Непрерывные и прогрессивные аспекты

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Эти непрерывные и прогрессивные аспекты ( сокращенные CONT и PROG ) являются грамматическими аспектами , которые выражают неполное действие ( «делать») или состояние ( «быть») в ходе одновременно конкретный: они не являются привычным, несовершенным аспекты.

В грамматиках многих языков эти два термина используются как синонимы. То же самое и с английским языком : такую ​​конструкцию, как «Он стирает», можно охарактеризовать либо как существующее непрерывное, либо как настоящее прогрессивное . Однако есть определенные языки, для которых различают два разных аспекта. В китайском языке , например, прогрессивный аспект обозначает текущее действие, например, «он одевается», в то время как непрерывный аспект обозначает текущее состояние, например, «он одет в красивую одежду».

Как и в случае с другими грамматическими категориями, точная семантика аспектов варьируется от языка к языку и от грамматика к грамматику. Например, некоторые грамматики турецкого подсчет -iyor формы в виде настоящее время ; ^[1] some как прогрессивное время; ^[2], а некоторые - как непрерывный (непривычный несовершенный) и прогрессивный (непрерывный нестационарный) аспект. ^[3]

Непрерывный против прогрессивного [ править ]

Прогрессивный аспект выражает динамическое качество выполняемых действий, в то время как непрерывный аспект выражает состояние субъекта, который продолжает действие. Например, «Том читает» может выражать динамическую активность: «Том читает книгу», то есть прямо сейчас (прогрессивный аспект), или текущее состояние Тома: «Том читает для получения степени», то есть Том является студентом (непрерывный аспект). Аспект часто может быть неоднозначным; «Том читает Улисса» может описывать его текущую деятельность (она находится в его руке) или состояние начала, но еще не законченной книги (она в его сумке).

Непрерывный и прогрессивный на разных языках [ править ]

Если не указано иное, следующие языки трактуют непрерывный и прогрессивный аспекты одинаково, и в этом случае термин «непрерывный» используется для обозначения обоих.

Английский [ править ]

Используйте [ редактировать ]

Непрерывный аспект построен с использованием формы связки «быть» вместе с причастием настоящего времени (отмеченным суффиксом -ing ). ^[4] Обычно он используется для действий, которые происходят в рассматриваемое время, и не фокусируется на более крупном масштабе времени. Например, предложение «Эндрю играл в теннис, когда ему позвонила Джейн». указывает, что делал Эндрю, когда Джейн звонила ему, но не указывает, как долго Эндрю играл и как часто он играл; для этого было бы достаточно простого прошлого: «Эндрю играл в теннис по три часа каждый день в течение нескольких лет».

Salikoko Mufwene ^{[5] : pp.35–36} противопоставляет влияние прогрессивной формы на значения глаголов действия по сравнению со значением глаголов лексического состояния:

1. [I] t преобразует события, которые, как ожидается, будут пунктуальными, в более продолжительные, даже если временные, положения дел [например, «Нэнси пишет письмо»];
2. он [наоборот] преобразует те положения дел, которые, как ожидается, будут длиться долго (лексические состояния), в более краткосрочные / преходящие положения дел [например, «Том живет с нами»]; а также
3. он просто представляет те глаголы, значения которых нейтральны по отношению к длительности, как in process / in (переходная) длительность [например, «Стена трескается»], хотя длительность наиболее ожидаема от состояний.

Происхождение [ править ]

Прогрессивный аспект в английском языке, вероятно, возник из двух конструкций, которые довольно редко использовались в старом и раннем среднем английском языках . Первый использовал форму beon / wesan (быть / стать) с причастием настоящего времени (-ende). ^[6] Эта конструкция имеет аналогичную форму в голландском языке (см. Ниже). ^[7] Второй использовал beon / wesan, предлог и герундий (-unge), и был по-разному предложен как находящийся под влиянием подобных форм в латинском и французском ^[8] или британском кельтском языке , хотя доказательства тем или иным образом скудный. ^[9]В течение среднеанглийского периода звуковые сдвиги в языке означали, что окончание причастия (-ende) и окончание (-unge) герундия слились в новое окончание (-ing). Это изменение, которое было завершено в южной Англии примерно в конце пятнадцатого века и распространилось оттуда на север, сделало причастия и герундий неразличимыми. Именно в этот момент становится очевидным внезапное увеличение использования прогрессивных форм, хотя они не могли принять свою нынешнюю форму до восемнадцатого века. ^{[10] [11]} Лингвист Герберт Шендл пришел к выводу, что «с этой особенностью полигенетическое происхождение ... кажется привлекательным, и, по крайней мере, дальнейшее расширение прогрессивного является внутренним развитием языка». ^[12]

Бербер [ править ]

В языке амазигов непрерывное прошедшее время образуется при помощи фиксированного причастия ttugha (исходное значение: я забыл); ttugha добавляется перед глаголом в настоящем времени. Итак, у нас есть:

Ntta itari : он пишет / пишет

Ntta ttugha itari : он писал

Настоящее продолженное время обычно совпадает с настоящим временем. Но в берберской разновидности риффа причастие акка добавляется перед глаголом, образуя непрерывное настоящее.

Китайский [ править ]

Китайский - это одна семья языков, в которой проводится различие между непрерывным и прогрессивным аспектами.

Кантонский [ править ]

Кантонский диалект имеет очень регулярную систему выражения аспектов с помощью суффиксов глаголов. Typically обычно используется для выражения прогрессивного аспекта, а住используется для выражения непрерывного аспекта. Возьмем следующий пример:

В этом примере прогрессивный аспект выражает тот факт, что субъект активно надевает одежду, а не просто носит ее, как в непрерывном аспекте. Этот пример полезен для того, чтобы показать носителям английского языка разницу между непрерывным и прогрессивным, поскольку «ношение» в английском никогда не передает прогрессивный аспект. (Вместо этого следует использовать «надевание»).

In Cantonese, the progressive marker 緊 can express the continuous aspect as well, depending on the context (so the example above could also mean "I'm wearing clothes" in addition to "I'm putting on clothes"), but in general, the progressive aspect is assumed. In order to emphasize the progressive aspect rather than the continuous, 喺度 (literally meaning "at here") can be used in front of the verb:

我(I) 喺度(at here) 著(wear) 緊(PROG) 衫(clothes) 。(.)

喺度 can also be used without 緊 to indicate the progressive aspect.

Mandarin[edit]

Unlike Cantonese, Mandarin does not have a verb suffix for expressing the progressive aspect, but it can use the pre-verbal auxiliary zhèngzài 正在 (or just 在), similar to how Cantonese uses 喺度 in front of the verb. The continuous aspect does have a verb suffix, 著/着 zhe, which is cognate with the Cantonese 住 in this context.

For more information see Chinese grammar § Aspects.

Danish[edit]

Danish has several ways of constructing continuous aspect.

• The first is using the form er ved + infinitive ("is at" meaning "in the process of"). For instance han er ved at bygge nyt hus ("he is at to build new house") meaning "he is building a new house". This is similar to the German form using "beim".
• Some verbs are always or default continuous, for instance verbs indicating motion, location or position, such as sidder ("sitting"), står ("standing"), ligger ("lying") or går ("walking"). This means their present tense forms are their continuous forms: Han står dér ("he stands there") means "he is standing over there", and jeg sidder ned ("I sit down"), means "I am sitting". Note this means Danish often has two different forms of simple verbs when they make sense both continuous and non-continuous - English has only one such fully functional pair remaining, and it happens to share this one with Danish at lægge (sig) ("to lay") and at ligge ("to lie") - "Lay down so you can lie down".
• Using these default continuous verbs together with a non-default continuous verb makes both continuous. This is a form also used in other Germanic languages such as Norwegian and Dutch. For instance: Han står og ryger ("he stands and smokes") means "he is smoking (while standing)".
• Another form is used for motions such as walking, driving or flying. When constructing perfect tense they can be constructed with either 'is' or 'has'. Where 'has' indicates a completed travel, and 'is' indicates a started journey. For instance han er gået ("he is walked") meaning "he has left (on foot)", versus jeg har fløjet meaning "I have flown (at some point in time)".

Dutch[edit]

The continuous aspect is commonly used in Dutch, though not as often as in English. There are various methods of forming a continuous:

• One form is the same as in English: zijn (to be) with the present participle, e.g., Het schip is zinkende (The ship is sinking). This form puts stress on the continuous aspect and often gives some dramatic overtone, making it not commonly used.
• The second method is the most common in Dutch. It is formed with zijn, followed by the preposition and definite article aan het and the gerund (verb used as a noun), e.g., Ik ben aan het lezen (literally I am at the reading), meaning I am reading.
• The third method is by using a verb expressing a physical position, like zitten (to sit), staan (to stand), liggen (to lie), followed by te and the infinitive. Examples: Ik zit te lezen (lit. I sit to read), meaning I am reading (while sitting), Ik stond te wachten (lit. I stood to wait), meaning I was waiting (while standing), Zij ligt te slapen (lit. She lies to sleep), meaning She is sleeping (while lying down), Wij lopen te zingen (lit. We walk to sing), meaning We are singing (while walking). When translating into English or another language, the physical position generally isn't mentioned, only the action itself. In English, similar constructions exist but are uncommon and marginally more frequent only in certain dialects, e.g. I sat (there) reading, I stood (there) waiting, etc.
• A fourth method, also available in English, is using zijn (to be) with the adverb and preposition bezig met (busy with) and the gerund, e.g., Ik ben bezig met lezen (lit. I am busy with reading), meaning I am (busy) reading. If there is an object, there are two forms: 1. the gerund is preceded by the neuter article het and followed by the preposition van (of) and the object, e.g. Ik ben bezig met het lezen van deze brief (lit. I am busy with the reading of this letter), meaning I am reading this letter; 2. the object comes before the full infinitive (instead of the gerund), e.g. Ik ben bezig met deze brief te lezen (lit. I am busy with this letter to read), meaning I am reading this letter. This form of the continuous is mostly used for a real (physical) activity. Grammar-wise, it is possible to say zij is bezig te denken (lit. she is busy to think, she is thinking) or hij is bezig te slapen (lit. he is busy to sleep, he is sleeping), but it sounds strange in Dutch. In these cases, other forms of the continuous are generally used, specifically the second method: Zij is aan het denken and hij is aan het slapen.
• A fifth method also involves the use of zijn (to be) with the adverb bezig (busy), this time followed by te and the infinitive, e.g. Ik ben bezig te koken (lit. I am busy to cook), meaning I am cooking. If there is an object, it comes before the verb, e.g. Ik ben bezig aardappelen te koken (lit. I am busy potatoes to cook), meaning I am cooking potatoes. This form is also mainly used for real activities. Zij is bezig te denken and Hij is bezig te slapen are uncommon.
• The sixth method is a special form of the continuous. It implicitly means that the subject is away to do an activity. It uses zijn (to be), followed by the infinitive, e.g., Zij is winkelen (lit. She is shop), meaning She is (away) shopping.

French[edit]

French does not have a continuous aspect per se; events that English would describe using its continuous aspect, French would describe using a neutral aspect. Many express what they are doing in French by just using the present tense. That being said, French can express a continuous sense using the periphrastic construction être en train de ("to be in the middle of"); for example, English's "we were eating" might be expressed in French either as nous étions en train de manger (literally "we were in the middle of eating"), or as simply nous mangions ("we ate").

An exception is in relating events that took place in the past: the imperfect has a continuous aspect in relation to the simple (historic) past; e.g. nous mangions quand il frappa à la porte ("we were eating when he knocked at the door"). However, the passé composé is more often used to denote past events with a neutral aspect in a non-narrative context.

It is also possible to use the present participle, e.g. Nous mangeant, il frappait à la porte, or the gerund (Gérondif).

Quebec French often expresses a continuous sense using the periphrastic construction être après (lit. "to be after"); for example, English's "we were eating" might be expressed in Quebec French either as nous étions après manger, or as simply nous mangions (imparfait).

Jèrriais[edit]

Formed exactly as in Rhinish German, Jèrriais constructs the continuous with verb êt' (be) + à (preposition) + infinitive. For example, j'têmes à mangi translates as we were eating.

German[edit]

There is no continuous aspect in standard German. The aspect can be expressed with gerade (just now, at the moment) as in er liest gerade meaning he is reading. Certain regional dialects, such as those of the Rhineland, the Ruhr Area, and Westphalia, form a continuous aspect using the verb sein (to be), the inflected preposition am or beim (at the or on the), and the neuter noun that is formed from an infinitive. This construction was likely borrowed from Low German or Dutch which use the exact construction to convey the same meaning. For example, ich bin am Lesen, ich bin beim Lesen (literally I am on/at the reading) means I am reading. Known as the rheinische Verlaufsform (roughly Rhinish progressive form), it has become increasingly common in the casual speech of many speakers around Germany through popular media and music, although it is still frowned upon in formal and literary contexts.^[13] In Southern Austro-Bavarian, the aspect can be expressed using tun (to do) as an auxiliary with the infinitive of the verb as in er tut lesen for he is reading (cf. English he does reading).

Hawaiian[edit]

In Hawaiian, the present tense progressive aspect form ke + verb + nei is very frequently used.

Hindi-Urdu[edit]

Hindi-Urdu (Hindustani) has distinct constructions to convey progressive and continuous actions. Progressive actions are marked through the progressive aspect participle rahā used along with the verb root, while the continuous action is conveyed through the perfective adjectival participle which is constructed by conjugating the verb into its perfective aspect participle and combining it with the perfective aspect participle of the verb honā (to be), which is huā.^[14]

Icelandic[edit]

Icelandic possesses a present continuous aspect much like that found in English. This feature is unique among the Scandinavian languages. It is formed with the copula vera (to be) + að (infinitive marker) + infinite verb. Its usage differs slightly from English, as it generally cannot be used in static contexts, for example standing or sitting, but rather to describe specific activities. The following examples illustrate this phenomenon.

Ég er að borða eplið.

I'm eating the apple.

In contrast with:

Ég stend á borðinu.

I'm standing on the table.

In the second example, the simple present tense is used as it describes a state, standing on the table. The construction *ég er að standa á borðinu is incorrect^{[clarification needed]} in Icelandic. In addition this method of constructing the continuous present there exists a second method akin to the one which exists in the other Scandinavian languages, where a present participle ending in -andi is used along with the copula vera. This is a way of using the present participle that is analysed as more adjectival or adverbial than verbal, as it cannot be used with transitive verbs. With certain verbs it also has a frequentative implication, as in the following example:

Ég er gangandi í skóla.

I walk to school (regularly).

Technically the use of the present participle is often not an example of continuous aspect in Icelandic.

Italian[edit]

Italian forms a progressive aspect in much the same way as in Spanish, using a conjugated form of the verb stare ("to stay") followed by the gerund of the main verb. There are only two forms of gerunds, the choice depending upon the ending of the main verb in the infinitive: -ando for verbs whose infinitive ends in -are (parlare/parlando, mangiare/mangiando) or -endo if the infinitive ends in -ere or -ire (leggere/leggendo, dormire/dormendo). Thus 'I am speaking/reading/sleeping' is expressed Sto parlando/leggendo/dormendo.

Present tense[edit]

The present tense and the present progressive can have distinct meanings in Italian. Both can be used for present-time actions in progress: parlo con Mario and sto parlando con Mario can both mean 'I'm speaking with Mario (this moment, right now)', but only the bare present can be used to express ongoing state, as in parlo inglese 'I speak English', i.e. to convey the information 'I am able to speak English' (regardless of what I am doing at the time of speaking). Thus the present progressive clarifies immediacy: Sto uscendo 'I'm leaving (just now; on my way out)'.

The present continuous is formed by using the present tense of the verb stare + the gerund. As in English, the gerund conveys the main meaning of the utterance: sto pattinando (skating), I am skating. For the regular verbs, the gerund is formed from the infinitive of the verb by taking the stem and attaching the appropriate gerund suffix: -are verbs take -ando and the -ere and -ire verbs both take -endo. The table shows the conjugations of stare in the present tense with a gerund to exemplify the present continuous:

person	avere	essere	parlare	credere	finire	dire	opporre
io	sto avendo	sto essendo	sto parlando	sto credendo	sto finendo	sto dicendo	sto opponendo
tu	stai avendo	stai essendo	stai parlando	stai credendo	stai finendo	stai dicendo	stai opponendo
egli/ella	sta avendo	sta essendo	sta parlando	sta credendo	sta finendo	sta dicendo	sta opponendo
noi	stiamo avendo	stiamo essendo	stiamo parlando	stiamo credendo	stiamo finendo	stiamo dicendo	stiamo opponendo
voi	state avendo	state essendo	state parlando	state credendo	state finendo	state dicendo	state opponendo
essi/esse	stanno avendo	stanno essendo	stanno parlando	stanno credendo	stanno finendo	stanno dicendo	stanno opponendo

The present continuous tense has a very predictable conjugation pattern even for verbs that are typically irregular, such as essere ("to be") and avere ("to have"). For verbs with reduced infinitives, the gerund uses the same stem as the imperfect (which sometimes corresponds to the stem of the 1st person singular indicative present).

infinitive	1st sing. present	1st sing. imperfect	gerund
dire	dico	dicevo	dicendo
bere	bevo	bevevo	bevendo
fare	faccio	facevo	facendo
porre	pongo	ponevo	ponendo

Past tense[edit]

To form the past progressive, stare is conjugated in the imperfect and used with the gerund. For example, while sto andando means "I am going", stavo andando expresses I was going. In conventional Italian speaking, stavo andando and imperfect andavo are mostly interchangeable in the progressive meaning (stavo andando/andavo in ospedale... 'I was going [i.e. on my way] to the hospital...'), whereas past habitual "I used to go", "I went (often, repeatedly)" is expressible only with the imperfect andavo.

Conjugations of the Past Progressive:

person	avere	essere	parlare	credere	finire	dire	opporre
io	stavo avendo	stavo essendo	stavo parlando	stavo credendo	stavo finendo	stavo dicendo	stavo opponendo
tu	stavi avendo	stavi essendo	stavi parlando	stavi credendo	stavi finendo	stavi dicendo	stavi opponendo
lui/lei	stava avendo	stava essendo	stava parlando	stava credendo	stava finendo	stava dicendo	stava opponendo
noi	stavamo avendo	stavamo essendo	stavamo parlando	stavamo credendo	stavamo finendo	stavamo dicendo	stavamo opponendo
voi	stavate avendo	stavate essendo	stavate parlando	stavate credendo	stavate finendo	stavate dicendo	stavate opponendo
loro	stavano avendo	stavano essendo	stavano parlando	stavano credendo	stavano finendo	stavano dicendo	stavano opponendo

Like the present progressive, the Italian past progressive is extremely regular. Forms of stare are those common to -are verbs in the imperfect (stare/stavo, parlare/parlavo, etc.).

There is no readily available means in Italian for expressing the distinction between English "We were reading" and "We have been reading."

Japanese[edit]

Standard Japanese uses the same grammar form to form the progressive and the continuous aspect, specifically by using the -te iru form of a verb. Depending on the transitivity of the verb, they are interpreted as either progressive or continuous. For example:

Intransitive:

ペンが鞄に入っている。

Pen ga kaban ni haitte iru.

The pen is in the bag (continuous).

Transitive:

彼は晩ご飯を食べている。

Kare wa ban-gohan o tabeteiru.

He is eating dinner (progressive).

彼はペンを鞄に入れている。

Kare wa pen o kaban ni irete iru.

He is putting the pen in the bag (resultative). - this is usually understood to be resultative state as in "he keeps the pen in the bag" but can syntactically be interpreted as progressive, however this is highly strange and pragmatically incorrect.

Some dialects such as Chūgoku dialect and Shikoku dialect have different grammar forms for the progressive and the continuous aspect; the -toru form for the progressive and the -yoru form for the continuous. For example:

Continuous:

桜の花が散っとる。

Sakura no hana ga chittoru.

The cherry blossoms have fallen.

Progressive:

桜の花が散りよる。

Sakura no hana ga chiriyoru.

The cherry blossoms are falling.

Portuguese[edit]

In Portuguese the continuous aspect is marked by gerund, either by a proper -ndo ending (common in Brazil and Alentejo) or a (to) and the infinitive (gerundive infinitive - common in most Portugal); for example to be doing would be either estar a fazer or, similar to other Romance languages, estar fazendo.

Quechua[edit]

Quechua uses a specific suffix: -chka or -ykaa; which is directly attached before the conjugation suffixes. Although the continuous aspect in Quechua is similar to that of English, it is more used than the simple tenses and is commonly translated into them (simple present and past), because of the idea that actions are not instantaneous, but they have a specific duration (mikuni [I eat] and mikuchkani [I am eating] are both correct, but it is preferred to use mikuchkani because we do no eat in a second).

Slavic languages[edit]

In Slavic languages there is a clear distinction between perfective and imperfective grammatical aspects in the verb stem, with the latter emphasizing that the action is or was in progress (habitual or otherwise). It was in relation to these languages that the modern concept of grammatical aspect in general originally developed. Majority of verbs in Slavic languages have at least one matching pair of the other aspect – e.g. Czech koupit (perfective; done on a single occasion) and kupovat (imperfective; done over a longer period of time) which would translate as "to buy" and "be buying" respectively.

Perfective verbs are commonly formed from imperfective ones by the addition of a prefix, or else the imperfective verb is formed from the perfective one by modification of the stem or ending. Suppletion also plays a small role. Perfective verbs cannot generally be used with the meaning of a present tense – their present-tense forms in fact have future reference. An example of such a pair of verbs, from Polish, is given below:

• Infinitive (and dictionary form): pisać ("to write", imperfective); napisać ("to write", perfective)
• Present/simple future tense: pisze ("writes"); napisze ("will write", perfective)
• Compound future tense (imperfective only): będzie pisać ("will write, will be writing")
• Past tense: pisał ("was writing, used to write, wrote", imperfective); napisał ("wrote", perfective)

In at least the East Slavic and West Slavic languages, there is a three-way aspect differentiation for verbs of motion, with two forms of imperfective, determinate and indeterminate, and one form of perfective. The two forms of imperfective can be used in all three tenses (past, present, and future), but the perfective can only be used with past and future. The indeterminate imperfective expresses habitual aspect (or motion in no single direction), while the determinate imperfective expresses progressive aspect. The difference corresponds closely to that between the English "I (regularly) go to school" and "I am going to school (now)". The three-way difference is given below for the Russian basic (unprefixed) verbs of motion. When prefixes are attached to Russian verbs of motion, they become more or less normal imperfective/perfective pairs, although the prefixes are generally attached to the indeterminate imperfective to form the prefixed imperfective and to the determinate imperfective to form the prefixed perfective. For example, prefix при- + indeterminate ходи́ть = приходи́ть; and prefix при- + determinate идти́ = прийти (to arrive (on foot)).

Spanish[edit]

In Spanish, the continuous is constructed much as in English, using a conjugated form of estar (to be) plus the gerundio (gerund/gerundive/adverbial participle) of the main verb; for example, estar haciendo means to be doing (haciendo being the gerundio of hacer, to do).

Like English, Spanish also has a few related constructions with similar structures and related meanings; for example, seguir haciendo means to keep doing (seguir being to continue).

Conjugations of the Present Progressive in Spanish:

person	estar (to be)	hablar (to talk)	creer (to believe)	terminar (to finish)	decir (to say)	trabajar (to work)
yo	estoy	estoy hablando	estoy creyendo	estoy terminando	estoy diciendo	estoy trabajando
tú	estás	estás hablando	estás creyendo	estás terminando	estás diciendo	estás trabajando
usted	está	está hablando	está creyendo	está terminando	está diciendo	está trabajando
él/ella	está	está hablando	está creyendo	está terminando	está diciendo	está trabajando
nosotros	estamos	estamos hablando	estamos creyendo	estamos terminando	estamos diciendo	estamos trabajando
ustedes	están	están hablando	están creyendo	están terminando	están diciendo	están trabajando
ellos	están	están hablando	están creyendo	están terminando	están diciendo	están trabajando

See also[edit]

• Frequentative
• Grammatical aspect
• Imperfective aspect
• Grammar of the Breton language

References[edit]

Footnotes[edit]

Bibliography[edit]

• Matthews, Stephen and Yip, Virginia (1994). Cantonese: A Comprehensive Grammar. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-08945-X.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Yip, Po-Ching; Rimmington, Don (2004). Chinese: A Comprehensive Grammar. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-15032-9.

External links[edit]

• What is continuous aspect?
• What is progressive aspect?
• The Present Progressives in the European Parliament Proceedings
• Resources to learn verbal aspects for Russian language