hold capacity include modifications to metabolism, perfusion, carbon dioxide tolerance, and oxygen storage capacity. Adaptations to find and capture food vary depending on the food, but in deep diving generally involve operating in a dark environment.

Diving vertebrates have increased the amount of oxygen stored in their internal tissues. This oxygen store has three components, oxygen contained in the air in the lungs, oxygen stored by hemoglobin in the blood, and by myoglobin in muscle tissue The muscle and blood of diving vertebrates have greater concentrations of haemoglobin and myoglobin than terrestrial animals. Myoglobin concentration in locomotor muscles of diving vertebrates is up to 30 times more than in terrestrial relatives. Haemoglobin is increased by both a relatively larger amount of blood and a larger proportion of red blood cells in the blood compared with terrestrial animals. The highest values are found in the mammals which dive deepest and longest.

Body size is a factor in diving ability. A larger body mass correlates to a relatively lower metabolic rate, while oxygen storage is directly proportional to body mass, so larger animals should be able to dive for longer, all other things being equal. Swimming efficiency also affects diving ability, as low drag and high propulsive efficiency requires less energy for the same dive. Burst and glide locomotion is also often used to minimise energy consumption, and may involve using positive or negative buoyancy to power part of the ascent or descent.

The responses seen in seals diving freely at sea are physiologically the same as those seen during forced dives in the laboratory. They are not specific to immersion in water but are protective mechanisms against asphyxia which are common to all mammals but more effective and developed in seals. The extent to which these responses are expressed depends greatly on the seal's anticipation of dive duration.

The neuroregulation of bradycardia and vasoconstriction of the dive response in both mammals and diving ducks can be triggered by facial immersion, wetting of the nostrils and glottis, or stimulation of trigeminal and glossopharyngeal nerves.

Animals cannot convert fats to glucose, and in many diving animals carbohydrates are not readily available from the diet, nor stored in large quantities, so as they are essential for anaerobic metabolism, they could be a limiting factor. (Full article...)
Supersaturation occurs with a chemical solution when the concentration of a solute exceeds the concentration specified by the value equilibrium solubility. Most commonly the term is applied to a solution of a solid in a liquid. A supersaturated solution is in a metastable state; it may be brought to equilibrium by forcing the excess of solute to separate from the solution. The term can also be applied to a mixture of gases. (Full article...)
Work of breathing (WOB) is the energy expended to inhale and exhale a breathing gas. It is usually expressed as work per unit volume, for example, joules/litre, or as a work rate (power), such as joules/min or equivalent units, as it is not particularly useful without a reference to volume or time. It can be calculated in terms of the pulmonary pressure multiplied by the change in pulmonary volume, or in terms of the oxygen consumption attributable to breathing.
In a normal resting state the work of breathing constitutes about 5% of the total body oxygen consumption. It can increase considerably due to illness or constraints on gas flow imposed by breathing apparatus, ambient pressure, or breathing gas composition. (Full article...)

Профессиональный дайвинг

Индекс профессионального дайвинга

Водолаз армии США осматривает разрушенный мост в Ираке, около 2006 года.

Водолазы-инженеры являются членами национальных армий, которые обучены выполнять задачи по разведке, подрыву и спасению под водой. Эти дайверы обладают такими же навыками и квалификацией, как и профессиональные дайверы . В армии США они являются членами Инженерного корпуса . В британской армии они могут быть Royal Engineer Divers или Commando Engineer Divers . ( Полная статья ... )
Instructor and learner divers practicing scuba skills in confined water

A diving instructor is a person who trains and usually also assesses competence of underwater divers. This includes freedivers, recreational divers including the subcategory technical divers, and professional divers which includes military, commercial, public safety and scientific divers.

Depending on the jurisdiction, there will generally be specific published codes of practice and guidelines for training, competence and registration of diving instructors, as they have a duty of care to their clients, and operate in an environment with intrinsic hazards which may be unfamiliar to the lay person. Training and assessment will generally follow adiver training standard.

Recreational diving instructors are usually registered members of one or more recreational diver certification agencies, and are generally registered to train and assess divers against specified certification standards. Military diving instructors are generally members of the armed force for which they train personnel. Commercial diving instructors may be required to register with national government appointed organisations, and comply with specific training and assessment standards, but there may be other requirements in some parts of the world. (Full article...)
A US Navy diver at work. The umbilical supplying air from the surface is clearly visible.

Professional diving is diving where the divers are paid for their work. The procedures are often regulated by legislation and codes of practice as it is an inherently hazardous occupation and the diver works as a member of a team. Due to the dangerous nature of some professional diving operations, specialized equipment such as an on-site hyperbaric chamber and diver-to-surface communication system is often required by law, and the mode of diving for some applications may be regulated.

There are several branches of professional diving, the best known of which is probably commercial diving and its specialised applications, offshore diving, inshore civil engineering diving, marine salvage diving, hazmat diving, and ships husbandry diving. There are also applications in scientific research, marine archaeology, fishing and aquaculture, public service, law enforcement, military service and diver training.

Any person wishing to become a professional diver normally requires specific training that satisfies any regulatory agencies which have regional or national authority, such as US Occupational Safety and Health Administration, United Kingdom Health and Safety Executive or South African Department of Employment and Labour. International recognition of professional diver qualifications and registration exists between some countries. (Full article...)
A United States Navy Mass Communication Specialist conducting underwater photography training

Underwater photography is the process of taking photographs while under water. It is usually done while scuba diving, but can be done while diving on surface supply, snorkeling, swimming, from a submersible or remotely operated underwater vehicle, or from automated cameras lowered from the surface.

Underwater photography can also be categorised as an art form and a method for recording data.
Successful underwater imaging is usually done with specialized equipment and techniques. However, it offers exciting and rare photographic opportunities. Animals such as fish and marine mammals are common subjects, but photographers also pursue shipwrecks, submerged cave systems, underwater "landscapes", invertebrates, seaweeds, geological features, and portraits of fellow divers. (Full article...)
A US Navy work diver is lowered to the sea bed during a dive from the USNS Grasp (ARS 51) off the coast of St. Kitts.

A clearance diver was originally a specialist naval diver who used explosives underwater to remove obstructions to make harbours and shipping channels safe to navigate, but later the term "clearance diver" was used to include other naval underwater work. Units of clearance divers were first formed during and after the Second World War to clear ports and harbours in the Mediterranean and Northern Europe of unexploded ordnance and shipwrecks and booby traps laid by the Germans.

In some navies, including Britain's Royal Navy (RN), work divers, which includes ship's divers, must have a line and a linesman when possible. (Full article...)
Underwater welding

Hyperbaric welding is the process of welding at elevated pressures, normally underwater. Hyperbaric welding can either take place wet in the water itself or dry inside a specially constructed positive pressure enclosure and hence a dry environment. It is predominantly referred to as "hyperbaric welding" when used in a dry environment, and "underwater welding" when in a wet environment. The applications of hyperbaric welding are diverse—it is often used to repair ships, offshore oil platforms, and pipelines. Steel is the most common material welded.

Dry welding is used in preference to wet underwater welding when high quality welds are required because of the increased control over conditions which can be exerted, such as through application of prior and post weld heat treatments. This improved environmental control leads directly to improved process performance and a generally much higher quality weld than a comparative wet weld. Thus, when a very high quality weld is required, dry hyperbaric welding is normally utilized. Research into using dry hyperbaric welding at depths of up to 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) is ongoing. In general, assuring the integrity of underwater welds can be difficult (but is possible using various nondestructive testing applications), especially for wet underwater welds, because defects are difficult to detect if the defects are beneath the surface of the weld.

Underwater hyperbaric welding was invented by the Russian metallurgist Konstantin Khrenov in 1932. (Full article...)
Nesconset fire department scuba rescue team on training exercise

Public safety diving is underwater diving conducted as part of law enforcement and search and rescue. Public safety divers differ from recreational, scientific and commercial divers who can generally plan the date, time, and location of a dive, and dive only if the conditions are conducive to the task. Public safety divers respond to emergencies 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, and may be required to dive in the middle of the night, during inclement weather, in zero visibility "black water," or in waters polluted by chemicals and biohazards. (Full article...)
Pearl diver in Japan

Pearl hunting, also known as pearling, is the activity of recovering pearls from wild molluscs, usually oysters or mussels, in the sea or freshwater. Pearl hunting used to be prevalent in the Persian Gulf region and Japan. Pearl diving began in the 1850s on the northern and north-western coast of Australia, and started in the Torres Strait, off Far North Queensland in the 1870s.

In most cases the pearl-bearing molluscs live at depths where they are not manually accessible from the surface, and diving or the use of some form of tool is needed to reach them. Historically the molluscs were retrieved by freediving, a technique where the diver descends to the bottom, collects what they can, and surfaces on a single breath. The diving mask improved the ability of the diver to see while underwater. When the surface-supplied diving helmet became available for underwater work, it was also applied to the task of pearl hunting, and the associated activity of collecting pearl shell as a raw material for the manufacture of buttons, inlays and other decorative work. The surface supplied diving helmet greatly extended the time the diver could stay at depth, and introduced the previously unfamiliar hazards of barotrauma of ascent and decompression sickness. (Full article...)
NAUI Nitrox diver certification card

A Diving certification or C-card is a document (usually a wallet sized plastic card) recognizing that an individual or organization authorized to do so, "certifies" that the bearer has completed a course of training as required by the agency issuing the card. This is assumed to represent a defined level of skill and knowledge in underwater diving. Divers carry a qualification record or certification card which may be required to prove their qualifications when booking a dive trip, hiring scuba equipment, filling diving cylinders or in the case of professional divers, seeking employment.

Although recreational certifications are issued by numerous different diver training agencies, the entry-level grade is not always equivalent. Different agencies will have different entry-level requirements as well as different higher-level grades, but all are claimed to allow a diver to develop their skills and knowledge in achievable steps.

In contradistinction, a diver's logbook, or the electronic equivalent, is primarily evidence of range of diving experience. (Full article...)
Salvage diving is the diving work associated with the recovery of all or part of ships, their cargoes, aircraft, and other vehicles and structures which have sunk or fallen into water. In the case of ships it may also refer to repair work done to make an abandoned or distressed but still floating vessel more suitable for towing or propulsion under its own power. The recreational/technical activity known as wreck diving is generally not considered salvage work, though some recovery of artifacts may be done by recreational divers.

Most salvage diving is commercial work, or military work, depending on the diving contractor and the purpose for the salvage operation, Similar underwater work may be done by divers as part of forensic investigations into accidents, in which case the procedures may be more closely allied with underwater archaeology than the more basic procedures of maximum cost/benefit expected in commercial and military operations.

Clearance diving, the removal of obstructions and hazards to navigation, is closely related to salvage diving, but has a different purpose, in that the objects to be removed are not intended to be recovered, just removed or reduced to a condition where they no longer constitute a hazard. Many of the techniques and procedures used in clearance diving are also used in salvage work. (Full article...)
Virginia-class submarine

Underwater warfare is one of the three operational areas of naval warfare, the others being surface warfare and aerial warfare. It refers to combat conducted underwater such as:
- Actions by submarines actions, and anti-submarine warfare, i.e. warfare between submarines, other submarines and surface ships; combat airplanes and helicopters may also be engaged when launching special dive-bombs and torpedo-missiles against submarines;
- Underwater special operations, considering:
  Military diving sabotage against ships and ports.
  Anti-frogman techniques.
  Reconnaissance tasks.
(Full article...)
Drawing to scale, underwater

Underwater archaeology is archaeology practiced underwater. As with all other branches of archaeology, it evolved from its roots in pre-history and in the classical era to include sites from the historical and industrial eras. Its acceptance has been a relatively late development due to the difficulties of accessing and working underwater sites, and because the application of archaeology to underwater sites initially emerged from the skills and tools developed by shipwreck salvagers. As a result, underwater archaeology initially struggled to establish itself as bona fide archaeological research. The situation changed when universities began teaching the subject and when a theoretical and practical base for the sub-discipline was firmly established. Underwater archaeology now has a number of branches including, after it became broadly accepted in the late 1980s, maritime archaeology: the scientifically based study of past human life, behaviours and cultures and their activities in, on, around and (lately) under the sea, estuaries and rivers. This is most often effected using the physical remains found in, around or under salt or fresh water or buried beneath water-logged sediment. In recent years, the study of submerged WWII sites and of submerged aircraft in the form of underwater aviation archaeology have also emerged as bona fide activity.

Though often mistaken as such, underwater archaeology is not restricted to the study of shipwrecks. Changes in sea level because of local seismic events such as the earthquakes that devastated Port Royal and Alexandria or more widespread climatic changes on a continental scale mean that some sites of human occupation that were once on dry land are now submerged. At the end of the last ice age, the North Sea was a great plain, and anthropological material, as well as the remains of animals such as mammoths, are sometimes recovered by trawlers. Also, because human societies have always made use of water, sometimes the remains of structures that these societies built underwater still exist (such as the foundations of crannogs, bridges and harbours) when traces on dry land have been lost. As a result, underwater archaeological sites cover a vast range including: submerged indigenous sites and places where people once lived or visited that have been subsequently covered by water due to rising sea levels; wells, cenotes, wrecks (shipwrecks; aircraft); the remains of structures created in water (such as crannogs, bridges or harbours); other port-related structures; refuse or debris sites where people disposed of their waste, garbage and other items, such as ships, aircraft, munitions and machinery, by dumping into the water.

Underwater archaeology is often complementary to archaeological research on terrestrial sites because the two are often linked by many and various elements including geographic, social, political, economic and other considerations. As a result, a study of an archaeological landscape can involve a multidisciplinary approach requiring the inclusion of many specialists from a variety of disciplines including prehistory, historical archaeology, maritime archaeology, and anthropology. There are many examples. One is the wreck of the VOC ship Zuytdorp lost in 1711 on the coast of Western Australia, where there remains considerable speculation that some of the crew survived and, after establishing themselves on shore, intermixed with indigenous tribes from the area. The archaeological signature at this site also now extends into the interaction between indigenous people and the European pastoralists who entered the area in the mid-19th century. (Full article...)
Sponge diver putting on his diving suit in Tarpon Springs, Florida.

Sponge diving is the oldest known form of the original art of underwater diving. Its purpose is to retrieve natural sponges for human use. (Full article...)
Public safety diving team members bring in a casualty

Underwater search and recovery is the process of locating and recovering underwater objects, often by divers, but also by the use of submersibles, remotely operated vehicles and electronic equipment on surface vessels.

Most underwater search and recovery is done by professional divers as part of commercial marine salvage operations, military operations, emergency services, or law enforcement activities.

Minor aspects of search and recovery are also considered within the scope of recreational diving. (Full article...)
NYPD divers removing material from the Harlem Meer following a murder in the area few days prior.

Police diving is a branch of professional diving carried out by police services. Police divers are usually sworn police officers, and may either be employed full-time as divers or as general water police officers, or be volunteers who usually serve in other units but are called in if their diving services are required.

The duties carried out by police divers include rescue diving for underwater casualties and search and recovery diving for evidence and bodies.

"Public safety diving" is a term coined by Steven J Linton in the 1970s to describe underwater rescue, underwater recovery and underwater investigation conducted by divers working for or under the authority of municipal, state or federal agencies. These divers are typically members of police departments, sheriff's offices, fire rescue agencies, search and rescue teams or providers of emergency medical services. Public Safety Divers (PSDs) can be paid by the previously mentioned agencies or be non-paid volunteers. (Full article...)

Рекреационный дайвинг

Индекс любительского дайвинга

Подводная стрельба по мишеням - это подводный спорт / стрелковый спорт, который проверяет способность участников точно использовать ружье с помощью набора индивидуальных и командных мероприятий, проводимых в бассейне с использованиемтехники фридайвинга или апноэ. Этот вид спорта был разработан во Франции в начале 1980-х годов и в настоящее время практикуется в основном в Европе . Он известен как Tir sur cible subaquatique на французском языке и как Tiro al Blanco Subacuático на испанском языке. ( Полная статья ... )
Finswimming with monofin

Finswimming is an underwater sport consisting of four techniques involving swimming with the use of fins either on the water's surface using a snorkel with either monofins or bifins or underwater with monofin either by holding one's breath or using open circuit scuba diving equipment. Events exist over distances similar to swimming competitions for both swimming pool and open water venues. Competition at world and continental level is organised by the Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS). The sport's first world championship was held in 1976. It also has been featured at the World Games as a trend sport since 1981 and was demonstrated at the 2015 European Games in June 2015. (Full article...)
Diver returning from a 600 ft (183 m) dive

Technical diving (also referred to as tec diving or tech diving) is scuba diving that exceeds the agency-specified limits of recreational diving for non-professional purposes. Technical diving may expose the diver to hazards beyond those normally associated with recreational diving, and to greater risk of serious injury or death. The risk may be reduced by appropriate skills, knowledge and experience, and by using suitable equipment and procedures. The skills may be developed through appropriate specialised training and experience. The equipment often involves breathing gases other than air or standard nitrox mixtures, and multiple gas sources.

The term technical diving has been credited to Michael Menduno, who was editor of the (now defunct) diving magazine aquaCorps Journal. The concept and term, technical diving, are both relatively recent advents, although divers have been engaging in what is now commonly referred to as technical diving for decades. (Full article...)
Underwater ice hockey (also called Sub-aqua ice hockey) is a minor extreme sport that is a variant of ice hockey. It is played upside-down underneath frozen pools or ponds. Participants wear diving masks, fins and wetsuits and use the underside of the frozen surface as the playing area or rink for a floating puck. Competitors do not use any breathing apparatus, but instead surface for air every 30 seconds or so.

It is not to be confused with underwater hockey, in which the floor of a swimming pool and a sinking puck are used. (Full article...)
Warning sign near the entrance to a cave

Cave diving is underwater diving in water-filled caves. It may be done as an extreme sport, a way of exploring flooded caves for scientific investigation, or for the search for and recovery of divers lost while diving for one of these reasons. The equipment used varies depending on the circumstances, and ranges from breath hold to surface supplied, but almost all cave diving is done using scuba equipment, often in specialised configurations with redundancies such as sidemount or backmounted twinset. Recreational cave diving is generally considered to be a type of technical diving due to the lack of a free surface during large parts of the dive, and often involves planned decompression stops.

In the United Kingdom, cave diving developed from the locally more common activity of caving. Its origins in the United States are more closely associated to recreational scuba diving. Compared to caving and scuba diving, there are relatively few practitioners of cave diving. This is due in part to the specialized equipment and skill sets required, and in part because of the high potential risks due to the specific environment.

Despite these risks, water-filled caves attract scuba divers, cavers, and speleologists due to their often unexplored nature, and present divers with a technical diving challenge. Underwater caves have a wide range of physical features, and can contain fauna not found elsewhere. (Full article...)
Two players competing for the puck at GB Student Nationals, Bangor in 2009.

Underwater hockey (UWH), also known as Octopush (mainly in the United Kingdom) is a globally played limited-contact sport in which two teams compete to manoeuvre a puck across the bottom of a swimming pool into the opposing team's goal by propelling it with a hockey stick or pusher). A key challenge of the game is that players are not able to use breathing devices such as scuba gear whilst playing, they must hold their breath. The game originated in England in 1954 when Alan Blake, a founder of the newly formed Southsea Sub-Aqua Club, invented the game he called Octopush as a means of keeping the club's members interested and active over the cold winter months when open-water diving lost its appeal. Underwater hockey is now played worldwide, with the Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques, abbreviated CMAS, as the world governing body. The first Underwater Hockey World Championship was held in Canada in 1980 after a false start in 1979 brought about by international politics and apartheid. (Full article...)
Below is the list of current Commonwealth Records for finswimming. The records are ratified by the Commonwealth Finswimming Committee, which is made up of the National Finswimming Governing Bodies of Commonwealth of Nations. The First Commonwealth Championships were held in Hobart, Tasmania, Australia in February 2007.

This page does not include the Commonwealth Finswimming Championship Records. This list echoes that found on the Swansea Finswimming Club Website and the British Finswimming Association documents website. These records are correct as of 4 December 2008.
Times set before the First Commonwealth Championships have been allowed. All records have been accepted as a result of documentary evidence of the events or time-trials that they were set at.

Currently there are only four nations hold records: Australia (10), England (8), New Zealand (7) and Singapore (5). Finswimming is currently competed in eight Commonwealth Countries (including home nations); Australia, Canada, Cyprus, England, New Zealand, Scotland, Singapore, South Africa and Wales (). (Full article...)
Below is the list of current British records in finswimming. The records are ratified by the British Finswimming Association.

This list echoes that found on the Monofin: Finswimming In the UK Website. These records are correct as of 1 April 2018.

In December 2017 British Finswimming Association made a decision to maintain the National records separately for adults and juniors in line with CMAS regulations. (Full article...)
Underwater football match involving USN personnel in Panama City, Florida on June 3, 2011

Underwater football is a two-team underwater sport that shares common elements with underwater hockey and underwater rugby. As with both of those games, it is played in a swimming pool with snorkeling equipment (mask, snorkel, and fins).

The goal of the game is to manoeuvre (by carrying and passing) a slightly negatively buoyant ball from one side of a pool to the other by players who are completely submerged underwater. Scoring is achieved by placing the ball (under control) in the gutter on the side of the pool. Variations include using a toy rubber torpedo as the ball, and weighing down buckets to rest on the bottom and serve as goals.

It is played in the Canadian provinces of Alberta, Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador and Saskatchewan. (Full article...)
Spearfisher Monument in Croatia

Spearfishing is a method of fishing that has been used throughout the world for millennia. Early civilizations were familiar with the custom of spearing fish from rivers and streams using sharpened sticks.

Currently spearfishing makes use of elastic powered spearguns and slings, or compressed gas pneumatic powered spearguns, to strike the hunted fish. Specialised techniques and equipment have been developed for various types of aquatic environments and target fish.

Spearfishing may be done using free-diving, snorkelling, or scuba diving techniques, but spearfishing while using scuba equipment is illegal in some countries. The use of mechanically powered spearguns is also outlawed in some countries and jurisdictions. Spearfishing is highly selective, normally uses no bait and has no by-catch. (Full article...)
Beginner diver in St. Croix, United States Virgin Islands

Recreational diving or sport diving is diving for the purpose of leisure and enjoyment, usually when using scuba equipment. The term "recreational diving" may also be used in contradistinction to "technical diving", a more demanding aspect of recreational diving which requires greater levels of training, experience and equipment to compensate for the more hazardous conditions associated with the disciplines. Breath-hold diving for recreation also fits into the broader scope of the term, but this article covers the commonly used meaning of scuba diving for recreational purposes, where the diver is not constrained from making a direct near-vertical ascent to the surface at any point during the dive, and risk is considered low.

The equipment used for recreational diving is mostly open circuit scuba, though semi closed and fully automated electronic closed circuit rebreathers may be included in the scope of recreational diving. Risk is managed by training the diver in a range of standardised procedures and skills appropriate to the equipment the diver chooses to use and the environment in which the diver plans to dive. Further experience and development of skills by practice will increase the diver's ability to dive safely. Specialty training is made available by the recreational diver training industry and diving clubs to increase the range of environments and venues the diver can enjoy at an acceptable level of risk.

Reasons to dive and preferred diving activities may vary during the personal development of a recreational diver, and may depend on their psychological profile and their level of dedication to the activity. Most divers average less than 8 dives per year, but some total several thousand dives over a few decades and continue diving into their 60s and 70s, occasionally older.
Recreational divers may frequent local dive sites or dive as tourists at more distant venues known for desirable underwater environments. An economically significant diving tourism industry services recreational divers, providing equipment, training and diving experiences, generally by specialist providers known as dive centers, dive schools, live-aboard and day charter and basic dive boats.

Legal constraints on recreational diving vary considerably across jurisdictions. Recreational diving may be industry regulated or regulated by law to some extent. The legal responsibility for recreational diving service providers is usually limited as far as possible by waivers which they require the customer to sign before engaging in any diving activity. The extent of responsibility of recreational buddy divers is unclear, but buddy diving is generally recommended by recreational diver training agencies as safer than solo diving, and some service providers insist that customers dive in buddy pairs. (Full article...)
DIR divers

Doing It Right (DIR) is a holistic approach to scuba diving that encompasses several essential elements, including fundamental diving skills, teamwork, physical fitness, and streamlined and minimalistic equipment configurations. DIR proponents maintain that through these elements, safety is improved by standardizing equipment configuration and dive-team procedures for preventing and dealing with emergencies.

DIR evolved out of the efforts of divers involved in the Woodville Karst Plain Project (WKPP) during the 1990s, who were seeking ways of reducing the fatality rate in those cave systems. The DIR philosophy is now used as a basis for teaching scuba diving from entry-level to technical and cave qualifications by several organizations, such as Global Underwater Explorers (GUE), Unified Team Diving (UTD) and InnerSpace Explorers (ISE). (Full article...)
Underwater rugby match in Norway.

Underwater rugby (UWR) is an underwater team sport. During a match two teams try to score a negatively buoyant ball (filled with saltwater) into the opponents’ goal at the bottom of a swimming pool. It originated from within the physical fitness training regime existing in German diving clubs during the early 1960s and has little in common with rugby football except for the name. It was recognised by the Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS) in 1978 and was first played as a world championship in 1980. (Full article...)
US Navy servicemen practise underwater search and resque scenarios involving combative or panicky victims, which corresponds to certain aquathlonic disciplines

Aquathlon (also known as underwater wrestling) is an underwater sport, where two competitors wearing masks and fins wrestle underwater in an attempt to remove a ribbon from each other's ankle band in order to win the bout. The "combat" takes place in a 5-metre (16 ft) square ring within a swimming pool, and is made up of three 30-second rounds, with a fourth round played in the event of a tie. The sport originated during the 1980s in the former USSR (now Russia) and was first played at international level in 1993. It was recognised by the Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS) in 2008. Combat aquathlon practice training engagements not only under water, but also afloat, above the water surface, both with or without diving gear, utilizing dummy weapons (rubber knives, bayonetted rifles, etc.) or barehanded, combined with grappling and choking techniques in order to neutralize or submit the opponent. (Full article...)
Skandalopetra diving dates from ancient Greece, when it was used by sponge fishermen, and has been re-discovered in recent years as a freediving discipline. It was in this discipline that the first world record in freediving was registered, when the Greek sponge fisherman Stathis Chantzis dived to a depth of 83 m (272 ft). It consists of a variable ballast dive using a skandalopetra tied to a rope. A companion on a boat recovers the diver by pulling the rope up after the descent, and keeps a watch on the diver from the surface. (Full article...)

Опасности при дайвинге, происшествия, безопасность и закон

Индекс безопасности дайвинга

В деликтном праве , обязанность заботиться является юридическим обязательством , которое налагается на человек, требуя соблюдения к стандарту по разумной осторожности при выполнении каких - либо действий , которые могли бы нанести вред другим предвидимо. Это первый элемент, который необходимо установить, чтобы начать действие по неосторожности . Истец должен иметь возможность продемонстрировать установленную законом обязанность проявлять осторожность, которую нарушил ответчик. В свою очередь, нарушение обязанности может повлечь за собой ответственность человека. Обязанность проявлять осторожность может быть возложена в силу закона между лицами, не имеющими тока.прямые отношения (семейные, договорные или иные), но в конечном итоге они каким-то образом становятся связанными, как это определено в общем праве (имеется в виду прецедентное право).

Обязанность проявлять заботу можно рассматривать как формализацию общественного договора , подразумеваемую ответственность индивидов по отношению к другим в обществе . Это не является обязательным требованием , что обязанность заботы определяется законом, хотя он часто развивается через юриспруденции по общему праву . ( Полная статья ... )
In underwater diving, task load indicates the degree of difficulty experienced when performing a task, and task loading describes the accumulation of tasks that are necessary to perform an operation. A light task loading can be managed by the operator with capacity to spare in case of contingencies.

Task loads may be measured and compared. NASA uses six sub-scales in their task load rating procedure. Three of these relate to the demands on the subject and the other three to interactions between subject and task. Ratings contain a large personal component and may vary considerably between subjects, and over time as experience is gained.
1. Mental Demands: How much mental and perceptual effort is required;
2. Physical Demands: How much physical effort is required;
3. Temporal Demands: How much time pressure the subject feels;
4. Own Performance: Rating of how successfully the task was performed;
5. Effort: Rating of how much effort was put into the task; and
6. Frustration: Rating of how frustrating or satisfying the task was to perform.
In underwater diving, task loading increases the risk of failure by the diver to undertake some key basic function which would normally be routine for safety underwater. A heavy task loading may overwhelm the diver if something does not go according to plan. This is particularly a problem in scuba diving, where the breathing gas supply is limited and delays may cause decompression obligations. The same workload may be a light task loading to a skilled diver with considerable experience of all the component tasks, and heavy task loading for a diver with little experience of some of the tasks.

Excessive task loading is implicated in many diving accidents, and may be limited by adding tasks one at a time, and adequately developing the requisite skills for each before adding more. (Full article...)
A silt out or silt-out is a situation when underwater visibility is rapidly reduced to functional zero by disturbing fine particulate deposits on the bottom or other solid surfaces. This can happen in scuba and surface supplied diving, or in ROV and submersible operations, and is a more serious hazard for scuba diving in penetration situations where the route to the surface may be obscured. (Full article...)
Diving safety is the aspect of underwater diving operations and activities concerned with the safety of the participants. The safety of underwater diving depends on four factors: the environment, the equipment, behaviour of the individual diver and performance of the dive team. The underwater environment can impose severe physical and psychological stress on a diver, and is mostly beyond the diver's control. Equipment is used to operate underwater for anything beyond very short periods, and the reliable function of some of the equipment is critical to even short term survival. Other equipment allows the diver to operate in relative comfort and efficiency. The performance of the individual diver depends on learned skills, many of which are not intuitive, and the performance of the team depends on competence, communication and common goals.

There is a large range of hazards to which the diver may be exposed. These each have associated consequences and risks, which should be taken into account during dive planning. Where risks are marginally acceptable it may be possible to mitigate the consequences by setting contingency and emergency plans in place, so that damage can be minimised where reasonably practicable. The acceptable level of risk varies depending on legislation, codes of practice, company policy, and personal choice, with recreational divers having a greater freedom of choice.

In professional diving there is a diving team to support the diving operation, and their primary function is to reduce and mitigate risk to the diver. The diving supervisor for the operation is legally responsible for the safety of the diving team. A diving contractor may have a diving superintendent or a diving safety officer tasked with ensuring the organisation has, and uses, a suitable operations manual to guide their practices. In recreational diving, the dive leader may be partly responsible for diver safety to the extent that the dive briefing is reasonably accurate and does not omit any known hazards that divers in the group can reasonably be expected to be unaware of, and not to lead the group into a known area of unacceptable risk. A certified recreational diver is generally responsible for their own safety, and to a lesser, variable, and poorly defined extent, for the safety of their dive buddy. (Full article...)
Broadly speaking, a risk assessment is the combined effort of:
1. identifying and analyzing potential (future) events that may negatively impact individuals, assets, and/or the environment (i.e. hazard analysis); and
2. making judgments "on the tolerability of the risk on the basis of a risk analysis" while considering influencing factors (i.e. risk evaluation).
Put in simpler terms, a risk assessment determines possible mishaps, their likelihood and consequences, and the tolerances for such events. The results of this process may be expressed in a quantitative or qualitative fashion. Risk assessment is an inherent part of a broader risk management strategy to help reduce any potential risk-related consequences. (Full article...)
Beaching a casualty while providing artificial respiration

Diver rescue, following an accident, is the process of avoiding or limiting further exposure to diving hazards and bringing a diver to a place of safety. A safe place is often a place where the diver cannot drown, such as a boat or dry land, where first aid can be administered and from which professional medical treatment can be sought. In the context of surface supplied diving, the place of safety for a diver with a decompression obligation is often the diving bell.

Rescue may be needed for various reasons where the diver becomes unable to manage an emergency, and there are several stages to a rescue, starting with recognising that a rescue is needed. In some cases the dive buddy identifies the need by personal observation, but in the more general case identification of the need is followed by locating the casualty. The most common and urgent diving emergencies involve loss of breathing gas, and the provision of emergency gas is the usual response. On other occasions the diver may be trapped and must be released by the rescuer. These first responses are usually followed by recovery of the distressed diver, who may be unconscious, to a place of safety with a secure supply of breathing gas, and following rescue, it may be necessary to evacuate the casualty to a place where further treatment is possible.

In all rescue operations, the rescuer must take care of their own safety and avoid becoming another casualty. In professional diving the supervisor is responsible for initiating rescue procedures, and for ensuring the safety of the dive team. The rescue is generally carried out by the stand-by diver, and for this reason the stand-by diver must be willing and competent to perform any reasonably foreseeable rescue that may be required for a planned diving operation. (Full article...)
Scuba diving fatalities are deaths occurring while scuba diving or as a consequence of scuba diving. The risks of dying during recreational, scientific or commercial diving are small, and on scuba, deaths are usually associated with poor gas management, poor buoyancy control, equipment misuse, entrapment, rough water conditions and pre-existing health problems. Some fatalities are inevitable and caused by unforeseeable situations escalating out of control, though the majority of diving fatalities can be attributed to human error on the part of the victim.

Equipment failure is rare in open circuit scuba, and while the cause of death is commonly recorded as drowning, this is mainly the consequence of an uncontrollable series of events taking place in water. Arterial gas embolism is also frequently cited as a cause of death, and it, too, is the consequence of other factors leading to an uncontrolled and badly managed ascent, possibly aggravated by medical conditions. About a quarter of diving fatalities are associated with cardiac events, mostly in older divers. There is a fairly large body of data on diving fatalities, but in many cases, the data is poor due to the standard of investigation and reporting. This hinders research that could improve diver safety.

Scuba diving fatalities have a major financial impact by way of lost income, lost business, insurance premium increases and high litigation costs. (Full article...)
Infographic by NIOSH. Control methods at the top of graphic are potentially more effective and protective than those at the bottom. Following this hierarchy normally leads to the implementation of inherently safer systems, where the risk of illness or injury has been substantially reduced.

Hierarchy of hazard control is a system used in industry to minimize or eliminate exposure to hazards. It is a widely accepted system promoted by numerous safety organizations. This concept is taught to managers in industry, to be promoted as standard practice in the workplace. It has also been used to inform public policy, in fields such as road safety. Various illustrations are used to depict this system, most commonly a triangle.

The hazard controls in the hierarchy are, in order of decreasing effectiveness:
- Elimination
- Substitution
- Engineering controls
- Administrative controls
- Personal protective equipment
(Full article...)
The civil liability of a recreational diver may include a duty of care to another diver during a dive. Breach of this duty that is a proximate cause of injury or loss to the other diver may lead to civil litigation for damages in compensation for the injury or loss suffered.

Participation in recreational diving implies acceptance of the inherent risks of the activity Diver training includes training in procedures known to reduce these risks to a level considered acceptable by the certification agency, and issue of certification implies that the agency accepts that the instructor has assessed the diver to be sufficiently competent in these skills at the time of assessment and to be competent to accept the associated risks. Certification relates to a set of skills and knowledge defined by the associated training standard, which also specifies the limitations on the scope of diving activities for which the diver is deemed competent. These limitations involve depth, environment and equipment that the diver has been trained to use. Intentionally diving significantly beyond the scope of certified competence is at the diver's risk, and may be construed as negligence if it puts another person at risk. Recommendations generally suggest that extending the scope should be done gradually, and preferably under the guidance of a diver experienced in similar conditions. The training agencies usually specify that any extension of scope should only be done by further training under a registered instructor, but this is not always practicable, or even possible, as there can always be circumstances that differ from those experienced during training.

Retention of skills requires exercise of those skills, and prolonged periods between dives will degrade skills by unpredictable amounts. This is recognised by training agencies which require instructors to keep in date, and recommend that divers take part in refresher courses after long periods of diving inactivity. (Full article...)
Common redundant power supply

In engineering, redundancy is the duplication of critical components or functions of a system with the intention of increasing reliability of the system, usually in the form of a backup or fail-safe, or to improve actual system performance, such as in the case of GNSS receivers, or multi-threaded computer processing.

In many safety-critical systems, such as fly-by-wire and hydraulic systems in aircraft, some parts of the control system may be triplicated, which is formally termed triple modular redundancy (TMR). An error in one component may then be out-voted by the other two. In a triply redundant system, the system has three sub components, all three of which must fail before the system fails. Since each one rarely fails, and the sub components are expected to fail independently, the probability of all three failing is calculated to be extraordinarily small; often outweighed by other risk factors, such as human error. Redundancy may also be known by the terms "majority voting systems" or "voting logic".

Redundancy sometimes produces less, instead of greater reliability – it creates a more complex system which is prone to various issues, it may lead to human neglect of duty, and may lead to higher production demands which by overstressing the system may make it less safe. (Full article...)
Folding lockout hasp, allowing the use of up to six padlocks to secure a device.
Lock Out, Tag Out (LOTO) is a safety procedure used in industry and research settings to ensure that dangerous machines are properly shut off and not able to be started up again prior to the completion of maintenance or repair work. It requires that hazardous energy sources be "isolated and rendered inoperative" before work is started on the equipment in question. The isolated power sources are then locked and a tag is placed on the lock identifying the worker who placed it. The worker then holds the key for the lock, ensuring that only he or she can remove the lock and start the machine. This prevents accidental startup of a machine while it is in a hazardous state or while a worker is in direct contact with it.

Lockout-tagout is used across industries as a safe method of working on hazardous equipment and is mandated by law in some countries. (Full article...)
Investigation of diving accidents includes investigations into the causes of reportable incidents in professional diving and recreational diving accidents, usually when there is a fatality or litigation for gross negligence.

An investigation of some kind usually follows a fatal diving accident, or one in which litigation is expected. There may be several investigations with different agendas. If police are involved, they generally look for evidence of a crime. In the US the Coastguard will usually investigate if there is a death when diving from a vessel in coastal waters. Health and safety administration officials may investigate when the diver was injured or killed at work. When a death occurs during an organised recreational activity, the certification agency's insurers will usually send an investigator to look into possible liability issues. The investigation may occur almost immediately to some considerable time after the event. In most cases the body will have been recovered and resuscitation attempted, and in this process equipment is usually removed and may be damaged or lost, or the evidence compromised by handling. Witnesses may have dispersed, and equipment is often mishandled by the investigating authorities who are often unfamiliar with the equipment and may store it improperly, which can destroy evidence and compromise findings.

Recreational diving accidents are usually relatively uncomplicated, but accidents involving an extended range environment of specialised equipment may require expertise beyond the experience of any one investigator. This is a particular issue when rebreather equipment is involved.

For every incident in which someone is injured of killed, it has been estimated that a relatively large number of "near miss" incidents occur, which the diver manages well enough to avoid harm. Ideally these will be recorded, analysed for cause, reported, and the results made public, so that similar incidents can be avoided in the future. (Full article...)
Divers face specific physical and health risks when they go underwater with scuba or other diving equipment, or use high pressure breathing gas. Some of these factors also affect people who work in raised pressure environments out of water, for example in caissons. This article lists hazards that a diver may be exposed to during a dive, and possible consequences of these hazards, with some details of the proximate causes of the listed consequences. A listing is also given of precautions that may be taken to reduce vulnerability, either by reducing the risk or mitigating the consequences. A hazard that is understood and acknowledged may present a lower risk if appropriate precautions are taken, and the consequences may be less severe if mitigation procedures are planned and in place.

A hazard is any agent or situation that poses a level of threat to life, health, property, or environment. Most hazards remain dormant or potential, with only a theoretical risk of harm, and when a hazard becomes active, and produces undesirable consequences, it is called an incident and may culminate in an emergency or accident. Hazard and vulnerability interact with likelihood of occurrence to create risk, which can be the probability of a specific undesirable consequence of a specific hazard, or the combined probability of undesirable consequences of all the hazards of a specific activity. The presence of a combination of several hazards simultaneously is common in diving, and the effect is generally increased risk to the diver, particularly where the occurrence of an incident due to one hazard triggers other hazards with a resulting cascade of incidents. Many diving fatalities are the result of a cascade of incidents overwhelming the diver, who should be able to manage any single reasonably foreseeable incident. The assessed risk of a dive would generally be considered unacceptable if the diver is not expected to cope with any single reasonably foreseeable incident with a significant probability of occurrence during that dive. Precisely where the line is drawn depends on circumstances. Commercial diving operations tend to be less tolerant of risk than recreational, particularly technical divers, who are less constrained by occupational health and safety legislation.

Decompression sickness and arterial gas embolism in recreational diving are associated with certain demographic, environmental, and dive style factors. A statistical study published in 2005 tested potential risk factors: age, gender, body mass index, smoking, asthma, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, previous decompression illness, years since certification, dives in last year, number of diving days, number of dives in a repetitive series, last dive depth, nitrox use, and drysuit use. No significant associations with decompression sickness or arterial gas embolism were found for asthma, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, smoking, or body mass index. Increased depth, previous DCI, days diving, and being male were associated with higher risk for decompression sickness and arterial gas embolism. Nitrox and drysuit use, greater frequency of diving in the past year, increasing age, and years since certification were associated with lower risk, possibly as indicators of more extensive training and experience.

Statistics show diving fatalities comparable to motor vehicle accidents of 16.4 per 100,000 divers and 16 per 100,000 drivers. Divers Alert Network 2014 data shows there are 3.174 million recreational scuba divers in America, of which 2.351 million dive 1 to 7 times per year and 823,000 dive 8 or more times per year. It is reasonable to say that the average would be in the neighbourhood of 5 dives per year. (Full article...)
This list identifies the legislation governing underwater diving activities listed by region. Some legislation affects only professional diving, other may affect only recreational diving, or all diving activities. The list includes primary and delegated legislation, and international standards for the conduct of diving adopted by national states, but does not include legislation or standards relating to manufacture or testing of diving equipment. (Full article...)
A dive team listens to a safety brief from their dive supervisor

The diving supervisor is the professional diving team member who is directly responsible for the diving operation's safety and the management of any incidents or accidents that may occur during the operation; the supervisor is required to be available at the control point of the diving operation for the diving operation's duration, and to manage the planned dive and any contingencies that may occur. Details of competence, requirements, qualifications, registration and formal appointment differ depending on jurisdiction and relevant codes of practice. Diving supervisors are used in commercial diving, military diving, public safety diving and scientific diving operations.

The control point is the place where the supervisor can best monitor the status of the diver and progress of the dive. For scuba dives this is commonly on deck of the dive boat where there is a good view of the surface above the operational area, or on the shore at a nearby point where the divers can be seen when surfaced. For surface supplied diving, the view of the water is usually still necessary, and a view of the line tenders handling the umbilicals is also required, unless there is live video feed from the divers and two-way audio communications with the tenders. The control position also includes the gas panel and communications panel, so the supervisor can remain as fully informed as practicable of the status of the divers and their life support systems during the dive. For bell diving and saturation diving the situation is more complex and the control position may well be inside a compartment where the communications, control and monitoring equipment for the bell and life-support systems are set up.

In recreational diving the term is used to refer to persons managing a recreational dive, with certification such as Divemaster,
Dive Control Specialist, Dive Coordinator, etc. (Full article...)

Дайвинг медицина, расстройства и лечение

Индекс подводной медицины, расстройств и лечения

Во время наполеоновского «S отступления из России зимы 1812 года, многие солдаты умерли от переохлаждения.

Гипотермия определяется как внутренняя температура тела человеканиже 35,0 ° C (95,0 ° F). Симптомы зависят от температуры. При умеренном переохлаждении наблюдается дрожь и спутанность сознания . При умеренном переохлаждении прекращается дрожь и усиливается спутанность сознания. При сильном переохлаждении может наблюдаться парадоксальное раздевание , при котором человек снимает одежду, а также повышенный риск остановки сердца .

Гипотермия имеет два основных типа причин. Обычно это происходит от сильного холода. Это также может произойти из-за любых условий, которые уменьшают выработку тепла или увеличивают тепловые потери. Обычно это включает алкогольную интоксикацию, но может также включатьнизкий уровень сахара в крови , анорексия и пожилой возраст. Температура тела обычно поддерживается на постоянном уровне 36,5–37,5 ° C (97,7–99,5 ° F) с помощью терморегуляции . Попытки повысить температуру тела включают дрожь, повышенную произвольную активность и надевание более теплой одежды. Гипотермия может быть диагностирована либо на основании симптомов человека при наличии факторов риска, либо путем измерения внутренней температуры человека.

Лечение легкого переохлаждения включает теплые напитки, теплую одежду и физическую активность. Пациентам с умеренным переохлаждением рекомендуются согревающие одеяла и подогретые жидкости для внутривенного введения . Людей с умеренным или сильным переохлаждением следует перемещать осторожно. При сильном переохлаждениимогут быть полезны экстракорпоральная мембранная оксигенация (ЭКМО) или искусственное кровообращение . Тем, у кого нет пульса , показана сердечно-легочная реанимация (СЛР) наряду с вышеуказанными мерами. Согревание обычно продолжается до тех пор, пока температура человека не превысит 32 ° C (90 ° F). Если на этом этапе улучшения не наблюдается или уровень калия в крови превышает 12 ммоль / литр в любое время, реанимацию можно прекратить.

Гипотермия является причиной не менее 1500 смертей в год в Соединенных Штатах. Это чаще встречается у пожилых людей и мужчин. Одна из самых низких задокументированных температур тела, из-за которой выжил человек, случайно перенесший переохлаждение, составляет 13,0 ° C (55,4 ° F) при почти утоплении 7-летней девочки в Швеции. Описана выживаемость после более чем шести часов СЛР. У людей, которым применяется ЭКМО или шунтирование, выживаемость составляет около 50%. Смерть от переохлаждения сыграла важную роль во многих войнах. Этот термин происходит от греческого ὑπο, hupo , что означает «под», и θερμία, thermía , что означает «тепло». Противоположностью гипотермии является гипертермия , повышение температуры тела из-за неудачной терморегуляции. ( Полная статья ...)
Vasily Perov: The Drowned, 1867

Drowning is a type of suffocation induced by the submersion or immersion of the mouth and nose in a liquid. Most instances of fatal drowning occur alone or in situations where others present are either unaware of the victim's situation or unable to offer assistance. After successful resuscitation, drowning victims may experience breathing problems, vomiting, confusion, or unconsciousness. Occasionally, victims may not begin experiencing these symptoms for several hours after they are rescued. An incident of drowning can also cause further complications for victims due to low body temperature, aspiration of vomit, or acute respiratory distress syndrome (respiratory failure from lung inflammation).

Drowning is more likely to happen when spending extended periods of time near large bodies of water. Risk factors for drowning include a lack of training or attention to children, alcohol or drug use, epilepsy, and lack of higher education, which is often accompanied by diminished or non-existent swimming skills. Common drowning locations include natural and man-made bodies of water, bathtubs, swimming pools, and even buckets and toilets.

Drowning occurs when an individual spends too much time with their nose and mouth submerged in a liquid to the point of being unable to breathe. If this is not followed by an exit to the surface, low oxygen levels and excess carbon dioxide in the blood trigger a neurological state of breathing emergency, which results in increased physical distress and occasional contractions of the vocal folds. Significant amounts of water usually only enter the lungs later in the process.

While the word "drowning" is commonly associated with fatal results, drowning may be classified into three different types: drowning with death, drowning with ongoing health problems, and drowning with no ongoing health problems. Sometimes the term "near-drowning" is used in the latter cases. Among children who survive, poor outcomes occur in about 7.5% of cases.

Steps to prevent drowning include: teaching children and adults to swim and to recognise unsafe water conditions; never swimming alone, use of personal flotation devices on boats and when swimming in unfavourable conditions; limiting or removing access to water, such as with fencing of swimming pools; and exercising appropriate supervision. Treatment of victims who are not breathing should begin with opening the airway and providing five breaths of mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is recommended for a person whose heart has stopped beating and has been underwater for less than an hour. (Full article...)
Carbon monoxide

Carbon monoxide poisoning typically occurs from breathing in carbon monoxide (CO) at excessive levels. Symptoms are often described as "flu-like" and commonly include headache, dizziness, weakness, vomiting, chest pain, and confusion. Large exposures can result in loss of consciousness, arrhythmias, seizures, or death. The classically described "cherry red skin" rarely occurs. Long-term complications may include feeling tired, trouble with memory, and movement problems. In those exposed to smoke, cyanide toxicity should also be considered.

Carbon monoxide poisoning can occur accidentally, as an attempt to end one's own life, or as an attempt to end another's life. CO is a colorless and odorless gas which is initially non-irritating. It is produced during incomplete burning of organic matter. This can occur from motor vehicles, heaters, or cooking equipment that run on carbon-based fuels. It can also occur from exposure to methylene chloride. Carbon monoxide primarily causes adverse effects by combining with hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin (HbCO) preventing the blood from carrying oxygen. Additionally, myoglobin and mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase are affected. Diagnosis is based on a HbCO level of more than 3% among nonsmokers and more than 10% among smokers.

Efforts to prevent poisoning include carbon monoxide detectors, proper venting of gas appliances, keeping chimneys clean, and keeping exhaust systems of vehicles in good repair. Treatment of poisoning generally consists of giving 100% oxygen along with supportive care. This should generally be carried out until symptoms are no longer present and the HbCO level is less than 10%. While hyperbaric oxygen therapy is used for severe poisonings, the benefit over standard oxygen delivery is unclear. The risk of death among those affected is between 1 and 30%.

Carbon monoxide poisoning is relatively common, resulting in more than 20,000 emergency room visits a year in the United States. It is the most common type of fatal poisoning in many countries. In the United States, non-fire related cases result in more than 400 deaths a year. Poisonings occur more often in the winter, particularly from the use of portable generators during power outages. The toxic effects of CO have been known since ancient history. The discovery that hemoglobin is affected by CO was made in 1857. (Full article...)
In 1942–43 the UK Government carried out extensive testing for oxygen toxicity in divers. The chamber is pressurised with air to 3.7 bar. The subject in the centre is breathing 100% oxygen from a mask.

Oxygen toxicity is a condition resulting from the harmful effects of breathing molecular oxygen (O
₂) at increased partial pressures. Severe cases can result in cell damage and death, with effects most often seen in the central nervous system, lungs, and eyes. Historically, the central nervous system condition was called the Paul Bert effect, and the pulmonary condition the Lorrain Smith effect, after the researchers who pioneered the discoveries and descriptions in the late 19th century. Oxygen toxicity is a concern for underwater divers, those on high concentrations of supplemental oxygen (particularly premature babies), and those undergoing hyperbaric oxygen therapy.

The result of breathing increased partial pressures of oxygen is hyperoxia, an excess of oxygen in body tissues. The body is affected in different ways depending on the type of exposure. Central nervous system toxicity is caused by short exposure to high partial pressures of oxygen at greater than atmospheric pressure. Pulmonary and ocular toxicity result from longer exposure to increased oxygen levels at normal pressure. Symptoms may include disorientation, breathing problems, and vision changes such as myopia. Prolonged exposure to above-normal oxygen partial pressures, or shorter exposures to very high partial pressures, can cause oxidative damage to cell membranes, collapse of the alveoli in the lungs, retinal detachment, and seizures. Oxygen toxicity is managed by reducing the exposure to increased oxygen levels. Studies show that, in the long term, a robust recovery from most types of oxygen toxicity is possible.

Protocols for avoidance of the effects of hyperoxia exist in fields where oxygen is breathed at higher-than-normal partial pressures, including underwater diving using compressed breathing gases, hyperbaric medicine, neonatal care and human spaceflight. These protocols have resulted in the increasing rarity of seizures due to oxygen toxicity, with pulmonary and ocular damage being mainly confined to the problems of managing premature infants.

In recent years, oxygen has become available for recreational use in oxygen bars. The US Food and Drug Administration has warned those suffering from problems such as heart or lung disease not to use oxygen bars. Scuba divers use breathing gases containing up to 100% oxygen, and should have specific training in using such gases. (Full article...)
Latent hypoxia affects the diver on ascent

Latent hypoxia occurs when a diver under pressure has a tissue oxygen concentration that is sufficient to support consciousness at that pressure, but insufficient at surface pressure. This problem is associated with freediving blackout and the presence of hypoxic breathing gas mixtures in underwater breathing apparatus, particularly in diving rebreathers.

The term latent hypoxia strictly refers to the situation while the potential victim is still conscious, but is also loosely applied to the consequential blackout, which is a form of hypoxic blackout also referred to as blackout of ascent or deep water blackout, though deep water blackout is also used to refer to the final stage of nitrogen narcosis. (Full article...)
A Sechrist Monoplace hyperbaric chamber at the Moose Jaw Union Hospital, Saskatchewan, Canada

Hyperbaric medicine is medical treatment in which an ambient pressure greater than sea level atmospheric pressure is a necessary component. The treatment comprises hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT), the medical use of oxygen at an ambient pressure higher than atmospheric pressure, and therapeutic recompression for decompression illness, intended to reduce the injurious effects of systemic gas bubbles by physically reducing their size and providing improved conditions for elimination of bubbles and excess dissolved gas.

The equipment required for hyperbaric oxygen treatment consists of a pressure chamber, which may be of rigid or flexible construction, and a means of delivering 100% oxygen. Operation is performed to a predetermined schedule by trained personnel who monitor the patient and may adjust the schedule as required. HBOT found early use in the treatment of decompression sickness, and has also shown great effectiveness in treating conditions such as gas gangrene and carbon monoxide poisoning. More recent research has examined the possibility that it may also have value for other conditions such as cerebral palsy and multiple sclerosis, but no significant evidence has been found.

Therapeutic recompression is usually also provided in a hyperbaric chamber. It is the definitive treatment for decompression sickness and may also be used to treat arterial gas embolism caused by pulmonary barotrauma of ascent. In emergencies divers may sometimes be treated by in-water recompression (when a chamber is not available) if suitable diving equipment (to reasonably secure the airway) is available.

A number of hyperbaric treatment schedules have been published over the years for both therapeutic recompression and hyperbaric oxygen therapy for other conditions. (Full article...)
In physiology, isobaric counterdiffusion (ICD) is the diffusion of different gases into and out of tissues while under a constant ambient pressure, after a change of gas composition, and the physiological effects of this phenomenon. The term inert gas counterdiffusion is sometimes used as a synonym, but can also be applied to situations where the ambient pressure changes. It has relevance in mixed gas diving and anesthesiology. (Full article...)
PC based spirometer output

Fitness to dive, (also medical fitness to dive), is the medical and physical suitability of a diver to function safely in the underwater environment using underwater diving equipment and procedures. Depending on the circumstances it may be established by a signed statement by the diver that he or she does not suffer from any of the listed disqualifying conditions and is able to manage the ordinary physical requirements of diving, to a detailed medical examination by a physician registered as a medical examiner of divers following a procedural checklist, and a legal document of fitness to dive issued by the medical examiner.

The most important medical is the one before starting diving, as the diver can be screened to prevent exposure when a dangerous condition exists. The other important medicals are after some significant illness, where medical intervention is needed there and has to be done by a doctor who is competent in diving medicine, and can not be done by prescriptive rules.

Psychological factors can affect fitness to dive, particularly where they affect response to emergencies, or risk taking behaviour. The use of medical and recreational drugs, can also influence fitness to dive, both for physiological and behavioural reasons. In some cases prescription drug use may have a net positive effect, when effectively treating an underlying condition, but frequently the side effects of effective medication may have undesirable influences on the fitness of diver, and most cases of recreational drug use result in an impaired fitness to dive, and a significantly increased risk of sub-optimal response to emergencies. (Full article...)
A person wearing a simple face mask

Oxygen therapy, also known as supplemental oxygen, is the use of oxygen as a medical treatment. This can include for low blood oxygen, carbon monoxide toxicity, cluster headaches, and to maintain enough oxygen while inhaled anesthetics are given. Long-term oxygen is often useful in people with chronically low oxygen such as from severe COPD or cystic fibrosis. Oxygen can be given in a number of ways including nasal cannula, face mask, and inside a hyperbaric chamber.

Oxygen is required for normal cell metabolism. Excessively high concentrations can cause oxygen toxicity such as lung damage or result in respiratory failure in those who are predisposed. Higher oxygen concentrations also increase the risk of fires, particularly while smoking, and without humidification can also dry out the nose. The target oxygen saturation recommended depends on the condition being treated. In most conditions a saturation of 94–96% is recommended, while in those at risk of carbon dioxide retention saturations of 88–92% are preferred, and in those with carbon monoxide toxicity or cardiac arrest they should be as high as possible. Air is typically 21% oxygen by volume while oxygen therapy increases this by some amount up to 100%.

The use of oxygen in medicine became common around 1917. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. The cost of home oxygen is about US$150 a month in Brazil and US$400 a month in the United States. Home oxygen can be provided either by oxygen tanks or an oxygen concentrator. Oxygen is believed to be the most common treatment given in hospitals in the developed world. (Full article...)
Compression arthralgia is pain in the joints caused by exposure to high ambient pressure at a relatively high rate of compression, experienced by underwater divers.
Also referred to in the US Navy diving Manual as compression pains.

Compression arthralgia has been recorded as deep aching pain in the knees, shoulders, fingers, back, hips, neck and ribs. Pain may be sudden and intense in onset and may be accompanied by a feeling of roughness in the joints.

Onset commonly occurs around 60 msw (meters of sea water), and symptoms are variable depending on depth, compression rate and personal susceptibility. Intensity increases with depth and may be aggravated by exercise. Compression arthralgia is generally a problem of deep diving, particularly deep saturation diving, where at sufficient depth even slow compression may produce symptoms. Peter B. Bennett et al. showed that the use of trimix could reduce the symptoms.

Fast compression (descent) may produce symptoms as shallow as 30 msw. Saturation divers generally compress much more slowly, and symptoms are unlikely at less than around 90 msw. At depths beyond 180m even very slow compression may produce symptoms. Spontaneous improvement may occur over time at depth, but this is unpredictable, and pain may persist into decompression. Symptoms may be distinguished from decompression sickness as they are present before starting decompression, and resolve with decreasing pressure, the opposite of decompression sickness. The pain may be sufficiently severe to limit the diver's capacity for work, and may also limit travel rate and depth of downward excursions. (Full article...)
A recompression chamber is used to treat some diving disorders.

Diving medicine, also called undersea and hyperbaric medicine (UHB), is the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of conditions caused by humans entering the undersea environment. It includes the effects on the body of pressure on gases, the diagnosis and treatment of conditions caused by marine hazards and how relationships of a diver's fitness to dive affect a diver's safety. Diving medical practitioners are also expected to be competent in the examination of divers and potential divers to determine fitness to dive.

Hyperbaric medicine is a corollary field associated with diving, since recompression in a hyperbaric chamber is used as a treatment for two of the most significant diving-related illnesses, decompression sickness and arterial gas embolism.

Diving medicine deals with medical research on issues of diving, the prevention of diving disorders, treatment of diving accidents and diving fitness. The field includes the effect of breathing gases and their contaminants under high pressure on the human body and the relationship between the state of physical and psychological health of the diver and safety.

In diving accidents it is common for multiple disorders to occur together and interact with each other, both causatively and as complications.

Diving medicine is a branch of occupational medicine and sports medicine, and at first aid level, an important part of diver education. (Full article...)
Cyanosis of the hand in an elderly person with low oxygen saturation

Hypoxia is a condition in which the body or a region of the body is deprived of adequate oxygen supply at the tissue level. Hypoxia may be classified as either generalized, affecting the whole body, or local, affecting a region of the body. Although hypoxia is often a pathological condition, variations in arterial oxygen concentrations can be part of the normal physiology, for example, during hypoventilation training or strenuous physical exercise.

Hypoxia differs from hypoxemia and anoxemia in that hypoxia refers to a state in which oxygen supply is insufficient, whereas hypoxemia and anoxemia refer specifically to states that have low or zero arterial oxygen supply. Hypoxia in which there is complete deprivation of oxygen supply is referred to as anoxia.

Generalized hypoxia occurs in healthy people when they ascend to high altitude, where it causes altitude sickness leading to potentially fatal complications: high altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) and high altitude cerebral edema (HACE). Hypoxia also occurs in healthy individuals when breathing mixtures of gases with a low oxygen content, e.g. while diving underwater especially when using closed-circuit rebreather systems that control the amount of oxygen in the supplied air. Mild, non-damaging intermittent hypoxia is used intentionally during altitude training to develop an athletic performance adaptation at both the systemic and cellular level.

In acute or silent hypoxia, a person's oxygen level in blood cells and tissue can drop without any initial warning, even though the individual's chest x-ray shows diffuse pneumonia with an oxygen level below normal. Doctors report cases of silent hypoxia with COVID-19 patients who did not experience shortness of breath or coughing until their oxygen levels had plummeted to such a degree that the patients risked acute respiratory distress (ARDS) and organ failure. In a New York Times opinion piece (April 20th, 2020), emergency room doctor Richard Levitan reports "a vast majority of Covid pneumonia patients I met had remarkably low oxygen saturations at triage—seemingly incompatible with life—but they were using their cellphones as we put them on monitors."

Hypoxia is a common complication of preterm birth in newborn infants. Because the lungs develop late in pregnancy, premature infants frequently possess underdeveloped lungs. To improve lung function, doctors frequently place infants at risk of hypoxia inside incubators (also known as humidicribs) that provide warmth, humidity, and oxygen. More serious cases are treated with CPAP.

The 2019 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to William G. Kaelin Jr., Sir Peter J. Ratcliffe, and Gregg L. Semenza in recognition of their discovery of cellular mechanisms to sense and adapt to different oxygen concentrations, establishing a basis for how oxygen levels affect physiological function. (Full article...)
Decompression Illness (DCI) comprises two different conditions caused by rapid decompression of the body. These conditions present similar symptoms and require the same initial first aid. Scuba divers are trained to ascent slowly from depth to avoid DCI. Although the incidence is relatively rare, the consequences can be serious and potentially fatal, especially if untreated. (Full article...)
A drawing of people with sea sickness from 1841

Motion sickness occurs due to a difference between actual and expected motion. Symptoms commonly include nausea, vomiting, cold sweat, headache, sleepiness, yawning, loss of appetite, and increased salivation. Complications may rarely include dehydration, electrolyte problems, or a lower esophageal tear.

The cause of motion sickness is either real or perceived motion. This may include from car travel, air travel, sea travel, space travel, or reality simulation. Risk factors include pregnancy, migraines, and Meniere’s disease. The diagnosis is based on symptoms.

Treatment may include behavioral measures or medications. Behavioral measures include keeping the head still and focusing on the horizon. Three types of medications are useful: antimuscarinics such as scopolamine, H1 antihistamines such as dimenhydrinate, and amphetamines such as dexamphetamine. Side effects, however, may limit the use of medications. A number of medications used for nausea such as ondansetron are not effective for motion sickness.

Nearly all people are affected with sufficient motion. Susceptibility, however, is variable. Women are more easily affected than men. Motion sickness has been described since at least the time of Hippocrates. "Nausea" is from the Greek naus meaning ship. (Full article...)

Подводные инструменты и оружие

Указатель подводных инструментов и оружия

Подводная штурмовая винтовка АСМ-ДТ

ASM-DT является русским складным запасом подводного огнестрельным оружием . Возник в 1990-е годы. ( Полная статья ... )
The Hawaiian sling is a device used in spearfishing. The sling operates much like a bow and arrow does on land, but energy is stored in rubber tubing rather than a wooden or fiberglass bow. (Full article...)
The M1 Underwater Defense Gun, also called the Underwater Defense Gun Mark 1 Mod 0, is an underwater firearm developed by the United States during the Cold War. Similar to other underwater firearms, it fires a special 4.25 inch metal dart as its projectile. (Full article...)
A limpet mine is a type of naval mine attached to a target by magnets. It is so named because of its superficial similarity to the limpet, a type of sea snail that clings tightly to rocks or other hard surfaces.

A swimmer or diver may attach the mine, which is usually designed with hollow compartments to give the mine just slight negative buoyancy, making it easier to handle underwater.

Usually limpet mines are set off by a time fuse. They may also have an anti-handling device. (Full article...)
OS P11

The HK P11 is a Heckler & Koch pistol designed as an underwater firearm that was developed in 1976. It has five barrels and each fires a 7.62 X 36mm dart electrically. Loading is by means of a five-round case. The design resembles that of a pepper-box firearm. (Full article...)
Airlift dredging

An airlift is device based on a pipe, used in nautical archaeology to suck small objects, sand and mud from the sea bed and to transport the resulting debris upwards and away from its source. It is sometimes called a suction dredge. A water dredge or water eductor may be used for the same purpose.

Typically, the airlift is constructed from a 3-metre to 10 metre long, 10 cm diameter pipe. A controllable compressed air supply vents into the inside, lower end of the pipe (The input end always being the lower end). Compressed air is injected into the pipe in one to three second bursts with an interval long enough to let the resulting bubble to rise to the higher, output end of the pipe. The bubble moves water through the pipe sucking debris from the lower end and depositing it from the upper end of the pipe. Ejected debris can be either cast off (as in simply removing overburden) or collected in a mesh cage for inspection (as more often is the case in nautical archaeology). It is often designed to be hand-operated by a diver.

Airlift pumps are used by water utilities, farmers and others to extract water from deep wells. In such cases the pipes can be 30, 60 or more meters deep underground. Airlift pumps are governed by the physics of two-phase flow. (Full article...)
Polespear under tension with a cluster head attached.

A polespear (hand spear or gidgee) is an underwater tool used in spearfishing, consisting of a pole, a spear tip, and a rubber loop. Polespears are often mistakenly called Hawaiian slings, but the tools differ. A Hawaiian sling is akin to a slingshot or an underwater bow and arrow, since the spear and the propelling device are separate, while a polespear has the sling (rubber loop) attached to the spear. (Full article...)
Powerhead may refer to:
- Powerhead (firearm), a direct-contact, underwater firearm
- Powerhead (aquarium), a submersible aquarium pump
- Powerhead (rocket engine), the preburners and turbopumps of a pump-fed rocket engine (excludes the engine combustion chamber and nozzle)
- Powerhead (pump), the mechanical drive of any one of several non-aquarium pump types; marine propeller powerhead, fountain powerhead, etc.
(Full article...)
Israeli Navy Underwater Missions Unit transfers equipment using lifting-bags

A lifting bag is an item of diving equipment consisting of a robust and air-tight bag with straps, which is used to lift heavy objects underwater by means of the bag's buoyancy. The heavy object can either be moved horizontally underwater by the diver or sent unaccompanied to the surface.

Lift bag appropriate capacity should match the task at hand. If the lift bag is grossly oversized a runaway or otherwise out of control ascent may result. Commercially available lifting bags may incorporate dump valves to allow the operator to control the buoyancy during ascent, but this is a hazardous operation with high risk of entanglement in an uncontrolled lift or sinking. If a single bag is insufficient, multiple bags may be used, and should be distributed to suit the load.

There are also lifting bags used on land as short lift jacks for lifting cars or heavy loads or lifting bags which are used in machines as a type of pneumatic actuator which provides load over a large area. These lifting bags of the AS/CR type are for example used in the brake mechanism of rollercoasters. (Full article...)
APS underwater rifle with 5.66-mm cartridge

The APS underwater assault rifle (APS stands for Avtomat Podvodny Spetsialnyy (Автомат Подводный Специальный) or "Special Underwater Assault Rifle") is an underwater firearm designed by the Soviet Union in the early 1970s. It was adopted in 1975. Made by the Tula Arms Plant (Тульский Оружейный Завод, Tul'skiy Oruzheynyy Zavod) in Russia, it is exported by Rosoboronexport.

Under water, ordinary bullets are inaccurate and have a very short range. The APS fires a 120 mm (4.75 in) long 5.66 mm calibre steel bolt specially designed for this weapon. Its magazine holds 26 rounds. The APS's barrel is not rifled; the fired projectile is kept in line by hydrodynamic effects; as a result, the APS is somewhat inaccurate when fired out of water.

The APS has a longer range and more penetrating power than spearguns. This is useful in such situations such as shooting an opposing diver through a reinforced dry suit, a protective helmet (whether air-holding or not), thick tough parts of breathing sets and their harnesses, and the plastic casings and transparent covers of some small underwater vehicles.

The APS is more powerful than a pistol, but is bulkier and takes longer to aim, particularly swinging its long barrel and large flat magazine sideways through water. (Full article...)
Assembled tremie placing concrete underwater

A tremie is a watertight pipe, usually of about 250mm inside diameter (150 to 300 mm), with a conical hopper at its upper end above the water level. It may have a loose plug or a valve at the bottom end. A tremie is used to pour concrete underwater in a way that avoids washout of cement from the mix due to turbulent water contact with the concrete while it is flowing. This produces a more reliable strength of the product. Common applications include the following.
- Caissons, which are the foundations of bridges, among other things, that span bodies of water.
- Pilings.
- Monitoring wells. Builders use tremie methods for materials other than concrete, and for industries other than construction. For example, bentonite slurries for monitoring wells are often emplaced via tremie pipe.
(Full article...)
The 5.45mm ADS rifle

The ADS is a Russian assault rifle specially made for combat divers. It is of a bullpup layout and is chambered in the 5.45×39mm M74 round. The ADS can adapt a suppressor and optical sights. (Full article...)
The APS amphibious rifle, an underwater assault rifle

An underwater firearm is a firearm designed for use underwater. They are in the arms inventories of many nations. A common feature of underwater firearms or needleguns is that they fire flechettes or spear-like bolts instead of standard bullets. These may be fired by pressurised gas. (Full article...)
ROV at work in an underwater oil and gas field. The ROV is operating a subsea torque tool (wrench) on a valve on the subsea structure.

A remotely operated underwater vehicle (technically ROUV but commonly just ROV) is a tethered underwater mobile device. (Full article...)
Speargun

A speargun is a ranged underwater fishing device designed to launch a tethered spear or harpoon to impale fish or other marine animals and targets. Spearguns are used in sport fishing and underwater target shooting. The two basic types are pneumatic and elastic (powered by rubber bands). Spear types come in a number of varieties including threaded, break-away and lined. Floats and buoys are common accessories when targeting larger fish. (Full article...)

История подводного плавания

Указатель к истории подводного плавания

Хронология подводной техники водолазной хронологический список известных событий в истории развития подводного водолазного оборудования . За частичным исключением погружений с задержкой дыхания, развитие возможностей, масштабов и популярности подводного плавания было тесно связано с доступными технологиями и физиологическими ограничениями подводной среды.

Основными ограничениями являются обеспечение дыхательного газа, чтобы обеспечить выносливость, превышающую пределы одного вдоха, способность видеть достаточно ясно, чтобы эффективно выполнять задачу, и достаточная мобильность, чтобы добраться до рабочего места и обратно. ( Полная статья ... )
Operation Thunderhead was a highly classified combat mission conducted by U.S. Navy SEAL Team One and Underwater Demolition Team 11 (UDT-11) in 1972. The mission was conducted off the coast of North Vietnam during the Vietnam War to rescue two U.S. airmen said to be escaping from a prisoner of war prison in Hanoi. The prisoners, including Air Force Colonel John A. Dramesi were planning to steal a boat and travel down the Red River to the Gulf of Tonkin.

Lieutenant Melvin Spence Dry was killed on the mission. He was the last SEAL lost during the Vietnam War. His father, retired Navy Captain Melvin H. Dry, spent the rest of his life trying to learn the circumstances surrounding his son's death. The details, however, were long shrouded in secrecy. (Full article...)
This painting, An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump by Joseph Wright of Derby, 1768, depicts an experiment originally performed by Robert Boyle in 1660.

Decompression in the context of diving derives from the reduction in ambient pressure experienced by the diver during the ascent at the end of a dive or hyperbaric exposure and refers to both the reduction in pressure and the process of allowing dissolved inert gases to be eliminated from the tissues during this reduction in pressure.

When a diver descends in the water column the ambient pressure rises. Breathing gas is supplied at the same pressure as the surrounding water, and some of this gas dissolves into the diver's blood and other tissues. Inert gas continues to be taken up until the gas dissolved in the diver is in a state of equilibrium with the breathing gas in the diver's lungs, (see: "Saturation diving"), or the diver moves up in the water column and reduces the ambient pressure of the breathing gas until the inert gases dissolved in the tissues are at a higher concentration than the equilibrium state, and start diffusing out again. Dissolved inert gases such as nitrogen or helium can form bubbles in the blood and tissues of the diver if the partial pressures of the dissolved gases in the diver gets too high when compared to the ambient pressure. These bubbles, and products of injury caused by the bubbles, can cause damage to tissues known as decompression sickness or the bends. The immediate goal of controlled decompression is to avoid development of symptoms of bubble formation in the tissues of the diver, and the long-term goal is to also avoid complications due to sub-clinical decompression injury.

The symptoms of decompression sickness are known to be caused by damage resulting from the formation and growth of bubbles of inert gas within the tissues and by blockage of arterial blood supply to tissues by gas bubbles and other emboli consequential to bubble formation and tissue damage. The precise mechanisms of bubble formation and the damage they cause has been the subject of medical research for a considerable time and several hypotheses have been advanced and tested. Tables and algorithms for predicting the outcome of decompression schedules for specified hyperbaric exposures have been proposed, tested, and used, and usually found to be of some use but not entirely reliable. Decompression remains a procedure with some risk, but this has been reduced and is generally considered to be acceptable for dives within the well-tested range of commercial, military and recreational diving.

The first recorded experimental work related to decompression was conducted by Robert Boyle, who subjected experimental animals to reduced ambient pressure by use of a primitive vacuum pump. In the earliest experiments the subjects died from asphyxiation, but in later experiments, signs of what was later to become known as decompression sickness were observed. Later, when technological advances allowed the use of pressurisation of mines and caissons to exclude water ingress, miners were observed to present symptoms of what would become known as caisson disease, the bends, and decompression sickness. Once it was recognized that the symptoms were caused by gas bubbles, and that recompression could relieve the symptoms, further work showed that it was possible to avoid symptoms by slow decompression, and subsequently various theoretical models have been derived to predict low-risk decompression profiles and treatment of decompression sickness. (Full article...)
Dr. Lambertsen, U.S. Army in 1942

Christian James Lambertsen (May 15, 1917 – February 11, 2011) was an American environmental medicine and diving medicine specialist who was principally responsible for developing the United States Navy frogmen's rebreathers in the early 1940s for underwater warfare. Lambertsen designed a series of rebreathers in 1940 (patent filing date: 16 Dec 1940) and in 1944 (patent issue date: 2 May 1944) and first called his invention breathing apparatus. Later, after the war, he called it Laru (portmanteau for Lambertsen Amphibious Respiratory Unit) and finally, in 1952, he changed his invention's name again to SCUBA (Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus). Although diving regulator technology was invented by Émile Gagnan and Jacques-Yves Cousteau in 1943 and was unrelated to rebreathers, the current use of the word SCUBA is largely attributed to the Gagnan-Cousteau invention. The US Navy considers Lambertsen to be "the father of the Frogmen". (Full article...)
The Russian government committed to raising the wreck and recovering the crew's remains in a US$65M salvage operation. They contracted with the Dutch marine salvage companies Smit International and Mammoet to raise Kursk from the sea floor. It became the largest salvage operation of its type ever accomplished. The salvage operation was extremely dangerous because of the risk of radiation from the reactor. Only seven of the submarine's 24 torpedoes were accounted for. (Full article...)
16th century Islamic painting of Alexander the Great lowered in a glass diving bell.

The history of underwater diving starts with freediving as a widespread means of hunting and gathering, both for food and other valuable resources such as pearls and coral, By classical Greek and Roman times commercial applications such as sponge diving and marine salvage were established, Military diving also has a long history, going back at least as far as the Peloponnesian War, with recreational and sporting applications being a recent development. Technological development in ambient pressure diving started with stone weights (skandalopetra) for fast descent. In the 16th and 17th centuries diving bells became functionally useful when a renewable supply of air could be provided to the diver at depth, and progressed to surface supplied diving helmets - in effect miniature diving bells covering the diver's head and supplied with compressed air by manually operated pumps - which were improved by attaching a waterproof suit to the helmet and in the early 19th century became the standard diving dress.

Limitations in mobility of the surface supplied systems encouraged the development of both open circuit and closed circuit scuba in the 20th century, which allow the diver a much greater autonomy. These also became popular during World War II for clandestine military operations, and post-war for scientific, search and rescue, media diving, recreational and technical diving. The heavy free-flow surface supplied copper helmets evolved into lightweight demand helmets, which are more economical with breathing gas, which is particularly important for deeper dives and expensive helium based breathing mixtures, and saturation diving reduced the risks of decompression sickness for deep and long exposures.

An alternative approach was the development of the "single atmosphere" or armoured suit, which isolates the diver from the pressure at depth, at the cost of great mechanical complexity and limited dexterity. The technology first became practicable in the middle 20th century. Isolation of the diver from the environment was taken further by the development of remotely operated underwater vehicles in the late 20th century, where the operator controls the ROV from the surface, and autonomous underwater vehicles, which dispense with an operator altogether. All of these modes are still in use and each has a range of applications where it has advantages over the others, though diving bells have largely been relegated to a means of transport for surface supplied divers. In some cases combinations are particularly effective, such as the simultaneous use of surface orientated or saturation surface supplied diving equipment and work or observation class remotely operated vehicles.

Although the pathophysiology of decompression sickness in not yet fully understood, decompression practice has reached a stage where the risk is fairly low, and most incidences are successfully treated by therapeutic recompression and hyperbaric oxygen therapy. Mixed breathing gases are routinely used to reduce the effects of the hyperbaric environment on ambient pressure divers. (Full article...)
Edward D. Thalmann, MD,
expert in hyperbaric medicine

Capt. Edward Deforest Thalmann, USN (ret.) (April 3, 1945 – July 24, 2004) was an American hyperbaric medicine specialist who was principally responsible for developing the current United States Navy dive tables for mixed-gas diving, which are based on his eponymous Thalmann Algorithm (VVAL18). At the time of his death, Thalmann was serving as Assistant Medical Director of the Divers Alert Network (DAN) and an Assistant Clinical Professor in Anesthesiology at Duke University's Center for Hyperbaric Medicine and Environmental Physiology. (Full article...)
An Italian manned torpedo

The Raid on Alexandria was carried out on 19 December 1941 by Italian Navy divers of the Decima Flottiglia MAS, who attacked and disabled two Royal Navy battleships in the harbour of Alexandria, Egypt, using manned torpedoes. (Full article...)
Brian Andrew Hills, born 19 March 1934 in Cardiff, Wales, died 13 January 2006 in Brisbane, Queensland, was a physiologist who worked on decompression theory.

Early decompression work was done with Hugh LeMessurier's aeromedicine group at the department of Physiology, University of Adelaide. His "thermodynamic decompression model" was one of the first models in which decompression is controlled by the volume of gas bubbles coming out of solution. In this model, pain only DCS is modelled by a single tissue which is diffusion-limited for gas uptake, and bubble-formation during decompression causes "phase equilibration" of partial pressures between dissolved and free gases. The driving mechanism for gas elimination in this tissue is inherent unsaturation, also called partial pressure vacancy or the oxygen window, where oxygen metabolised is replaced by more soluble carbon dioxide. This model was used to explain the effectiveness of the Torres Strait Islands pearl divers' empirically developed decompression schedules, which used deeper decompression stops and less overall decompression time than the current naval decompression schedules. This trend to deeper decompression stops has become a feature of more recent decompression models.

Hills made a significant contribution to the mainstream scientific literature of some 186 articles between 1967 and 2006. The first 15 years of this contribution are mostly related to decompression theory. Other contributions to decompression science include the development of two early decompression computers, a method to detect tissue bubbles using electrical impedance, the use of kangaroo rats as animal models for decompression sickness, theoretical and experimental work on bubble nucleation, inert gas uptake and washout, acclimatisation to decompression sickness, and isobaric counterdiffusion. (Full article...)
USS Westchester County underway, c. 1960

USS Westchester County (LST-1167) was a Terrebonne Parish-class tank landing ship built for the United States Navy at the tail end of the Korean War. Named for Westchester County, New York, she was the only U.S. Naval vessel to bear the name. The ship served in the Vietnam War and was damaged by limpet mines set by Viet Cong frogmen. It was repaired and later sold to the Turkish Navy and finally sunk as a target in 2014. (Full article...)
Scuba diver of the late 1960s

The history of scuba diving is closely linked with the history of scuba equipment. By the turn of the twentieth century, two basic architectures for underwater breathing apparatus had been pioneered; open-circuit surface supplied equipment where the diver's exhaled gas is vented directly into the water, and closed-circuit breathing apparatus where the diver's carbon dioxide is filtered from the exhaled breathing gas, which is then recirculated, and more gas added to replenish the oxygen content. Closed circuit equipment was more easily adapted to scuba in the absence of reliable, portable, and economical high pressure gas storage vessels. By the mid-twentieth century, high pressure cylinders were available and two systems for scuba had emerged: open-circuit scuba where the diver's exhaled breath is vented directly into the water, and closed-circuit scuba where the carbon dioxide is removed from the diver's exhaled breath which has oxygen added and is recirculated. Oxygen rebreathers are severely depth limited due to oxygen toxicity risk, which increases with depth, and the available systems for mixed gas rebreathers were fairly bulky and designed for use with diving helmets. The first commercially practical scuba rebreather was designed and built by the diving engineer Henry Fleuss in 1878, while working for Siebe Gorman in London. His self contained breathing apparatus consisted of a rubber mask connected to a breathing bag, with an estimated 50–60% oxygen supplied from a copper tank and carbon dioxide scrubbed by passing it through a bundle of rope yarn soaked in a solution of caustic potash. During the 1930s and all through World War II, the British, Italians and Germans developed and extensively used oxygen rebreathers to equip the first frogmen. In the U.S. Major Christian J. Lambertsen invented a free-swimming oxygen rebreather. In 1952 he patented a modification of his apparatus, this time named SCUBA, an acronym for "self-contained underwater breathing apparatus," which became the generic English word for autonomous breathing equipment for diving, and later for the activity using the equipment. After World War II, military frogmen continued to use rebreathers since they do not make bubbles which would give away the presence of the divers. The high percentage of oxygen used by these early rebreather systems limited the depth at which they could be used due to the risk of convulsions caused by acute oxygen toxicity.

Although a working demand regulator system had been invented in 1864 by Auguste Denayrouze and Benoît Rouquayrol, the first open-circuit scuba system developed in 1925 by Yves Le Prieur in France was a manually adjusted free-flow system with a low endurance, which limited the practical usefulness of the system. In 1942, during the German occupation of France, Jacques-Yves Cousteau and Émile Gagnan designed the first successful and safe open-circuit scuba, a twin hose system known as the Aqua-Lung. Their system combined an improved demand regulator with high-pressure air tanks. This was patented in 1945. To sell his regulator in English-speaking countries Cousteau registered the Aqua-Lung trademark, which was first licensed to the U.S. Divers company, and in 1948 to Siebe Gorman of England, Siebe Gorman was allowed to sell in Commonwealth countries, but had difficulty in meeting the demand and the U.S. patent prevented others from making the product. The patent was circumvented by Ted Eldred of Melbourne, Australia, who developed the single-hose open-circuit scuba system, which separates the first stage and demand valve of the pressure regulator by a low-pressure hose, puts the demand valve at the diver's mouth, and releases exhaled gas through the demand valve casing. Eldred sold the first Porpoise Model CA single hose scuba early in 1952.

Early scuba sets were usually provided with a plain harness of shoulder straps and waist belt. Many harnesses did not have a backplate, and the cylinders rested directly against the diver's back. Early scuba divers dived without a buoyancy aid. In an emergency they had to jettison their weights. In the 1960s adjustable buoyancy life jackets (ABLJ) became available, which can be used to compensate for loss of buoyancy at depth due to compression of the neoprene wetsuit and as a lifejacket that will hold an unconscious diver face-upwards at the surface. The first versions were inflated from a small disposable carbon dioxide cylinder, later with a small direct coupled air cylinder. A low-pressure feed from the regulator first-stage to an inflation/deflation valve unit an oral inflation valve and a dump valve lets the volume of the ABLJ be controlled as a buoyancy aid. In 1971 the stabilizer jacket was introduced by ScubaPro. This class of buoyancy aid is known as a buoyancy control device or buoyancy compensator. A backplate and wing is an alternative configuration of scuba harness with a buoyancy compensation bladder known as a "wing" mounted behind the diver, sandwiched between the backplate and the cylinder or cylinders. This arrangement became popular with cave divers making long or deep dives, who needed to carry several extra cylinders, as it clears the front and sides of the diver for other equipment to be attached in the region where it is easily accessible. Sidemount is a scuba diving equipment configuration which has basic scuba sets, each comprising a single cylinder with a dedicated regulator and pressure gauge, mounted alongside the diver, clipped to the harness below the shoulders and along the hips, instead of on the back of the diver. It originated as a configuration for advanced cave diving, as it facilitates penetration of tight sections of cave, as sets can be easily removed and remounted when necessary. Sidemount diving has grown in popularity within the technical diving community for general decompression diving, and has become a popular specialty for recreational diving.

In the 1950s the United States Navy (USN) documented procedures for military use of what is now called nitrox, and in 1970, Morgan Wells, of (NOAA) began instituting diving procedures for oxygen-enriched air. In 1979 NOAA published procedures for the scientific use of nitrox in the NOAA Diving Manual. In 1985 IAND (International Association of Nitrox Divers) began teaching nitrox use for recreational diving. After initial resistance by some agencies, the use of a single nitrox mixture has become part of recreational diving, and multiple gas mixtures are common in technical diving to reduce overall decompression time. Nitrogen narcosis limits the depth when breathing nitrox mixtures. In 1924 the US Navy started to investigate the possibility of using helium and after animal experiments, human subjects breathing heliox 20/80 (20% oxygen, 80% helium) were successfully decompressed from deep dives, Cave divers started using trimix to allow deeper dives and it was used extensively in the 1987 Wakulla Springs Project and spread to the north-east American wreck diving community. The challenges of deeper dives and longer penetrations and the large amounts of breathing gas necessary for these dive profiles and ready availability of oxygen sensing cells beginning in the late 1980s led to a resurgence of interest in rebreather diving. By accurately measuring the partial pressure of oxygen, it became possible to maintain and accurately monitor a breathable gas mixture in the loop at any depth. In the mid 1990s semi-closed circuit rebreathers became available for the recreational scuba market, followed by closed circuit rebreathers around the turn of the millennium. Rebreathers are currently (2018) manufactured for the military, technical and recreational scuba markets. (Full article...)
Defenses against swimmer incursions are security methods developed to protect watercraft, ports and installations, and other sensitive resources in or near vulnerable waterways from potential threats or intrusions by swimmers or scuba divers. (Full article...)
Because Egypt had such valuable cargo, it was not long before salvage attempts began. However, the Egypt′s wreck was not found until 1930. She was found lying upright in a depth of 170 metres (560 ft), making the recovery very difficult with the technology of the time. Giovanni Quaglia from the Genoese company Società Ricuperi Marittimi (So.Ri.Ma.) was in charge of the operation and decided to use a diver in an armoured suit to direct the placing of explosives to blast through the ship to expose the strong room. The diver was then used to direct a grab which picked up the gold and silver. The salvage continued until 1935 by which time 98% of the contents of the strong room had been recovered. (Full article...)
Colonel William Paul "Bill" Fife USAF (Ret) (November 23, 1917 – October 13, 2008) was a United States Air Force officer that first proved the feasibility for U.S. Air Force Security Service airborne Communications Intelligence (COMINT) collection and Fife is considered the "Father of Airborne Intercept". Fife was also a hyperbaric medicine specialist who was known for his pioneering research on pressurized environments ranging from high altitude to underwater habitats. Fife was a Professor Emeritus at Texas A&M University. (Full article...)

Обучение дайверов, регистрация и сертификация

Индекс обучения дайверов, сертификации, регистрации и стандартов

Уровни обучения подводному плаванию с аквалангом, используемые ISO, PADI, CMAS, SSI и NAUI.

Автономный дайвер описывает минимальные требования к базовому обучению и сертификации для аквалангистов-любителей в международном стандарте ISO 24801-2 и эквивалентном европейском стандарте EN 14153-2. Различные организации предлагают обучение, соответствующее требованиям стандарта Autonomous Diver. Сертификат, соответствующий Autonomous Diver, позволяет самостоятельно погружаться с напарником в открытой воде . Большинство обучающих организаций не рекомендуют превышать глубину 18 или 20 метров на этом уровне сертификации. После завершения этой сертификации обучение может быть расширено до дайв-лидера по ISO 24801-3 или до промежуточного уровня, не определенного международными стандартами.

Перед начальной подготовкой дайвера, а затем через регулярные промежутки времени дайвер должен пройти обследование на пригодность для дайвинга у врача-дайвера. В некоторых странах такой экзамен требуется по закону и является предварительным условием для любого обучения во многих школах дайвинга. Сертификат дайвинга, соответствующий Autonomous Diver, и медицинское свидетельство могут потребоваться для аренды оборудования для дайвинга и участия в организованных погружениях. В некоторых странах (например, в Австралии) закон требует от каждого дайвера подтвердить базовую сертификацию перед погружением без надзора.

Некоторые организации по обучению дайверов предлагают дайвера среднего уровня под присмотром.Сертификация, соответствующая стандарту ISO 24801-1, который обычно разделяет содержание обучения Autonomous Diver только на два курса и не дает правообладателю принимать участие в независимых погружениях. ( Полная статья ... )
The International Diving Educators Association or (IDEA) was founded in 1952 as the Florida Skin Divers Association (FSDA) Scuba Training Committee, and later changed its name to the Florida Scuba Divers Association. Then, in February 1976 the FSDA Scuba Training Committee members voted to create the International Diving Educators Association, based on the principles of the FSDA to make the organization an international Scuba diving certification agency.^{[citation needed]}

IDEA has affiliates operating in Asia and Europe.

IDEA Europe is a member of RSTC Europe. (Full article...)
Divers Institute of Technology (DIT) is a private, for-profit educational institution for the training of commercial divers and located in Seattle, Washington. Founded in 1968 in Seattle, Washington, Divers Institute of Technology is located on the North end of Lake Union near Gas Works Park in the Wallingford district.

The seven-month program consists of 900 hours, including dive time. There are twelve classes per calendar year, with a new class starting each month. From July 1, 2006 to June 30, 2007, the average number of students per class was 23, with a retention rate of 90%. It is estimated that 10% of the students are women.

Divers Institute is one of only two dive schools in the U.S. to grant students the Canadian Standards Association Unrestricted Surface Supplied Air Diver Certification, issued by the Diver Certification Board of Canada, allowing graduates to dive internationally. (Full article...)
The Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC) is an international SCUBA training and certification agency. It has an estimated 5 million active recreational divers.

Founded in 1969, PDIC was established out of the need to properly train SCUBA instructors.
After more than ten years of training exclusively instructors, the decision was made to offer training starting at the open water level.

PDIC is a founding member of the (United States) Recreational Scuba Training Council and is recognised as a scuba training and certification provider by several state and national organisations in the USA. (Full article...)
Association Internationale pour le Développement de l'Apnée (AIDA) (English: International Association for the Development of Apnea) is a worldwide rule- and record-keeping body for competitive breath holding events, also known as freediving. It sets standards for safety, comparability of Official World Record attempts and freedive education. AIDA International is the parent organization for national clubs of the same name. (Full article...)
Technical Diving International (TDI) claims to be the largest technical diving certification agency in the world, and one of the first agencies to offer mixed gas and rebreather training. TDI specializes in more advanced Scuba diving techniques, particularly diving with rebreathers and use of breathing gases such as trimix and heliox.

TDI provides courses and certification for divers and for instructors. (Full article...)
The American Academy of Underwater Sciences (AAUS) is a group of Scientific organizations and individual members who conduct scientific and educational activities underwater. It was organized in 1977 and incorporated in the State of California in 1983. (Full article...)
Scuba diving education levels as used by ISO, PADI, CMAS, SSI and NAUI

Rescue Diver is a scuba diving certification level provided by several diver training agencies, such as PADI, SSI, SDI, and NAUI, which emphasises emergency response and diver rescue.

The certification level is loosely equivalent the CMAS ** Diver qualification and the BSAC sports diver, although the European courses tend to be longer and more intensive than their U.S. counterparts.

Most organizations have a minimum age requirement of 15 to undertake the Rescue Diver course, although PADI does permit certification of "Junior" Rescue Divers. (Full article...)
The Scottish Sub Aqua Club (ScotSAC) was founded in Glasgow in 1953. Today it is a company limited by guarantee with nearly 70 branches and 1200 members. ScotSAC instructors provide scuba diving training to branch members on an amateur basis. It is recognised by sportscotland as the National Governing Body for Sub Aqua in Scotland.

ScotSAC has developed a comprehensive training schedule to prepare members to carry out recreational diving safely in the sea around Scotland. The qualifications awarded by ScotSAC are recognised worldwide. (Full article...)
The Universal Referral Program (URP) is a system intended to facilitate completion of training for open water recreational scuba diving students who intend to do their training dives at a place different from the venue for the theory and confined water training. More specifically, it allows inter agency referral - the referral instructor is not necessarily a member of the same certification agency as the initiating instructor.

The program was developed in 1998 by educators, risk managers and attorneys for the diver certification agencies International Diving Educators Association (IDEA), National Association of Scuba Diving Schools (NASDS), National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI), Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC), Scuba Schools International (SSI) and YMCA SCUBA Program based on industry training standards. The system established referral paperwork, procedures and a minimum list of skills to be performed. The URP enrollment procedures and instructor qualifications are managed by each training agency for their members. The referral instructor must review and verify that the candidate's medical history form has been completed, conduct the required open water skills exercises, and assess the diver on the specified diving skills, then complete the paperwork. If performance was satisfactory a temporary certification may be issued. The completed form is returned to the initiating instructor to issue the certification.

PADI instructors can also accept students for certification dives using the Universal Referral Program form.

The advantages of the URP are that the learner diver can complete the theory and confined water training near home, which should be more economical in time and cost, then get the open water training in a vacation environment, where the water conditions are likely to be more pleasant, and can be followed by further recreational dives. The hometown study environment is found to be more conducive to learning than the vacation environment, and referral students tend to have a better grasp of the theoretical side of the training. Completing the theory and pool training at the local dive shop saves on vacation time and allows the learner more time to practice and develop skills as the time pressure is reduced. They also have the opportunity to become involved in the local diving community.

Disadvantages of the Referral Program are that there may be a delay between the initial part of the course and the open water dives. The time allowed varies from 6 months to a year, depending on the certification agency, and this is long enough to forget some skills and knowledge, so a refresher may be required. It is preferable to do both parts within a short period, and this may be logistically complicated, and the weather conditions may not be conducive to this schedule. The change between instructors may not be helpful, as they may differ in style and personality, and there may be small differences in technique which could cause confusion, but could also provide a better range of experience. It is also likely that rented equipment will be unfamiliar at the referral site. An unfamiliar set of equipment should be tested in benign conditions where adjustments can be made in comfort and safety, which requires more time. There may also be an increased cost because of the split between two service providers, the additional paperwork and other overheads and sometimes the necessity to repeat training of forgotten skills. (Full article...)
The National Academy of Scuba Educators, also known as NASE Worldwide, is a recreational scuba training organization which was founded in Texas during 1982. In February 2011 NASE re-launched its image and developed new standards and practices. NASE's training program consists of three streams - recreational scuba diving, technical and professional diving in the recreational field (instructors and divemasters). NASE operates in Colombia, Chile, South Korea, Russia and the United States of America. It has a program of resort and dive center recognition with businesses recognised in the following countries - Barbados, Canada, Fiji, Honduras, Malaysia, and the Turks and Caicos Islands. (Full article...)
ACUC, American and Canadian Underwater Certifications Inc. is an international recreational diving membership and diver training organization. Formerly known as the Association of Canadian Underwater Councils, it was formed as a not for profit collective of regional dive councils to create a national forum for their common interest and concerns. It soon began developing a training curriculum better suited to the Canadian conditions that many other training agencies neglected. It was later incorporated in 1986 in Canada by Robert Cronkwright. Cronkwright was a National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI) instructor from 1969 to 1971. In 1971 he crossed over to the Association of Canadian Underwater Councils and became a Training Director, Secretary/Treasurer and later Vice President of the Association (1972–1984). He was also Training Director for the Ontario Underwater Council (OUC) in the 1970s.

Cronkwright's long-time friend and ACUC Instructor Trainer Evaluator, Juan Rodriguez, purchased shares in the company in the mid-1990s. Since becoming an ACUC Instructor, Rodriguez was instrumental in expanding ACUC's business interests in the global marketplace. In May 2003 Juan Rodriguez became the sole owner and President when Cronkwright retired. Nancy Cronkwright, Cronkwright's daughter, continues as Vice President and Director of the corporation. She has been with the company since its beginning in 1986, and she was Office Manager for the Association of Canadian Underwater Councils (1982–1986). (Full article...)
The National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI Worldwide) is a non-profit 501 (c) (6) association of scuba instructors. It is a recreational dive certification and membership organization established to provide international diver standards and education programs. The agency was founded in 1960 by Albert Tillman and Neal Hess. NAUI is headquartered in Tampa, Florida, US) with dive and member instructors, resorts, stores, service and training centers, located in Japan, South Africa, the Middle East, Europe, Brazil and the Pacific Rim.

It was officially CE and International Organization for Standardization (ISO) certified in May 2007 in all three diver levels and both instructor levels and re-certified for its Scuba Diving Programs as meeting ISO and European Underwater Federation standards on November 24, 2015.

The US Internal Revenue Service determined that NAUI be a tax-exempt, non-profit educational organization in 1971.

Agency standards, policies, and ethics are governed by the Association's Board of Directors, who are members themselves and who are each elected through a democratic election process by the overall instructor membership. (Full article...)
Typical UK sump access conditions

The Cave Diving Group (CDG) is a United Kingdom-based diver training organisation specialising in cave diving.

The CDG was founded in 1946 by Graham Balcombe, making it the world's oldest continuing diving club. Graham Balcombe and Jack Sheppard pioneered cave diving in the late 1930s, notably at Wookey Hole in Somerset.

Passages through caves are often blocked by a submerged section, or sump. Cavers in many countries have tried to pass these barriers in a variety of ways; using the simple "free dive" with a lungful of air or by utilising the available diving technology of the day. (Full article...)

Организации подводного плавания

Указатель организаций подводного плавания

Национальная ассоциация спелеоподводного ( NACD ) была основана в 1968 году с целью повышения безопасности подводного плавания в пещерах через обучение и образование. Штаб-квартира некоммерческой корпорации NACD находится в Гейнсвилле, Флорида, но ее администрация и операции осуществляются из Хай-Спрингс, Флорида .

NACD предлагает учебные курсы и сертификацию по пещерному и пещерному дайвингу , а также курсы инструкторов. В рамках своей миссии по повышению стандартов безопасности в пещерном дайвинге NACD издает ежеквартальный журнал, проводит семинары и спонсирует проекты по пещерному дайвингу. ( Полная статья ... )
Save Ontario Shipwrecks (SOS) is a Provincial Heritage Organization in Ontario, Canada. SOS is a public charitable organization which operates through Local Chapter Committees supported by a Provincial Board of Directors and Provincial Executive. (Full article...)
Logo of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA /ˈnoʊ.ə/ NOH-ə) is an American scientific agency within the United States Department of Commerce that focuses on the conditions of the oceans, major waterways, and the atmosphere.

NOAA warns of dangerous weather, charts seas, guides the use and protection of ocean and coastal resources and conducts research to provide the understanding and improve stewardship of the environment. (Full article...)
The European Underwater and Baromedical Society (EUBS) is a primary source of information for diving and hyperbaric medicine physiology worldwide. The organization was initially formed as the European Underwater and Biomedical Society in 1971 and was an affiliate of the Undersea Medical Society for several years. Its purpose is promoting the advancement of diving and hyperbaric medicine and the education of those involved in the field; EUBS provides a forum and a journal for exchange of information and promotes research into diving medicine. (Full article...)
Typical UK sump access conditions

The Cave Diving Group (CDG) is a United Kingdom-based diver training organisation specialising in cave diving.

The CDG was founded in 1946 by Graham Balcombe, making it the world's oldest continuing diving club. Graham Balcombe and Jack Sheppard pioneered cave diving in the late 1930s, notably at Wookey Hole in Somerset.

Passages through caves are often blocked by a submerged section, or sump. Cavers in many countries have tried to pass these barriers in a variety of ways; using the simple "free dive" with a lungful of air or by utilising the available diving technology of the day. (Full article...)
The Sea Research Society (SRS) is a non-profit educational research organization founded in 1972. Its general purpose is to promote scientific and educational endeavors in any of the marine sciences or marine histories with the goal of obtaining knowledge for the ultimate benefit to mankind. It does both archival research and underwater expeditions in search of historic shipwrecks. (Full article...)
British Underwater Sports Association (BUSA) is the British affiliate of the Sports Committee of Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS).

It was created in 1997 to fill the vacancy on the CMAS Sport Committee for the United Kingdom caused by the expulsion of the British Sub-Aqua Club from CMAS in order to ensure ongoing access to international competition offered by CMAS for British underwater sports teams.

Its members include the British Finswimming Association, British Octopush Association and British Spearfishing Association.

Its role is exclusively one of representation of British underwater sports at the international level. It does not have any recognition from the British government or the governments of the four constituent countries of the UK. BUSA members seeking government funding for sporting activities are required to obtain a letter of support from the National Governing Body (NGB) for Sub Aqua in their country. These include the BSAC for the UK and England, Northern Ireland Federation of Sub-Aqua Clubs for Northern Ireland, the Scottish Sub Aqua Club for Scotland and the Welsh Association of Sub Aqua Clubs for Wales. However, in June 2013, UK Sport and Sport England reportedly published their requirements for the acceptance of BUSA as the NGB for underwater sports in the UK. (Full article...)
The European Diving Technology Committee eV. (EDTC) is an association registered in Kiel, Federal Republic of Germany for the purpose of making professional diving safer by creating international standards. Membership is open to all countries of the continent of Europe, with each country having one representative from the medical, industrial, government and trade union sectors. Some major diving industry associations are also involved. As of May 2016, 22 nations and 6 international non-governmental organisations were represented in the EDTC. (Full article...)
Green Fins is an approach to sustainable marine tourism activities operating in South East Asia, Caribbean and the Indian Ocean that works with business operators, communities and governments. It helps to implement environmental standards for the diving and snorkelling industry through a code of conduct. The overall aim of the initiative is to mitigate damaging impacts to the marine environment from the marine tourism sector and improve sustainability. The code of conduct is a set of 15 points designed to tackle the most common and detrimental effects of SCUBA diving and snorkelling activities on the habitat in which they operate. (Full article...)
The Artificial Reef Society of British Columbia (ARSBC) is a registered non-profit society based in Vancouver, British Columbia (BC), and is a registered tax-deductible charity in Canada.

Its aim is to create environmentally and economically sustainable 'artificial reefs' in British Columbia and around the world for the protection and enhancement of sensitive marine habitats, while also providing interesting destinations for the enjoyment of scuba divers.

Since 1991, the Society has sunk seven ships and one Boeing 737 in the waters off BC's west coast.

The Society has no paid employees, and consists of a volunteer Board of Directors and hundreds of volunteers from BC, Alberta, and the northwest United States who have worked on its projects. Its mission is to create and maintain artificial reefs for use by scuba divers as a means to promote the local economy, the technology and safety procedures involved in creating artificial reefs, promote the use of artificial reefs to minimize the impact caused by scuba divers on other historically significant or ecologically sensitive sites, and to monitor all developments regarding their artificial reefs for environmental impact and diver safety. (Full article...)
The Cave Divers Association of Australia (CDAA) is a cave diving organisation which was formed in September 1973 to represent the interests of recreational scuba divers who dive in water‐filled caves and sinkholes principally in the Lower South East (now called the Limestone Coast) of South Australia (SA) and secondly in other parts of Australia. Its formation occurred after a series of diving fatalities in waterfilled caves and sinkholes in the Mount Gambier region between 1969 and 1973 and in parallel to a South Australian Government inquiry into these deaths. The CDAA's major achievement has been the dramatic reduction of fatalities via the introduction of a site rating scheme and an associated testing system which was brought in during the mid-1970s. While its major area of operation is in the Limestone Coast region of SA, it administers and supports cave diving activity in other parts of Australia including the Nullarbor Plain and Wellington, New South Wales. (Full article...)
Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT; pronounced [ˈkoːɾʲ.lʲə fˠɔ.hiːnʲ], Irish for "Under-Wave Council"), also known as Irish Underwater Council, is the national governing body for recreational diving and underwater sports in Ireland. (Full article...)
The Australian Underwater Federation (AUF) is the governing body for underwater sports in Australia. (Full article...)
NEDU insignia.jpg

The United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit (NEDU or NAVXDIVINGU) is the primary source of diving and hyperbaric operational guidance for the US Navy. It is located within the Naval Support Activity Panama City in Panama City Beach, Bay County, Florida. (Full article...)

Публикации по подводному плаванию

Указатель публикаций по подводному дайвингу

Последнее погружение: Роковое падение отца и сына в глубины океана (2000) - этонаучно-популярнаякнига, написаннаядайвером Берни Чоудхурии опубликованная издательствомHarperCollins. В нем задокументировано фатальное погружение Криса Роуза-старшего и Криса «Крисси» Роуза-младшего, группы отца и сына, погибших у побережья Нью-Джерси в 1992 году. Автор - эксперт по дайвингу и друг Роуз.

Дайверы исследовали немецкую подводную лодку на глубине 230 футов (70 м) у побережья Нью-Джерси. Несмотря на опыт использованиягазовых смесей длятехнических погружений,таких как «тримикс» (добавление газообразного гелия к азоту и кислороду, содержащимся в воздухе), они ныряли только на сжатом воздухе. Пара намеревалась получитькапитанский бортовой журнал так называемого U-Who, чтобы «осуществить свою мечту нырнуть в славу».

Чоудхури - технический дайвер, который, согласно рецензии писателя Нила Мэтьюза на книгу Роберта Курсона « Shadow Divers» (2004), «был одним из первых, кто применил принципы пещерного дайвинга к глубоководным затонувшим кораблям». Также, по словам Мэтьюза, «его книга документирует, как столкновения философии снаряжения между спелеологами и затонувшими дайверами отражают столкновение дайверских субкультур». ( Полная статья ... )
The Silent World (subtitle: A story of undersea discovery and adventure, by the first men to swim at record depths with the freedom of fish) is a 1953 book co-authored by Captain Jacques-Yves Cousteau and Frédéric Dumas, and edited by James Dugan. (Full article...)
The Darkness Beckons (ISBN 0-939748-32-0) is the definitive book on the history of UK cave diving.

It was written by Martyn Farr, a major figure in UK diving at a time when many of the original participants were still alive and available for interview. (Full article...)
The NOAA Diving Manual: Diving for Science and Technology is a book originally published by the US Department of Commerce for use as training and operational guidance for National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration divers. NOAA also publish a Diving Standards and Safety Manual (NDSSM), which describes the minimum safety standards for their diving operations. Several editions of the diving manual have been published, and several editors and authors have contributed over the years. The book is widely used as a reference work by professional and recreational divers. (Full article...)
Goldfinder is a 2001 autobiography of British diver and treasure hunter Keith Jessop. It tells the story of Jessop's life and salvaging such underwater treasures as HMS Edinburgh, one of the greatest deep sea salvage operations and most financially rewarding in history.

One day in April 1981 Jessop's survey ship called Damtor began searching for the wreck of HMS Edinburgh in the Barents Sea in the Arctic Ocean of the coast of Russia. The ship had been sunk in battle in 1942 during World War II while carrying payment for military equipment from Murmansk in Russia to Scotland. His company, called Jessop Marine, won the contract for the salvage rights to the wreck of Edinburgh because his methods, involving complex cutting machinery and divers, were deemed more appropriate for a war grave, compared to the explosives-oriented methods of other companies.

In late April 1981, the survey ship discovered the ship's final resting place at an approximate position of 72.00°N, 35.00°E, at a depth of 245 metres (804 ft) within ten days of the start of the operation. Using specialist camera equipment, Damtor took detailed film of the wreck, which allowed Jessop and his divers to carefully plan the salvage operation.

Later that year, on 30 August, the dive-support vessel Stephaniturm journeyed to the site, and salvage operations began in earnest. Leading the operation undersea, by mid-September of that year Jessop was able to salvage over $100,000,000 in Russian gold bullion (431 bars) from the wreck out of 465 over several days making him the greatest underwater treasurer in history.

Jessop died on 22 May 2010. (Full article...)
Shadow Divers (published in 2004) is a non-fictional book by Robert Kurson recounting of the discovery of a World War II German U-boat 60 miles (97 km) off the coast of New Jersey, United States in 1991. (Full article...)

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Барокамера используется для лечения некоторых заболеваний , водолазных и для подготовки водолазов , чтобы распознать симптомы.

Расстройства дайвинга - это заболевания, возникающие в результате подводного плавания . Эти признаки и симптомы могут проявляться во время погружения, всплытия или в течение нескольких часов после погружения. Дайверы должны дышать газом, имеющим такое же давление, что и окружающее ( давление окружающей среды ), которое может быть намного выше, чем на поверхности. Давление окружающей среды под водой увеличивается на 1 стандартную атмосферу (100 кПа) на каждые 10 метров (33 фута) глубины.

Основными состояниями являются декомпрессионная болезнь (включающая декомпрессионную болезнь и артериальную газовую эмболию).), азотный наркоз , нервный синдром высокого давления , кислородное отравление и баротравма легких (разрыв легкого). Хотя некоторые из них могут возникать в других условиях, они вызывают особую озабоченность во время занятий дайвингом.

Расстройства вызываются вдыханием газа при высоком давлении, встречающемся на глубине, и дайверы часто вдыхают газовую смесь, отличную от воздуха, чтобы смягчить эти эффекты. Найтрокс , содержащий больше кислорода и меньше азота , обычно используется в качестве дыхательного газа, чтобы снизить риск декомпрессионной болезни на рекреационной глубине (примерно до 40 метров (130 футов)).Гелий может быть добавлен для уменьшения количества азота и кислорода в газовой смеси при более глубоком погружении, чтобы уменьшить эффекты наркоза и избежать риска кислородного отравления. Это осложняется на глубинах более 150 метров (500 футов), потому что гелий-кислородная смесь ( гелиокс ) вызывает нервный синдром высокого давления. Более экзотические смеси, такие как гидрелиокс , смесь водорода, гелия и кислорода, используются на больших глубинах, чтобы противодействовать этому. ( Полная статья ... )
Divers breathe a mixture of oxygen, helium and nitrogen for deep dives to avoid the effects of narcosis. A cylinder label shows the maximum operating depth and mixture (oxygen/helium).

Narcosis while diving (also known as nitrogen narcosis, inert gas narcosis, raptures of the deep, Martini effect) is a reversible alteration in consciousness that occurs while diving at depth. It is caused by the anesthetic effect of certain gases at high pressure. The Greek word νάρκωσις (narkōsis), "the act of making numb", is derived from νάρκη (narkē), "numbness, torpor", a term used by Homer and Hippocrates. Narcosis produces a state similar to drunkenness (alcohol intoxication), or nitrous oxide inhalation. It can occur during shallow dives, but does not usually become noticeable at depths less than 30 meters (100 ft).

Except for helium and probably neon, all gases that can be breathed have a narcotic effect, although widely varying in degree. The effect is consistently greater for gases with a higher lipid solubility, and there is good evidence that the two properties are mechanistically related. As depth increases, the mental impairment may become hazardous. Divers can learn to cope with some of the effects of narcosis, but it is impossible to develop a tolerance. Narcosis affects all divers, although susceptibility varies widely among individuals and from dive to dive.

Narcosis may be completely reversed in a few minutes by ascending to a shallower depth, with no long-term effects. Thus narcosis while diving in open water rarely develops into a serious problem as long as the divers are aware of its symptoms, and are able to ascend to manage it. Diving much beyond 40 m (130 ft) is generally considered outside the scope of recreational diving. In order to dive at greater depths, as narcosis and oxygen toxicity become critical risk factors, specialist training is required in the use of various helium-containing gas mixtures such as trimix or heliox. These mixtures prevent narcosis by replacing some or all of the inert fraction of the breathing gas with non-narcotic helium. (Full article...)
Divers decompressing in the water at the end of a dive

The decompression of a diver is the reduction in ambient pressure experienced during ascent from depth. It is also the process of elimination of dissolved inert gases from the diver's body, which occurs during the ascent, largely during pauses in the ascent known as decompression stops, and after surfacing until the gas concentrations reach equilibrium. Divers breathing gas at ambient pressure need to ascend at a rate determined by their exposure to pressure and the breathing gas in use. A diver who only breathes gas at atmospheric pressure when free-diving or snorkelling will not usually need to decompress, Divers using an atmospheric diving suit do not need to decompress as they are never exposed to high ambient pressure.

When a diver descends in the water the hydrostatic pressure, and therefore the ambient pressure, rises. Because breathing gas is supplied at ambient pressure, some of this gas dissolves into the diver's blood and is transferred by the blood to other tissues. Inert gas such as nitrogen or helium continues to be taken up until the gas dissolved in the diver is in a state of equilibrium with the breathing gas in the diver's lungs, at which point the diver is saturated for that depth and breathing mixture, or the depth, and therefore the pressure, is changed, or the partial pressures of the gases are changed by modifying the breathing gas mixture. During ascent, the ambient pressure is reduced, and at some stage the inert gases dissolved in any given tissue will be at a higher concentration than the equilibrium state and start to diffuse out again. If the pressure reduction is sufficient, excess gas may form bubbles, which may lead to decompression sickness, a possibly debilitating or life-threatening condition. It is essential that divers manage their decompression to avoid excessive bubble formation and decompression sickness. A mismanaged decompression usually results from reducing the ambient pressure too quickly for the amount of gas in solution to be eliminated safely. These bubbles may block arterial blood supply to tissues or directly cause tissue damage. If the decompression is effective, the asymptomatic venous microbubbles present after most dives are eliminated from the diver's body in the alveolar capillary beds of the lungs. If they are not given enough time, or more bubbles are created than can be eliminated safely, the bubbles grow in size and number causing the symptoms and injuries of decompression sickness. The immediate goal of controlled decompression is to avoid development of symptoms of bubble formation in the tissues of the diver, and the long-term goal is to avoid complications due to sub-clinical decompression injury.

The mechanisms of bubble formation and the damage bubbles cause has been the subject of medical research for a considerable time and several hypotheses have been advanced and tested. Tables and algorithms for predicting the outcome of decompression schedules for specified hyperbaric exposures have been proposed, tested and used, and in many cases, superseded. Although constantly refined and generally considered acceptably reliable, the actual outcome for any individual diver remains slightly unpredictable. Although decompression retains some risk, this is now generally considered acceptable for dives within the well tested range of normal recreational and professional diving. Nevertheless, all currently popular decompression procedures advise a 'safety stop' additional to any stops required by the algorithm, usually of about three to five minutes at 3 to 6 metres (10 to 20 ft), even on an otherwise continuous no-stop ascent.

Decompression may be continuous or staged. A staged decompression ascent is interrupted by decompression stops at calculated depth intervals, but the entire ascent is actually part of the decompression and the ascent rate is critical to harmless elimination of inert gas. A no-decompression dive, or more accurately, a dive with no-stop decompression, relies on limiting the ascent rate for avoidance of excessive bubble formation in the fastest tissues. The elapsed time at surface pressure immediately after a dive is also an important part of decompression and can be thought of as the last decompression stop of a dive. It can take up to 24 hours for the body to return to its normal atmospheric levels of inert gas saturation after a dive. When time is spent on the surface between dives this is known as the "surface interval" and is considered when calculating decompression requirements for the subsequent dive. (Full article...)
Two United States Navy sailors prepare for training inside a decompression chamber.

Decompression sickness (DCS; also known as divers' disease, the bends, aerobullosis, or caisson disease) describes a condition arising from dissolved gases coming out of solution into bubbles inside the body on depressurisation. DCS most commonly refers to problems arising from underwater diving decompression (i.e., during ascent), but may be experienced in other depressurisation events such as emerging from a caisson, flying in an unpressurised aircraft at high altitude, and extravehicular activity from spacecraft. DCS and arterial gas embolism are collectively referred to as decompression illness.

Since bubbles can form in or migrate to any part of the body, DCS can produce many symptoms, and its effects may vary from joint pain and rashes to paralysis and death. Individual susceptibility can vary from day to day, and different individuals under the same conditions may be affected differently or not at all. The classification of types of DCS by its symptoms has evolved since its original description over a hundred years ago. The severity of symptoms varies from barely noticeable to rapidly fatal.

Risk of DCS caused by diving can be managed through proper decompression procedures and contracting it is now uncommon. Its potential severity has driven much research to prevent it and divers almost universally use dive tables or dive computers to limit their exposure and to control their ascent speed. If DCS is suspected, it is treated by hyperbaric oxygen therapy in a recompression chamber. Diagnosis is confirmed by a positive response to the treatment. If treated early, there is a significantly higher chance of successful recovery. (Full article...)
Solo diver surveying a dive site. The bailout cylinder can be seen slung at the diver's left side

Solo diving is the practice of self-sufficient underwater diving without a "dive buddy", particularly with reference to scuba diving, but the term is also applied to freediving. Surface supplied diving and atmospheric suit diving are single diver underwater activities but are accompanied by an on-surface support team dedicated to the safety of the diver, and not considered solo diving in its truest sense.

Solo diving has occurred for millennia as evidenced by artifacts dating back to the ancient people of Mesopotamia when humans dived to gather food and to collect pearl oysters. It wasn't until the 1950s, with the development of formalised recreational dive training, that recreational solo diving was considered dangerous, particularly for beginners. In an effort to mitigate associated risks, some scuba certification agencies incorporated the practice of buddy diving into their diver training programmes. Some divers, typically those with advanced underwater skills, prefer solo diving over buddy diving and assume responsibility for their own safety. Professionally, solo diving has always been an option as it applies to operational requirements and risk assessment. It customarily involves voice or line communications from diver to surface, usually with a diver at the surface on standby ready to assist on short notice. Recreational divers seldom have such options available.

The recreational solo diver uses enhanced procedures, skills and equipment to mitigate the risks associated with not having another diver immediately available to assist if something goes wrong. The skills and procedures may be learned through a variety of effective methods to achieve appropriate competence, including formal training programmes with associated assessment and certification. Recreational solo diving, once discouraged by most training agencies, has been accepted since the late 1990s by some training agencies that will qualify experienced divers skilled in self-sufficiency and redundant backup equipment. (Full article...)
This painting, An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump by Joseph Wright of Derby, 1768, depicts an experiment originally performed by Robert Boyle in 1660.

Decompression in the context of diving derives from the reduction in ambient pressure experienced by the diver during the ascent at the end of a dive or hyperbaric exposure and refers to both the reduction in pressure and the process of allowing dissolved inert gases to be eliminated from the tissues during this reduction in pressure.

When a diver descends in the water column the ambient pressure rises. Breathing gas is supplied at the same pressure as the surrounding water, and some of this gas dissolves into the diver's blood and other tissues. Inert gas continues to be taken up until the gas dissolved in the diver is in a state of equilibrium with the breathing gas in the diver's lungs, (see: "Saturation diving"), or the diver moves up in the water column and reduces the ambient pressure of the breathing gas until the inert gases dissolved in the tissues are at a higher concentration than the equilibrium state, and start diffusing out again. Dissolved inert gases such as nitrogen or helium can form bubbles in the blood and tissues of the diver if the partial pressures of the dissolved gases in the diver gets too high when compared to the ambient pressure. These bubbles, and products of injury caused by the bubbles, can cause damage to tissues known as decompression sickness or the bends. The immediate goal of controlled decompression is to avoid development of symptoms of bubble formation in the tissues of the diver, and the long-term goal is to also avoid complications due to sub-clinical decompression injury.

The symptoms of decompression sickness are known to be caused by damage resulting from the formation and growth of bubbles of inert gas within the tissues and by blockage of arterial blood supply to tissues by gas bubbles and other emboli consequential to bubble formation and tissue damage. The precise mechanisms of bubble formation and the damage they cause has been the subject of medical research for a considerable time and several hypotheses have been advanced and tested. Tables and algorithms for predicting the outcome of decompression schedules for specified hyperbaric exposures have been proposed, tested, and used, and usually found to be of some use but not entirely reliable. Decompression remains a procedure with some risk, but this has been reduced and is generally considered to be acceptable for dives within the well-tested range of commercial, military and recreational diving.

The first recorded experimental work related to decompression was conducted by Robert Boyle, who subjected experimental animals to reduced ambient pressure by use of a primitive vacuum pump. In the earliest experiments the subjects died from asphyxiation, but in later experiments, signs of what was later to become known as decompression sickness were observed. Later, when technological advances allowed the use of pressurisation of mines and caissons to exclude water ingress, miners were observed to present symptoms of what would become known as caisson disease, the bends, and decompression sickness. Once it was recognized that the symptoms were caused by gas bubbles, and that recompression could relieve the symptoms, further work showed that it was possible to avoid symptoms by slow decompression, and subsequently various theoretical models have been derived to predict low-risk decompression profiles and treatment of decompression sickness. (Full article...)
The hand signal "OK"

Diver communications are the methods used by divers to communicate with each other or with surface members of the dive team. In professional diving, communication is usually between a single working diver and the diving supervisor at the surface control point. This is considered important both for managing the diving work, and as a safety measure for monitoring the condition of the diver. The traditional method of communication was by line signals, but this has been superseded by voice communication, and line signals are now used in emergencies when voice communications have failed. Surface supplied divers often carry a closed circuit video camera on the helmet which allows the surface team to see what the diver is doing and to be involved in inspection tasks. This can also be used to transmit hand signals to the surface if voice communications fails. Underwater slates may be used to write text messages which can be shown to other divers, and there are some dive computers which allow a limited number of pre-programmed text messages to be sent through-water to other divers or surface personnel with compatible equipment.

Communication between divers and between surface personnel and divers is imperfect at best, and non-existent at worst, as a consequence of the physical characteristics of water. This prevents divers from performing at their full potential. Voice communication is the most generally useful format underwater, as visual forms are more affected by visibility, and written communication and signing are relatively slow and restricted by diving equipment.

Recreational divers do not usually have access to voice communication equipment, and it does not generally work with a standard scuba demand valve, so they use other signals. Hand signals are generally used when visibility allows, and there are a range of commonly used signals, with some variations. These signals are often also used by professional divers to communicate with other divers. There is also a range of other special purpose non-verbal signals, mostly used for safety and emergency communications. (Full article...)
Surface supplied diver on diving stage

There are several categories of decompression equipment used to help divers decompress, which is the process required to allow divers to return to the surface safely after spending time underwater at higher pressures.

Decompression obligation for a given dive profile must be calculated and monitored to ensure that the risk of decompression sickness is controlled. Some equipment is specifically for these functions, both during planning before the dive and during the dive. Other equipment is used to mark the underwater position of the diver, as a position reference in low visibility or currents, or to assist the diver's ascent and control the depth.

Decompression may be shortened (or accelerated) by breathing an oxygen-rich "decompression gas" such as a nitrox blend or pure oxygen. The high partial pressure of oxygen in such decompression mixes produces the effect known as the oxygen window. This decompression gas is often carried by scuba divers in side-slung cylinders. Cave divers who can only return by a single route, can leave decompression gas cylinders attached to the guideline at the points where they will be used. Surface-supplied divers will have the composition of the breathing gas controlled at the gas panel.

Divers with long decompression obligations may be decompressed inside gas filled hyperbaric chambers in the water or at the surface, and in the extreme case, saturation divers are only decompressed at the end of a tour of duty that may be several weeks long. (Full article...)
Diving cylinders to be filled at a diving air compressor station

A diving cylinder, scuba tank or diving tank is a gas cylinder used to store and transport the high pressure breathing gas required by a scuba set. It may also be used for surface-supplied diving or as decompression gas or an emergency gas supply for surface supplied diving or scuba. Cylinders provide gas to the diver through the demand valve of a diving regulator or the breathing loop of a diving rebreather.

Diving cylinders are usually manufactured from aluminium or steel alloys, and are normally fitted with one of two common types of cylinder valve for filling and connection to the regulator. Other accessories such as manifolds, cylinder bands, protective nets and boots and carrying handles may be provided. Various configurations of harness may be used to carry the cylinder or cylinders while diving, depending on the application. Cylinders used for scuba typically have an internal volume (known as water capacity) of between 3 and 18 litres (0.11 and 0.64 cu ft) and a maximum working pressure rating from 184 to 300 bars (2,670 to 4,350 psi). Cylinders are also available in smaller sizes, such as 0.5, 1.5 and 2 litres, however these are often used for purposes such as inflation of surface marker buoys, drysuits and buoyancy compensators rather than breathing. Scuba divers may dive with a single cylinder, a pair of similar cylinders, or a main cylinder and a smaller "pony" cylinder, carried on the diver's back or clipped onto the harness at the sides. Paired cylinders may be manifolded together or independent. In some cases, more than two cylinders are needed.

When pressurised, a cylinder carries an equivalent volume of free gas greater than its water capacity, because the gas is compressed up to several hundred times atmospheric pressure. The selection of an appropriate set of diving cylinders for a diving operation is based on the amount of gas required to safely complete the dive. Diving cylinders are most commonly filled with air, but because the main components of air can cause problems when breathed underwater at higher ambient pressure, divers may choose to breathe from cylinders filled with mixtures of gases other than air. Many jurisdictions have regulations that govern the filling, recording of contents, and labelling for diving cylinders. Periodic inspection and testing of cylinders is often obligatory to ensure the safety of operators of filling stations. Pressurised diving cylinders are considered dangerous goods for commercial transportation, and regional and international standards for colouring and labelling may also apply. (Full article...)
Dive profile of an actual dive as recorded by a personal dive computer and displayed on a desktop screen using dive logging software. In this case depth is in metres.

A dive profile is a description of a diver's pressure exposure over time. It may be as simple as just a depth and time pair, as in: "sixty for twenty," (a stay of 20 minutes at a depth of 60 feet) or as complex as a second by second graphical representation of depth and time recorded by a personal dive computer. Several common types of dive profile are specifically named, and these may be characteristic of the purpose of the dive. For example, a working dive at a limited location will often follow a constant depth (square) profile, and a recreational dive is likely to follow a multilevel profile, as the divers start deep and work their way up a reef to get the most out of the available breathing gas. The names are usually descriptive of the graphic appearance.

The intended dive profile is useful as a planning tool as an indication of the risks of decompression sickness and oxygen toxicity for the exposure, and also for estimating the volume of open-circuit breathing gas needed for a planned dive, as these depend in part upon the depth and duration of the dive. A dive profile diagram is conventionally drawn with elapsed time running from left to right and depth increasing down the page.

Many personal dive computers record the instantaneous depth at small time increments during the dive. This data can sometimes be displayed directly on the dive computer or more often downloaded to a personal computer, tablet, or smartphone and displayed in graphic form as a dive profile. (Full article...)
Cap badge of the Special Boat Service

The Special Boat Service (SBS) is the special forces unit of the United Kingdom's Royal Navy. The SBS can trace its origins back to the Second World War when the Army Special Boat Section was formed in 1940. After the Second World War, the Royal Navy formed special forces with several name changes—Special Boat Company was adopted in 1951 and re-designated as the Special Boat Squadron in 1974—until on 28 July 1987 when the unit was renamed as the Special Boat Service after assuming responsibility for maritime counter-terrorism. Most of the operations conducted by the SBS are highly classified, and are rarely commented on by the British government or the Ministry of Defence, owing to their sensitive nature.

The Special Boat Service is the maritime special forces unit of the United Kingdom Special Forces and is described as the sister unit of the British Army 22nd Special Air Service Regiment (22nd SAS), with both under the operational control of the Director Special Forces. In October 2001, full command of the SBS was transferred from the Commandant General Royal Marines of the Royal Marines to the Commander-in-Chief Fleet of the Royal Navy. On 18 November 2003, the SBS were given their own cap badge with the motto "By Strength and Guile". The SBS has traditionally been manned mostly by Royal Marines Commandos. (Full article...)
Map of Bowie Seamount

Bowie Seamount is a large submarine volcano in the northeastern Pacific Ocean, located 180 km (110 mi) west of Haida Gwaii, British Columbia, Canada.

The seamount is also known as Bowie Bank. In the Russian language, Bowie is called Гора Бауи (Gora Baui), which literally means Mount Bowie. In Haida language it is called SG̱aan Ḵinghlas, meaning Supernatural One Looking Outward. It is named after William Bowie of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.

The volcano has a flat-topped summit rising about 3,000 m (10,000 ft) above the seabed, to 24 m (79 ft) below sea level. The seamount lies at the southern end of a long underwater volcanic mountain range called the Pratt-Welker or Kodiak-Bowie Seamount chain, stretching from the Aleutian Trench in the north almost to Haida Gwaii in the south.

Bowie Seamount lies on the Pacific Plate, a large segment of the Earth's surface which moves in a northwestern direction under the Pacific Ocean. It is adjacent to two other submarine volcanoes; Hodgkins Seamount on its northern flank and Graham Seamount on its eastern flank. (Full article...)
In 1942–43 the UK Government carried out extensive testing for oxygen toxicity in divers. The chamber is pressurised with air to 3.7 bar. The subject in the centre is breathing 100% oxygen from a mask.

Oxygen toxicity is a condition resulting from the harmful effects of breathing molecular oxygen (O
₂) at increased partial pressures. Severe cases can result in cell damage and death, with effects most often seen in the central nervous system, lungs, and eyes. Historically, the central nervous system condition was called the Paul Bert effect, and the pulmonary condition the Lorrain Smith effect, after the researchers who pioneered the discoveries and descriptions in the late 19th century. Oxygen toxicity is a concern for underwater divers, those on high concentrations of supplemental oxygen (particularly premature babies), and those undergoing hyperbaric oxygen therapy.

The result of breathing increased partial pressures of oxygen is hyperoxia, an excess of oxygen in body tissues. The body is affected in different ways depending on the type of exposure. Central nervous system toxicity is caused by short exposure to high partial pressures of oxygen at greater than atmospheric pressure. Pulmonary and ocular toxicity result from longer exposure to increased oxygen levels at normal pressure. Symptoms may include disorientation, breathing problems, and vision changes such as myopia. Prolonged exposure to above-normal oxygen partial pressures, or shorter exposures to very high partial pressures, can cause oxidative damage to cell membranes, collapse of the alveoli in the lungs, retinal detachment, and seizures. Oxygen toxicity is managed by reducing the exposure to increased oxygen levels. Studies show that, in the long term, a robust recovery from most types of oxygen toxicity is possible.

Protocols for avoidance of the effects of hyperoxia exist in fields where oxygen is breathed at higher-than-normal partial pressures, including underwater diving using compressed breathing gases, hyperbaric medicine, neonatal care and human spaceflight. These protocols have resulted in the increasing rarity of seizures due to oxygen toxicity, with pulmonary and ocular damage being mainly confined to the problems of managing premature infants.

In recent years, oxygen has become available for recreational use in oxygen bars. The US Food and Drug Administration has warned those suffering from problems such as heart or lung disease not to use oxygen bars. Scuba divers use breathing gases containing up to 100% oxygen, and should have specific training in using such gases. (Full article...)

Слайд-шоу выбранных изображенийGallery of selected images

Случайно выбранная цитата

Для Кусто существовал только Кусто. Он никогда не признавал других и не исправлял впечатление, что он не был первым в дайвинге или в подводной фотографии.
- Ханс Хасс, в Ecott, Тим. (2001): Нейтральная плавучесть Вителло, Пол (7 июля 2013 г.). «Ханс Хасс, один из первых исследователей подводного мира, умер в возрасте 94 лет» . Нью-Йорк Таймс . Проверено 17 июля 2018 года .

Версия этой статьи появится в печати 7 июля 2013 года на странице A18 нью-йоркского издания под заголовком: Ханс Хасс, 94 года, Ранний исследователь мира под водой.

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Тематические области

Глоссарий терминологии подводного плавания
Схема подводного плавания
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Индекс подводных ныряльщиков
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Этот портал входит в сферу деятельности WikiProject Underwater diving , предметного сотрудничества по темам подводного дайвинга, и WikiProject Portals , сотрудничества в области дизайна, разработки и обслуживания портала.

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Международная ассоциация дайвинг-подрядчиков
AquaCorps (Майкл Мендуно, ред.)
Библиография руководств по дайвингу
Тележка для щеток ref1 , ref2
Очистка кавитации ref1 , ref2 , ref3 , reflist
Палата дайвинга и водных видов спорта , египетское правительственное агентство
Фестиваль дайвинга
Дайв-гид (издание)
Подрядчик по дайвингу
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Список производителей водолазного снаряжения
Подводный отдел парков и отдыха округа Лос-Анджелес курирует программу сертификации, предлагаемую с 1964 года.
Rebreather Training Council , организация индустрии любительского дайвинга, занимающаяся безопасным использованием ребризеров.
Регистрация дайвера по охране труда и окружающей среды Великобритании
Подводный справочник (Шиллинг, Вертс и Шандельмайер))
Зал славы женщин-дайверов (необходимы ссылки)

Биографические статьи: (многие из них входят в Зал славы дайверов, поэтому должны быть ссылки на известность.

Кимиуо Айсек
Дик Андерсон (дайвер)
Джим Осье
Майк Болл (дайвер)
Дьюи Бергман
Чак Блейксли
Эрнест Брукс (ныряльщик)
Джон Кронин (дайвер)
ER Cross
Луи де Корлиу - https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_de_Corlieu
Густав Далла Валле
Джефферсон Дэвис (дайвер)
Бернард Итон
Ральф Эриксон (дайвер)
Аль Гиддингс
Джерри Гринберг (ныряльщик)
Боб Холлис
Пол Хуман
Джордж Ирвин III (необходимы ссылки)
Джордан Кляйн
Джек Лаванчи
Кендалл Макдональд
Джек Маккенни
Даниэль Мерсье
Джери Мерфи
Андреас Рехнитцер
Дрю Ричардсон
Карл Ресслер
Говард Розенштейн
Спенсер Слейт
Макс "Джин" Ноль
Фрэнк Скалли
Ларри Смит (дайвер)
Боб Сото
Рон Стивен
Келли Тарлтон
Акира Татейши
Фрэнсис Торибионг
Пол Цимулис
Роберт Д. Уоркман (доктор), исследователь декомпрессии ВМС США.
Арман и Джоанн Зиган
Ник Айкорн
Ховард и Мишель Холл
Андре Лабн
Клемент Ли
Бев Морган
Аллан Пауэр
Рик и До Каммик
Рон Кипп
Лесли Лини
Сэм Дэвисон (дайвер)
Берт Килбрайд
Рольф Шмидт (дайвер)
Петра Роглин
Билл Хай
Питер Хьюз (дайвер)
Д-р Альберт Джонс (дайвер)
Уолли Мюллер
Дмитрий Ребикофф
Стюарт Коув
Кюхати Катаока
Канезо Огуши
Риичи Ватанабэ
Дик Бонин
Кров Менухин
Курт Шафер (дайвер)
Гарднер Янг
Питер Смолл (дайвер) - соучредитель British Sub-Aqua Club , автор. журналистка
Билл Барада
Лей Кеньон
Максим Форжот

Производители водолазного снаряжения

Тайфун Интернешнл (компания) (Великобритания)
Haffenden Molding (компания) (Великобритания)
Ураган / Харриспорт (Франция)
Kent Rubber (компания) (Франция)
Дуглас (компания) (Франция)
Godel (компания) (Франция)
Марин (компания) (Франция)
Squale (компания) (Франция)
United Service Agency (компания) (Франция)
Technisub (компания) (Италия)
GSD (компания) (Италия)
Longo sub (компания) (Италия)
Мордем (компания) (Италия)
Salvas (компания) (Италия)
Tigullio (компания) (Италия)
Safari sub (компания) (Испания)
Beltrán (компания) (Испания)
Simotal (компания) (Португалия)
Balco sub (компания) (Греция)
Glaros sub (компания) (Греция)
Баракуда (компания) (Германия)
Nauti-scope (компания) (Дания)
Stomil (компания) (Польша)
РИС-СПОРТНАУТИК (компания) (Югославия)
Yilmaz (компания) (Турция)
International Divers Corporation (компания) (Канада)
Escualo (компания) (Мексика)
Cobra sub (компания) (Бразилия)
MD Turnbull (компания) (Австралия)
Продукция Торпедо (компания) (Австралия)
Undersee Products (компания) (Австралия)
Gull Marine Sports (компания) (Япония)
Daihan Diving Sports (компания) (Корея)

Создавайте статьи для редиректов с возможностями: (довольно низкий приоритет)

Колокольчик - устройство для направления и управления водолазным колоколом вблизи и над поверхностью.
Беллман (дайвинг) - член команды дайверов, который действует как резервный дайвер и подает заявку с водолазного колокола.
Абордажная скоба - Подвешенная опора для ног, позволяющая дайверам использовать ногу, чтобы подняться из воды в лодку.
Воздух для дыхания - качество воздуха, подходящее для безопасного дыхания
Качество дыхательного газа - Требования к чистоте газов для дыхания человека
Оператор камеры - человек, который управляет водолазной камерой.
Комбинированный груз - тяжелый груз, подвешенный на тросе, который используется для направления водолазного колокола.
Декомпрессионный дайвинг - погружение, при котором дайвер берет на себя декомпрессионное обязательство.
Помощник дайвера - член команды дайверов, который помогает дайверу на поверхности и ухаживает за пуповиной или спасательным тросом дайвера.
Дайвинг авария - аварии , произошедшие во время погружения под воду
Воздушный фильтр для дайвинга - Устройство для очистки сжатого воздуха для дыхания
Diving mode - Концептуальные методы подводного плавания.
Катушка для дайвинга - Устройство для развертывания и восстановления дистанции лески под водой
Технический специалист по водолазным системам - компетентное лицо, которое обслуживает и ремонтирует оборудование для жизнеобеспечения подводного плавания, также известное как техник по водолазному оборудованию.
European Scientific Diving Panel - панель Европейской сети морских научно-исследовательских институтов и станций с разделами для European Scientific Diver и Advanced European Scientific Diver.
Гидрокостюм с горячей водой - гидрокостюм с запасом горячей воды для согрева дайвера.
Гипербарическая спасательная шлюпка - Спасательная шлюпка для перевозки людей под давлением
Система запуска и восстановления (дайвинг) - оборудование, используемое для развертывания и восстановления водолазного колокола, сцены или ROV.
Техник жизнеобеспечения - член группы погружений с насыщением, который управляет наземной средой обитания.
Анализатор кислорода - прибор для измерения парциального давления кислорода в газовой смеси
Погружение с проникновением - Погружение под физический барьер с прямым вертикальным всплытием на поверхность.
Дежурный дайвер - член дайв-команды, готовый помочь или спасти работающего дайвера.

Очень низкий приоритет

Аварийный газ - аварийная подача газа для дыхания дайвером.
Донный газ - газ, вдыхаемый во время глубокой части погружения.
Воздух для дыхания - качество воздуха, подходящее для безопасного дыхания
Декомпрессионный газ - богатый кислородом газ, используемый для ускоренной декомпрессии.
Аварийная подача газа - Альтернативная независимая подача газа для дыхания водолазом.
Утяжелители для лодыжек (ныряние) - утяжелители для ныряния на щиколотках.
Встроенные грузы - грузы для ныряния носятся в карманах на компенсаторе плавучести.
Балансировочные грузы (ныряние) - ныряющие утяжелители, распределенные в основном для улучшения дифферентации
Весовой пояс - поясной пояс с балластом, который носит дайвер.
Jonline - короткая леска, которую аквалангисты используют, чтобы пристегнуться к чему-либо.
Power Inflator - Клапан подачи газа низкого давления для компенсатора плавучести
Баллон декомпрессии - Баллон с аквалангом, несущий декомпрессионный газ
Клапан сброса (дайвинг) - сброс давления и ручной сброс на компенсаторе плавучести для дайвинга
Декомпрессионный буй - надувной буй для обозначения поверхности, развертываемый из-под воды
Декомпрессионная трапеция - горизонтальные стержни, подвешенные на глубинах декомпрессионных остановок
Нижний таймер - электронный инструмент, который записывает данные о глубине и прошедшем времени во время подводного погружения.
Пневмофатометр - датчик на газовой панели для определения глубины погружения водолаза с поверхности.
Погружной манометр - прибор для измерения давления для подводной эксплуатации
Этап для дайвинга - платформа, на которой стоят один или два дайвера, которые переносят их вертикально по воде.
Катушка для дайвинга - Устройство для хранения, развертывания и восстановления подводной направляющей лески.
Режущий инструмент для дайвера - инструмент, помогающий вывести дайвера из ловушки с помощью лески или сетей.
Водолазный нож - инструмент, помогающий вывести дайвера из ловушки с помощью лески или сетей.
Ремень безопасности для дайвинга - ремень безопасности, за который можно безопасно поднять дайвера.
Аварийная подача газа - Альтернативная независимая подача газа для дыхания водолазом.
Водолазное снаряжение с надводной водой - оборудование, используемое специально для подводного плавания с надводной поверхности.
Газовая панель - Панель распределения дыхательного газа для подводного плавания
Система регенерации газа - система для восстановления использованного дыхательного газа и подготовки его к повторному использованию.
Помощник дайвера - член команды дайверов, который помогает дайверу на поверхности и ухаживает за пуповиной или спасательным тросом дайвера.
Дайвер поддержки - Рекреационный дайвинг эквивалент резервного дайвера.

Уборка

Методы защиты от пловцов
Водолаз Потребности и техническое редактирование переформатирования ссылок. Убрать, добавить цитаты, поправить тон.
Гидрокостюм - нужны ссылки, разверните раздел аксессуаров.

Улучшение ведущего раздела

Большинство статей нуждаются в улучшенном разделе со ссылками на информацию, чтобы служить подходящим кратким изложением темы статьи.

Расширять

Категория: Заглушки для подводного плавания
Корпорация профессиональных инструкторов по дайвингу - агентство по обучению и сертификации дайверов-любителей
Technical Diving International - агентство по обучению и сертификации технических дайверов
Scuba Diving International - Агентство по обучению и сертификации любительских дайверов
Полицейский дайвинг - отрасль профессионального дайвинга, выполняемая полицейскими службами.
American Nitrox Divers International - агентство по обучению и сертификации рекреационных дайверов
American Canadian Underwater Certifications - Агентство по обучению и сертификации любительских дайверов
Международная ассоциация преподавателей дайвинга - агентство по обучению и сертификации рекреационного подводного плавания
Датч-Спрингс - затопленный карьер в Пенсильвании, используемый в качестве места для рекреационного дайвинга
Дик Рутковски - американский пионер в области гипербарической и подводной медицины, а также использования смешанных дыхательных газов для дайвинга - как указано в IANTD и American Nitrox Divers International
Дайвинг-центр Capernwray - затопленный карьер в Ланкашире, Англия, используемый в качестве рекреационного места для дайвинга.
Национальная ассоциация подводных инструкторов - некоммерческое агентство по обучению и сертификации инструкторов по подводному плаванию.
Эрлифт (дноуглубительное устройство) - дноуглубительное устройство, использующее нагнетаемый воздух для перемещения воды и увлеченного груза вверх по трубе.
Подводный поиск и восстановление - Обнаружение и восстановление подводных объектов - детривиализация.
Спасение дайвера - Спасение пострадавшего или недееспособного дайвера - добавьте декомпрессию, питание на поверхности и процедуры звонка.
Freeflow - состояние непрерывного потока дыхательного газа в подводном дыхательном аппарате.
Человеческий фактор в безопасности дайвинга - Влияние физических, когнитивных и поведенческих характеристик дайверов на безопасность - Несколько пустых подразделов в разделе 4
Tremie - Оборудование для подводной укладки бетона
Инструктор по дайвингу - Человек, который обучает и оценивает подводных ныряльщиков - Несколько пустых секций. Возможно, для некоторых из них можно будет использовать аннотации, скопированные из другой статьи.
Подводное плавание - Водолазные работы, связанные с подъемом транспортных средств, грузов и конструкций - Несколько пустых участков.
Схема аккредитации австралийских дайверов - международная организация по аккредитации профессиональных дайверов, базирующаяся в Австралии - требуется содержание, отличное от стандартов обучения
Планирование погружения # Факторы окружающей среды - Процесс планирования операции подводного погружения - пустой раздел
Обучение водолазов - Процессы, с помощью которых люди развивают навыки и знания для безопасного погружения под водой - Необходимы дополнительные сведения о подготовке военных водолазов
Роберт Уильям Гамильтон младший - американский физиолог и исследователь в области гипербарической физиологии. - Развернуть свинец
Halcyon PVR-BASC - Полузамкнутый контур с пассивной дополнительной компенсацией глубины для дайвинга
Дайвинг-медицина # История - Диагностика, лечение и профилактика заболеваний, вызванных подводным плаванием, а также этические и судебно-медицинские вопросы (пустой раздел)
Interspiro DCSC - Военный полузамкнутый пассивный ребризер для подводного плавания
Halcyon RB80 - Полузамкнутый ребризер с пассивным дополнением без компенсации глубины
Удаленное подводное видео с наживкой - Оборудование для оценки популяций рыб
Совместимость с кислородом # Конструкция для работы с кислородом - Использование оборудования и материалов, подходящих для работы с высоким парциальным давлением кислорода
Уильям Хогарт Мэйн - пещерный дайвер и экспериментатор по настройке подводного плавания
Подводное погружение в популярной культуре - любые аспекты подводного погружения в художественной литературе и популярной культуре, включая фильмы, романы, сериалы, комиксы, искусство, игры и художественную литературу в целом - некоторые пустые разделы
Работа дыхания - энергия, затрачиваемая на вдох и выдох дыхательного газа.
Дайвинг-туризм # История - Индустрия, основанная на рекреационных дайвинг- путешествиях (пустой раздел)
Воздействие любительского дайвинга на окружающую среду - Влияние подводного плавания с аквалангом на подводную среду
Расследование несчастных случаев при подводном плавании - Судебно-медицинское расследование несчастных случаев при подводном плавании (3 раздела, чтобы расширить от Барского))
Инструктаж по дайвингу - Встреча дайв-команды для обсуждения деталей перед дайвингом.
Процедуры ныряния - Стандартизированные методы выполнения действий, которые, как известно, работают эффективно и приемлемо безопасно - завершение аннотаций ссылок
Луиджи Ферраро (военно-морской офицер) - офицер Королевского флота Италии и пионер итальянской подводной войны - Перевести статью об этом:
Подводная археология # История - Археологические методы, применяемые на подводных объектах.
Подводное строительство - Промышленное строительство в подводной среде - развернуть списки в разделы

Развернуть / завершить

Очистка и дезинфекция личного снаряжения для дайвинга - Профилактика заражения через совместно используемое или зараженное снаряжение

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Регулярно проверяйте статьи Категория: Неоцененные статьи по подводному плаванию , а затем используйте WP: WikiProject SCUBA / Assessment, чтобы присвоить любым новым статьям класс качества.
Категория обзора : Статьи об акваланге Stub-Class ; Найдите надежные источники, чтобы добиться известности, и добавьте их.
Категория обзора : статьи по подводному плаванию в стартовом классе ; Найдите надежные источники, чтобы проверить основные моменты и добавить их.

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Американская академия подводных наук
Дайвинг, наука и технологии
Ассоциация подводного плавания Trimix

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Tremie

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vтеДайвинг декомпрессия
Общий	Декомпрессия (дайвинг) Декомпрессионное оборудование Практика декомпрессии Теория декомпрессии Эквивалентная воздушная глубина Эквивалентная наркотическая глубина История исследований и разработок в области декомпрессии Максимальная рабочая глубина Физиология декомпрессии Неконтролируемая декомпрессия
Алгоритмы	Алгоритм декомпрессии Бюльмана Модель декомпрессии Холдейна Модель пузырьков с уменьшенным градиентом Алгоритм Тельмана Термодинамическая модель декомпрессии Модель переменной проницаемости
Дайвинг	Глубокое погружение Профессиональный дайвинг Рекреационный дайвинг Насыщенный дайвинг Подводное плавание с аквалангом Технический дайвинг Подводное плавание
Оборудование	Декомпрессионный буй Таблицы декомпрессии Декомпрессионная трапеция Компьютер для дайвинга Камера для дайвинга Дайвинг выстрел Гипербарические носилки Джонлайн Планировщик рекреационных погружений
Газы	Воздух для дыхания Дыхательный газ Смесь газов для подводного плавания с аквалангом Heliox Найтрокс Кислород Тримикс
Травма и лечение	Декомпрессионная болезнь Камера для дайвинга Гипербарическая медицина Графики гипербарического лечения Рекомпрессия в воде
Процедуры	Пайл стоп Коэффициент декомпрессии
Категории: Дайвинг-декомпрессия Commons: Категория: Декомпрессия

vтеДайверские организации
Федерации фридайверов	AIDA International (AIDA) AIDA Hellas Британская ассоциация фридайвинга (BFA) Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
Рекреационно-техническое подводное плавание с аквалангом	Британский подводный клуб (BSAC) Ассоциация пещерных дайверов Австралии (CDAA) Группа пещерного дайвинга (CDG) Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT) Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS) Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS) Fédération Française d'Etudes et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM) Международная ассоциация дайверов с ограниченными физическими возможностями (IAHD) Национальная ассоциация пещерного дайвинга (NACD) Проект карстовой равнины Вудвилл (WKPP)
Научные, археологические и исторические	Историческое общество дайвинга Общество морской археологии (NAS) Спасение кораблекрушений Онтарио (SOS) Общество морских исследований
Спортивные федерации	Австралийская подводная федерация (AUF) Британская ассоциация осьминога (BOA) Британская ассоциация подводного спорта (BUSA) Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS) Fédération Française d'Etudes et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM) Южноафриканская федерация подводного спорта (SAUSF) Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu (TSSF) Подводное общество Америки (USOA)
Связанные и без категорий	Общество искусственных рифов Британской Колумбии (ARSBC) CMAS Европа Ассоциация по маркетингу и снаряжению для дайвинга (DEMA) Сеть оповещения дайверов (DAN) Зеленые ласты Аквапарк подводного командования ВМФ

vтеОборудование для дайвинга
Базовая комплектация	Маска для ныряния Трубка Плавник
Защита окружающей среды	Атмосферный гидрокостюм Гидрокостюм для дайвинга Скины для дайвинга Сухой костюм Гидрокостюм Жилет Rash Sladen костюм Стандартный гидрокостюм Гидрокостюм
Подводный дыхательный аппарат	Воздушная линия Атмосферный гидрокостюм Дыхательный газ Водолазный шланг Кальян Ребризер для дайвинга Восстановить шлем Снуба Акваланг Замена акваланга Дайвинг с поверхности
Шлемы и маски	Водолазный шлем Полумаска Полнолицевая маска
Декомпрессионное оборудование	Декомпрессионный буй Декомпрессионный газ Таблицы декомпрессии Декомпрессионная трапеция Компьютер для дайвинга Таблицы для дайвинга Камера для дайвинга Водолазный колокол Дайвинг выстрел Этап дайвинга Джонлайн Планировщик рекреационных погружений
Спасательное оборудование	Альтернативный источник воздуха Блок спасения Аварийная бутылка Приятельская линия Линия расстояния Катушка для дайвинга Водолазный режущий инструмент Водолазный нож Водолазный колокол Ремни безопасности для дайвинга Аварийное газоснабжение Мост жизни (дайвинг) Маркер линии Регулятор осьминога Пони бутылка Спасательный трос Шлем безопасности Клетка для защиты от акул Буй для обозначения поверхности
Приборы	Глубиномер Компьютер для дайвинга Таймер погружения Компас для дайвинга Часы для дайвинга Пневмофатометр Погружной манометр
Водолазное мобильное оборудование	Водолазный колокол Этап дайвинга Плавники Моноласта Водолазный движитель Расширенная система доставки SEAL Cosmos CE2F серии Сухой боевой подводный аппарат Человеческая торпеда Моторизованное подводное каноэ Автомобиль-доставщик пловцов типа Р-2 "Мала" ПЕЧАТЬ Доставки Боевой подводный аппарат на мелководье Силуро Сан Бартоломео Мокрая Нелли Буксирный борт Мокрый переводник Нимфа Неккера
Стандарты	DIN 7876
Категория: Дайвинг-снаряжение Commons: Категория: Оборудование для дайвинга

vтеОборудование для дайвинга
Дыхательный газ	Насос высокого давления Скруббер из углекислого газа Каскадная система розлива Водолазный насос Воздушный компрессор для дайвинга Фильтры Смешивание газов Смесь газов для подводного плавания с аквалангом Газовая панель Система регенерации газа Банк хранения газа Квартал для хранения газа Трубка для хранения газа Heliox Анализатор гелия Компрессор воздуха для дыхания высокого давления Компрессор воздуха для дыхания низкого давления Мембранный метод концентрирования газов Найтрокс Анализатор кислорода Кислородная совместимость Адсорбция при переменном давлении Тримикс
Платформы	Водолазный катер Ремесло для боевых резиновых налетов Сафари Субскиммер Судно водолазного обеспечения HMS Challenger (K07) Дайвинг на каноэ и каяках Подводная среда обитания База Рифа Водолея Вторая станция континентального шельфа Гельголанд Хабитат Подводный домик Жюля Космическая аналоговая станция Скотта Карпентера SEALAB Среда обитания тектита
Системы декомпрессии	Встроенная дыхательная система Камера для дайвинга Гипербарическая спасательная шлюпка Гипербарические носилки Система насыщения
Дистанционно управляемые подводные аппараты	РУВ класса 8А4 ABISMO Команда Atlantis ROV Кривая Épaulard Global Explorer ROV РУВ класса Золотая рыбка Kaikō ROV Система долгосрочной разведки шахт Mini Rover ROV OpenROV ROV KIEL 6000 ROV PHOCA Скорпион ROV ТПА класса "Морской дракон" Морской трактор Дрон Seafox Морской конек РУВ SeaPerch РУВ класса SJT Траншейная установка T1200 VideoRay УРОВ
Оборудование для планирования и записи погружений	Таблицы декомпрессии Планирование погружений Журнал водолазов Запись водолазных операций Планировщик рекреационных погружений Subsurface (программное обеспечение)
Спасательное оборудование	Флаг дайвера Дайвинг выстрел Джекстей Резервное газоснабжение
Общий	Система горячего водоснабжения Нижестоящий
Категория: Оборудование для дайвинга В общем: Категория: Оборудование для дайвинга

vтеПлавание в ластах
По стране	Австралия Великобритания Соединенные Штаты
Соревнования	Чемпионат мира по плаванию 2011 г. 2013 2016 г. 2018 г. Плавание с плаванием на Всемирных играх 2009 г. 2013 2017 г. Азиатские игры в закрытых помещениях 2007 г. 2009 г. Игры Юго-Восточной Азии 2009 г. 2011 г. Боливарианские игры 2013 Texas Open Finswimming Invitational
Пловцы	Джоэл Армас Валентина Артемьева Пеппо Бискарини Мисти Хайман Шаварш Карапетян Флори Ланг Виталина Симонова
Записи	Мировые рекорды Континентальные рекорды Европа Национальные рекорды Великобритания Соединенные Штаты Записи Содружества
Организации	CMAS Национальные федерации AUF БУСА ФЕДАС FFESSM НОБ ЦСФ USOA Другие организации Британская ассоциация финсвимминга Техасская ассоциация плавания по плаванию
Оборудование	Спортивные купальники Маска для ныряния Гидрокостюм для дайвинга Моноласта Плавники Трубка Акваланг
Статьи по Теме	Подводный спорт Подводное плавание Свободное погружение Подводное плавание с аквалангом
Категория: Плавание В общем : Категория: Плавание

vтеСвободное погружение
Деятельность	Акватлон (подводная борьба) Плавание с апноэ в ластах Свободное погружение Жемчужная охота Подводная охота Подводный футбол Подводный хоккей Подводный хоккей Подводное регби Подводная стрельба по мишеням
Соревнования	Nordic Deep Вертикальный синий
Дисциплины	Постоянный вес (CWT) Постоянный вес без ласт (CNF) Динамическое апноэ (ДИН) Динамическое апноэ без ласт (DNF) Свободное погружение (FIM) Безграничное апноэ (NLT) Статическое апноэ (STA) Скандалопетра дайвинг Апноэ с переменным весом (VWT) Апноэ с переменным весом без ласт
Оборудование	Маска для ныряния Гидрокостюм для дайвинга Плавники Гавайский слинг Моноласта Polespear Трубка Гарпун Кепка для водного поло
Фридайверы	Дебора Андолло Пеппо Бискарини Сара Кэмпбелл Дерья Джан Гёчен Горан Чолак Карлос Косте Роберт Крофт Мэнди-Рэй Крукшанк Ясемин Далкилыч Леонардо Д'Импорзано Флавия Эберхард Шахика Эрджюмен Эмма Фаррелл Франсиско Феррерас Пьер Фролла Флавия Эберхард Мехган Хини-Грир Элизабет Кристофферсен Лоик Леферм Энцо Майорка Жак Майоль Одри Местре Кароль Мейер Стефан Мифсуд Алексей Молчанов Наталья Молчанова Дэйв Маллинз Патрик Мусиму Гийом Нери Герберт Нитч Умберто Пелиццари Аннели Помпе Михал Рисиан Стиг Северинсен Том Сиетас Аарон Соломонович Мартин Штепанек Уолтер Стейн Таня Стритер Уильям Трубридж Деврим Дженк Улусой Данай Варвери Алессия Зеккини
Опасности	Баротравма Утопление Затемнение для фридайвинга ( затемнение на глубокой воде и затемнение на мелководье) Гиперкапния Переохлаждение
Исторический	Ама (дайвинг) Борьба с осьминогами Плавание на летних Олимпийских играх 1900 года - подводное плавание мужчин
Организации	AIDA International SSI Австралийская подводная федерация Британская ассоциация фридайвинга CMAS FFESSM Производительность Фридайвинг Интернэшнл
Связанный	Ама (дайвинг) Haenyeo Подводное плавание Учебно-тренировочный комплекс по побегу с подводной лодки Подводное плавание Подводный спорт
Категория: Фридайвинг Commons: Категория: Фридайвинг

vтеПодводный дыхательный аппарат
Дыхательный газ	Каскадная система розлива Воздушный компрессор для дайвинга Электро-гальванический датчик кислорода Смешивание газов Смесь газов для подводного плавания с аквалангом Анализатор гелия Производство найтрокса мембранный метод адсорбция с переменным давлением Кислородная совместимость
Баллоны для дайвинга	Разрывной диск Клапан цилиндра Гидростатический тест Устойчивое растрескивание под нагрузкой Испытания и осмотр водолазных баллонов
Регуляторы для дайвинга	Дыхательная способность регуляторов Регулятор морской свиньи Одношланговый регулятор Двухшланговый регулятор
Шлемы и маски	Анти туман Маска-повязка Водолазный шлем Маска для ныряния Полнолицевая маска Шлем со свободным потоком Легкий шлем спроса Восстановить шлем Стандартный водолазный шлем
Подводное плавание с открытым контуром	Альтернативный источник воздуха Аква-легкое Аварийная бутылка Цилиндр декомпрессии Независимые парные Раздвижной сдвоенный комплект Пони бутылка Акваланг Sidemount Цилиндр строп
Ребризеры	Скруббер из углекислого газа Карлтон CDBA CDLSE Cis-Lunar Криогенный ребризер CUMA DSEA Дельфин Лягушки Halcyon PVR-BASC Halcyon RB80 IDA71 Интерспиро DCSC ЦЕЛОВАТЬ LAR-5 LAR-6 LAR-V LARU Морская свинья Луч Зибе Горман CDBA Шива Гадюка
С поверхностным питанием	Аварийная бутылка Водолазный шланг Воздушный компрессор для дайвинга Система подводного плавания Sea Trek Снуба Стандартное платье для дайвинга
Прочие связанные	Водолазный колокол
Категория: Подводный дыхательный аппарат Commons: Категория: Подводные дыхательные аппараты

vтеПодводная работа
Профессии	Ама (дайвинг) Армейский инженер-водолаз Дайвер с допуском Мастер погружения Инструктор по дайвингу Офицер по безопасности дайвинга Супервайзер по дайвингу Лягушонок Haenyeo Профессиональный дайвинг
Тип работы	Коммерческий оффшорный дайвинг Мастер погружения Рекреационная подготовка дайвера Гипербарическая сварка Неразрушающий контроль Жемчужная охота Полицейский дайвинг Дайвинг для общественной безопасности Рекреационная подготовка дайвера Дайвинг-спасатель Научный дайвинг Погружение с губкой Подводная археология Подводный снос Подводная фотография Подводный поиск и восстановление Подводная видеосъемка
Инструменты и оборудование	Аэролифт (дноуглубительное устройство) Камера для дайвинга Водолазный колокол Мойка под давлением Подъемная сумка Дистанционно управляемый подводный аппарат Tremie
Подводное оружие	Лимпетная шахта Гарпун Гавайский слинг Polespear Подводное огнестрельное оружие Gyrojet Подводное оборонительное ружье Mk 1 Powerhead (огнестрельное оружие) Подводные пистолеты Heckler & Koch P11 Подводный пистолет СПП-1 Подводные револьверы Подводный револьвер AAI Подводные винтовки Амфибия ADS Подводная винтовка АПС Амфибия АСМ-ДТ
Связанный	Планирование погружений Команда водолазов Дайвинг Океанография Морская биология Подводное плавание
Категория: Подводные работы Commons: Категория: Подводные работы