Русско-украинская война [69] ( Украинская : російсько-українська війна , латинизируется : rosiisko-Украинская viina ; русский : российско-украинская война , латинизируется : rossiysko-украинская Voyna ) представляет собой непрерывный и затяжной конфликт между Россией и Украиной , который начался в Февраль 2014 года. Война сосредоточилась вокруг статуса украинских регионов Крыма и Донбасса .
Русско-украинская война | |||||||||
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Военная обстановка в октябре 2014 г .: Территории, удерживаемые повстанцами и Россией Территории под контролем Украины | |||||||||
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Воюющие стороны | |||||||||
Россия Донецкая Народная Республика Луганская Народная Республика | Украина Крымскотатарский Меджлис Поддерживается :
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Командиры и лидеры | |||||||||
Владимир Путин Сергей Шойгу Валерий Герасимов Игорь Коробов Александр Витко Денис Березовский Александр Ленцов [32] | Владимир Зеленский (с 2019 г. ) Петр Порошенко (2014-2019) Александр Турчинов ( февраль-июнь 2014) Виктор Янукович ( февраль 2014) Юрий Ильин Куцин Муженко Хомчак Павел Валентинович Лебедев Тенюх Михаилом Коваль Гелетей Полторак Андрей Загороднюк Андрей Таран Сергей Корнийчук | ||||||||
Участвующие единицы | |||||||||
Сухопутные войска России
Воздушно-десантные войска [37] [38] [39] [34]
военно-морской
ГРУ [41] [34] [42] [43] [44]
| Вооруженные Силы Украины
МВД (военизированная составляющая)
Сервис безопасности
Добровольческие отряды
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Сила | |||||||||
Россия 25 000–30 000 (2014 г.) [48] [49] Черноморский флот 11 000 (включая морскую пехоту ) 30 + Военные корабли (включая подводные лодки ) 4 эскадрильи истребительной авиации (по 18 самолетов в каждой) Пополнение 16 000 (март 2014 г.) [50 ] [51] [52] [53] -42000 [54] В Донбасской 4000-5000 (оценка Великобритания, август 2014) [55] 7,500 (оценка украинская, ноябрь 2014) [56] 12000 (оценка США, ноябрь 2015) [ 57] 9 000 (оценка Украины, июнь 2015 г.) [58] | Украина | ||||||||
Жертвы и потери | |||||||||
5660 убиты [59] 12 500–13 500 раненых [59] | 4431 убит [60] [61] [62] 9 500–10 500 раненых [59] 70 пропавших без вести [63] 2768 взят в плен [64] [65] [66] 9 268 присоединились к российским войскам после аннексии [67]300+ танков [68] | ||||||||
3350 мирных жителей убиты; более 7 000 раненых [59] 13 000–13 200 убитых; Всего 29 000–31 000 раненых [59] |
После евромайдан протестов и 22 февраля последующего удаления из украинского президента Виктора Януковича , а также среди широких волнений по всей южной и восточной части Украины , российские солдаты без опознавательные знаки взяли под свой контроль стратегических позиций и инфраструктуры в пределах территории Украины , Крыма. С 1 марта 2014 года Совет Федерации в Российской Федерации единогласно принял резолюцию по ходатайству президента России Владимира Путина использовать военную силу на территории Украины. [70] Постановление было принято спустя несколько дней после начала российской военной операции «Возвращение Крыма». Затем Россия аннексировала Крым после широко раскритикованного референдума, который был организован Россией после захвата крымского парламента российскими «зелеными человечками» и на котором население Автономной Республики Крым проголосовало за присоединение к Российской Федерации , по данным России. официальные результаты (сообщалось, что 95,5% участвовавших в голосовании избирателей в Крыму (явка составила 83%) высказались за выход из Украины и присоединение к России). [15] [71] [72] [73] [74] В апреле демонстрации пророссийских групп в районе Донбасса Украины переросли в войну между украинским правительством и поддерживаемыми Россией сепаратистскими силами самопровозглашенных Донецкая и Луганская народные республики. В августе российская военная техника пересекла границу в нескольких населенных пунктах Донецкой области. [35] [75] [76] [77] [78] Вторжение российских военных было признано причиной поражения украинских войск в начале сентября. [79] [80]
В ноябре 2014 года украинские военные сообщили об интенсивном перемещении войск и техники из России в контролируемые сепаратистами районы востока Украины. [81] Ассошиэйтед Пресс сообщило, что 80 военных машин без опознавательных знаков движутся в контролируемых повстанцами районах. [82] Организация по безопасности и сотрудничеству в Европе (ОБСЕ) Специальная миссия мониторинга наблюдается конвои тяжелых вооружений и танков в DPR контролируемой территории без знаков различия . [83] Наблюдатели ОБСЕ также заявили, что они видели автомобили, перевозившие боеприпасы и трупы солдат, пересекавшие российско-украинскую границу под видом конвоев с гуманитарной помощью . [84] По состоянию на начало августа 2015 года ОБСЕ зафиксировала более 21 такого транспортного средства с маркировкой российского военного кодекса солдат, погибших в бою. [85] Согласно The Moscow Times , Россия пыталась запугать и заставить замолчать правозащитников, обсуждающих гибель российских солдат в конфликте. [86] ОБСЕ неоднократно сообщала, что ее наблюдателям было отказано в доступе в районы, контролируемые «объединенными российско-сепаратистскими силами». [87]
Большинство членов международного сообщества [88] [89] [90] и такие организации, как Amnesty International [91] , осудили Россию за ее действия на постреволюционной Украине, обвинив ее в нарушении международного права и нарушении суверенитета Украины. Многие страны ввели экономические санкции против России, российских граждан или компаний, на что Россия ответила тем же. [92]
В октябре 2015 года газета The Washington Post сообщила, что Россия перебросила некоторые из своих элитных подразделений с Украины в Сирию для поддержки президента Сирии Башара Асада . [93] В декабре 2015 года президент Российской Федерации Владимир Путин признал, что на Украине действовали офицеры российской военной разведки, однако настаивал на том, что они не такие, как регулярные войска. [94] В настоящее время 7% территории Украины находится под оккупацией . [95]
Задний план
Несмотря на то, что с 1991 года Украина была независимой страной, как бывшая советская республика, Украина воспринималась Россией как часть ее сферы влияния . Юлиан Чифу и его соавторы утверждают, что в отношении Украины Россия следует модернизированной версии доктрины Брежнева об «ограниченном суверенитете», которая гласит, что суверенитет Украины не может быть больше, чем суверенитет Варшавского договора до распада страны. советскую сферу влияния . [96] Это утверждение основано на заявлениях российского руководства о том, что возможная интеграция Украины в НАТО поставит под угрозу национальную безопасность России. [96]
После распада Советского Союза в 1991 году Украина и Россия продолжали поддерживать очень тесные связи на протяжении десятилетий. В то же время было несколько проблем, в первую очередь значительный ядерный арсенал Украины, от которого Украина согласилась отказаться в Будапештском меморандуме о гарантиях безопасности (декабрь 1994 г.) при условии, что Россия (и другие подписавшие стороны) предоставят гарантии против угрозы силой или ее применение против территориальной целостности или политической независимости Украины. В 1999 году Россия была одной из сторон, подписавших Хартию европейской безопасности , где она «подтвердила неотъемлемое право каждого государства-участника свободно выбирать или изменять свои механизмы безопасности, включая союзные договоры, по мере их развития»; [97] оба окажутся бесполезными в 2014 году. [98]
Вторым моментом было разделение Черноморского флота . Украина согласилась арендовать ряд военно-морских объектов, в том числе в Севастополе, чтобы российский Черноморский флот мог и дальше базироваться там вместе с украинскими военно-морскими силами. Начиная с 1993 года, по 1990-е и 2000-е годы Украина и Россия участвовали в нескольких газовых спорах . [99] В 2001 году Украина вместе с Грузией, Азербайджаном и Молдовой сформировала группу под названием Организация ГУАМ за демократию и экономическое развитие , которую Россия рассматривала как прямой вызов СНГ , торговой группе, в которой доминирует Россия, созданной после распад СССР. [100] Еще больше разозлила Россию Оранжевая революция 2004 года, когда украинский популист Виктор Ющенко был избран президентом вместо пророссийского [101] Виктора Януковича. Более того, Украина продолжала расширять свое сотрудничество с НАТО , развернув в 2004 году третий по величине контингент войск в Ираке, а также направив миротворцев в миссии НАТО, такие как силы ISAF в Афганистане и KFOR в Косово .
В 2010 году был избран пророссийский президент Виктор Янукович , и Россия чувствовала, что многие связи с Украиной можно восстановить. До этого Украина не продляла аренду военно-морских объектов в Крыму, а это означало, что российские войска должны будут покинуть Крым к 2017 году. Однако Янукович подписал новый договор аренды и расширил допустимое присутствие войск, а также разрешил войскам тренироваться в Керчи. полуостров. [102] Многие в Украине считают продление срока действия неконституционным, поскольку конституция Украины гласит, что после истечения срока действия Севастопольского договора в Украине не должны размещаться постоянные иностранные войска. Юлия Тимошенко, главный оппозиционный деятель Януковича, была заключена в тюрьму по обвинению, которое международные наблюдатели назвали политическим преследованием , что привело к дальнейшему недовольству властью. В ноябре 2013 года Виктор Янукович отказался подписать соглашение об ассоциации с Европейским союзом, соглашение, которое разрабатывалось несколько лет и которое Янукович ранее одобрил. [103] Янукович вместо этого выступал за более тесные связи с Россией.
В сентябре 2013 года Россия предупредила Украину, что, если она продолжит выполнение запланированного соглашения о свободной торговле с ЕС , она столкнется с финансовой катастрофой и, возможно, крахом государства. [104] Сергей Глазьев , советник президента Владимира Путина, сказал, что «украинские власти совершают огромную ошибку, если думают, что реакция России станет нейтральной через несколько лет. Этого не произойдет». Россия уже ввела ограничения на импорт некоторых украинских товаров, и Глазьев не исключил дальнейших санкций в случае подписания соглашения. Глазьев допустил возможность возникновения сепаратистских движений на русскоязычном востоке и юге Украины. Он настаивал на том, что вопреки международному праву, если Украина подпишет соглашение, с юридической точки зрения, украинское правительство нарушит двусторонний договор о стратегическом партнерстве и дружбе с Россией, который определяет границы стран. Россия больше не будет гарантировать Украине статус государства и может вмешаться, если пророссийские регионы страны обратятся к России напрямую. [104]
Евромайдан и Антимайдан
После нескольких месяцев протестов в рамках движения Евромайдан 22 февраля 2014 года протестующие свергли правительство Виктора Януковича, избранного демократическим путем в 2010 году . [105] Протестующие взяли под контроль правительственные здания в столице Киева , а также сам город. Когда полиция покинула свои посты в Киеве, а оппозиция установила контроль над ключевыми перекрестками и парламентом, президент Янукович бежал из Киева в Харьков на востоке Украины, где он традиционно пользовался большей поддержкой. [106] После этого инцидента украинский парламент проголосовал за восстановление Конституции Украины 2004 года [107] и отстранение Януковича от власти. [108] [109] Голосование по резолюции, в которой говорилось, что Янукович «отстраняет себя [от власти], потому что он не выполняет свои обязательства» [106] , получилось 328–0 в поддержку. В голосовании не хватило 10 голосов до трех четвертей депутатов, что является требованием Конституции Украины для импичмента. Янукович заявил, что голосование было неконституционным из-за этого вопроса, [c] [108] [110] [111] и отказался уйти в отставку. Лидеры русскоязычных восточных регионов Украины заявили о неизменной лояльности Януковичу. [109] [112]
Одним из первых вопросов, к которому подошел парламент, был вопрос о языке, отменивший закон, который предусматривал использование русского языка в качестве второго официального государственного языка в регионах с большим русскоязычным населением. [113] Парламент принял закон об отмене закона 2012 года о языках меньшинств , который защищал статус других языков, кроме украинского. Предложение оттолкнуло многих в русскоязычных регионах Украины и [114] через несколько дней, 1 марта, и.о. президента Александр Турчинов заявил, что отказывается подписывать закон, и пообещал наложить вето (но не сделал этого). , фактически останавливая его действие . [115]
Между тем, утром 27 февраля спецподразделения « Беркута» из Крыма и других регионов Украины, расформированные 25 февраля, захватили блокпосты на Перекопском перешейке и полуострове Чонгар . [19] [20] По словам бывшего начальника крымской полиции Геннадия Москаля , в этих «Беркутах» были бронетранспортеры , гранатометы , автоматы , пулеметы и другое оружие. [20] С тех пор они контролировали весь наземный транспорт между Крымом и континентальной Украиной. [20]
Российское финансирование ополченцев («Глазьевские ленты»)
В августе 2016 года Служба безопасности Украины (СБУ) опубликовала первую серию перехватов телефонных разговоров с 2014 года Сергея Глазьева (советника президента России), Константина Затулина и других людей, в которых они обсуждали тайное финансирование пророссийских активистов на востоке Украины. , захват административных зданий и другие действия, которые со временем привели к вооруженному конфликту. [116] Глазьев отказался отрицать подлинность перехвата, в то время как Затулин подтвердил, что они были настоящими, но «вырванными из контекста». [117] Дальнейшие партии были представлены в качестве доказательств во время уголовного дела против бывшего президента Януковича в Оболонском суде Киева в период с 2017 по 2018 год. [118]
Еще в феврале 2014 года Глазьев давал прямые инструкции различным пророссийским партиям в Украине разжигать беспорядки в Донецке , Харькове , Запорожье и Одессе . Глазьев инструктирует различных пророссийских игроков о необходимости захвата офисов местной администрации, что делать после того, как они будут захвачены, как сформулировать свои требования, и дает различные обещания о поддержке со стороны России, включая «отправку наших парней». [119] [120] [121]
Константин Затулин : ... Это основная история. Я хочу сказать о других регионах - мы финансировали Харьков, финансировали Одессу.
[...]
Сергей Глазьев : Смотрите, ситуация в процессе. Уже штурмом подверглась Харьковская облгосадминистрация, в Донецке - облгосадминистрация. Надо штурмовать облгосадминистрацию и собирать там областных депутатов!
[...]
Сергей Глазьев : Очень важно, чтобы люди апеллировали к Путину. Массовые обращения напрямую к нему с просьбой о защите, обращением к России и т. Д. Это обращение уже было на вашей встрече.
[...]
Денис Яцюк : То есть мы после штурма здания облгосадминистрации собираем заседание облгосадминистрации? Приглашаем депутатов и заставляем голосовать? [...]
- Сергей Глазьев и др., «Английский перевод аудиодоказательств причастности советника Путина Глазьева и других российских политиков к войне на Украине», UAPosition.com
В дальнейших звонках, записанных в феврале и марте 2014 года, Глазьев указывает, что «на полуострове нет собственного электричества, воды или газа», и «быстрым и эффективным» решением было бы расширение на север. По мнению украинских журналистов, это указывает на то, что планы военной интервенции на Донбассе с целью создания подконтрольного России марионеточного государства Новороссия для обеспечения поставок в аннексированный Крым обсуждались задолго до фактического начала конфликта в апреле. Некоторые также указали на сходство планируемой территории Новороссии с предыдущим эфемерным проектом Юго-Восточной Украинской Автономной Республики, кратко предложенным в 2004 году пророссийскими политиками в Украине. [118]
4 марта 2014 года постоянный представитель России при ООН Виталий Чуркин представил фотокопию письма, подписанного Виктором Януковичем 1 марта 2014 года, с просьбой к президенту России Владимиру Путину использовать российские вооруженные силы для «восстановления верховенства закона, мира, порядка, стабильность и защита населения Украины ». [122] 1 марта обе палаты российского парламента проголосовали за предоставление президенту Путину права использовать российские войска в Крыму. [123] [124] 24 июня Владимир Путин обратился в российский парламент с просьбой отменить постановление об использовании российских войск на Украине. [125] На следующий день Совет Федерации проголосовал за отмену своего предыдущего решения, объявив незаконным использование российских организованных вооруженных сил на Украине. [126]
Российские базы в Крыму
Помимо Черноморского флота , в соответствии с договорами между Российской Федерацией и Украиной, такими как Харьковский пакт, среди немногих в Автономной Республике Крым были размещены российские вооруженные силы в нескольких населенных пунктах на Крымском полуострове, таких как Севастополь , Кача , Гвардейское, Симферопольский район , Сарыч. и несколько других. Размещение российских вооруженных сил в Крыму не было открыто раскрыто, что привело к нескольким инцидентам, таким как конфликт 2005 года у маяка на мысе Сарыч. [ неудавшаяся проверка ] [127] Общая численность российского военного компонента в Крыму была ограничена до 25 000 военнослужащих, 132 боевых бронированных машины и 24 артиллерийских орудий. Однако их деятельность на полуострове не была неограниченной: соглашения требовали, чтобы российские войска в Крыму уважали суверенитет Украины, соблюдали ее законодательство и не вмешивались во внутренние дела страны. От них требовалось предъявить свои «военные удостоверения личности» при пересечении международной границы, и их операции за пределами обозначенных мест дислокации разрешались только после согласования с компетентными органами Украины. [128]
В соответствии с первоначальным договором о разделе советского Черноморского флота , подписанного в 1997 году, Россия Федерация было разрешено иметь свои военные базы в Крыму до 2017 года, после чего его пришлось эвакуировать все свои воинские части , включая его части Черноморского флота из в Автономной Республике Крым и Севастополе . Однако Россия никогда особо не планировала перебрасывать свой флот в Россию. [129] 21 апреля 2010 года бывший президент Украины Виктор Янукович подписал новую сделку, известную как Харьковский пакт, продлевающий срок пребывания до 2042 года с возможностью продления и взамен получая некоторую скидку на газ, поставляемый из Российской Федерации [130] ( см. газовый спор между Россией и Украиной в 2009 г. ). Харьковский пакт был скорее обновлением комплекса нескольких фундаментальных договоров, которые были подписаны в 1990-х годах премьер-министрами обеих стран Виктором Черномырдиным (Россия) и Павлом Лазаренко (Украина) и президентами Борисом Ельциным (Россия) и Леонидом Кучмой (Украина). [131] [132] [133] [134] Конституция Украины , в то время как имеющий общий запрет на размещение иностранных баз на почву страны, первоначально также имели переходное положение, что позволило использование существующих военных баз на территория Украины для временного размещения иностранных воинских формирований. Это позволило российским военным сохранить свою базу в Крыму как «существующую военную базу». Конституционное положение о «[пред] существующих базах» было отменено в 2019 году [135], но к тому времени Россия уже аннексировала Крым и вышла из базовых договоров в одностороннем порядке.
Договор о Черноморском флоте также был основан на Договоре 1997 г. о дружбе, сотрудничестве и партнерстве между Украиной и Российской Федерацией [136] и Договоре 1993 г. о свободной торговле. [137] Договор о дружбе 1997 г. был основан на Договоре 1990 г. между Украинской ССР и РСФСР, который, в свою очередь, был основан на декларациях о государственном суверенитете обеих республик. [138]
Крым
2014 аннексия
Через несколько дней после того, как президент Украины Виктор Янукович бежал из столицы Киева в конце февраля 2014 года, вооруженные люди, выступавшие против движения Евромайдана, начали брать под контроль Крымский полуостров. [139] Блокпосты были установлены российскими [140] солдатами без опознавательных знаков в зеленой военной форме и снаряжении в столице Автономной Республики Крым , Симферополе и в отдельно управляемом портовом городе Севастополе , где находится российская военно-морская база под харьковские соглашения 2010 года . [141] [142] [143] Местное население и средства массовой информации называли этих людей « зелеными человечками ». [144] После оккупации крымского парламента этими войсками без опознавательных знаков, которые предположительно являются российскими спецназом, [145] [146] [147] [148] руководство Крыма объявило, что проведет референдум о выходе из состава Украины . [149] За этим спорным референдумом [71] последовала аннексия Крыма Российской Федерацией в середине марта. Украина и большая часть международного сообщества отказались признать референдум или аннексию. [150] 15 апреля украинский парламент объявил Крым территорией, временно оккупированной Россией. [151] После аннексии Крыма российское правительство увеличило свое военное присутствие в регионе, а президент России Владимир Путин заявил, что там будет создана российская военная оперативная группа. [152] В декабре 2014 года Пограничная служба Украины объявила о начале вывода российских войск с территории Херсонской области . Российские войска оккупировали часть Арабатской стрелы и острова вокруг реки Сиваш, которые географически являются частью Крыма, но административно являются частью Херсонской области. Одна из таких деревень , занятых русскими войсками был Стрелковое , Генический район , расположенный на Арабатской Стрелке, где размещался важный центр распределения газа. Российские силы заявили, что взяли под контроль газораспределительный центр для предотвращения террористических атак. Российские войска вышли из южного Херсона и продолжали занимать газораспределительный центр под Стрелково. Уход из Херсона положил конец почти 10-месячной оккупации региона Россией. Пограничники Украины заявили, что районы, которые находились под российской оккупацией, необходимо будет проверить на наличие мин, прежде чем они захватят эти позиции. [153] [154]
В ноябре НАТО заявило, что, по его мнению, Россия размещает в Крыму ядерное оружие. [155]
Андрей Илларионов , бывший советник Владимира Путина , сказал в своем выступлении 31 мая 2014 года, что некоторые технологии российско-грузинской войны были обновлены и снова используются в Украине. По его словам, с тех пор, как 20 февраля 2014 года началась российская военная операция в Крыму, российская пропаганда не могла утверждать, что российская агрессия была результатом Евромайдана. Война на Украине произошла не «внезапно», а была заранее спланирована, и подготовка началась еще в 2003 году. [156] Позднее Илларионов заявил, что один из российских планов предусматривал войну с Украиной в 2015 году после президентских выборов. Однако Майдан ускорил противостояние. [157]
Возобновление конфликта в 2016 году
8 августа 2016 года Украина сообщила, что Россия увеличила свое военное присутствие вдоль демаркационной линии Крыма. Пограничные переходы были закрыты. [158] 10 августа ФСБ России заявило, что предотвратило украинские террористические атаки и что двое военнослужащих были убиты в столкновениях в Армянске (Крым) , добавив, что были задержаны «несколько» граждан Украины и России. [159] [160] [161] Российские СМИ сообщили, что один из убитых солдат был командиром российского ГРУ, а позже был похоронен в Симферополе. [162] Украина отрицала, что инцидент имел место, [163] [164] и параллельно с инцидентом 9 августа украинский чиновник утверждал, что ряд российских солдат дезертировали, но не вошли в Украину, [165] и что Между российскими разведчиками и пограничниками произошли стычки. [166] Президент России Путин обвинил Украину в переходе к «практике террора». [167] Президент Украины Порошенко назвал российскую версию событий «одинаково циничной и безумной». [168] США отвергли претензии России, а их посол на Украине ( Джеффри Р. Пайет ) заявил: «Правительство США до сих пор не увидело ничего, подтверждающего утверждения России о« вторжении в Крым ». [169]
Президент Украины Петр Порошенко предупредил, что Россия готовится к полномасштабному вторжению в Украину. [170] [171]
Инцидент в Керченском проливе 2018 г.
25 ноября возле контролируемого Россией Керченского пролива российские военные корабли обстреляли и захватили три украинских катера; Задержаны 24 украинских моряка. [172] Днем позже, 26 ноября 2018 г., депутаты украинского парламента подавляющим большинством поддержали введение военного положения в прибрежных регионах Украины и регионах, граничащих с Россией, в ответ на обстрел и захват украинских военных кораблей Россией вблизи Крымского полуострова. днем ранее. В общей сложности 276 депутатов в Киеве приняли закон, который вступит в силу 28 ноября 2018 года и автоматически истечет через 30 дней. [ требуется обновление ] [173]
Донбасс
Война на Донбассе - это вооруженный конфликт в Донбассе на Украине . С начала марта 2014 года демонстрации пророссийских и антиправительственных групп прошли в Донецкой и Луганской областях Украины, вместе обычно называемых «Донбассом», после украинской революции 2014 года и движения Евромайдана . Эти демонстрации, последовавшие за аннексией Крыма Российской Федерацией и являвшиеся частью более широкой группы одновременных пророссийских протестов на юге и востоке Украины , переросли в вооруженный конфликт между поддерживаемыми Россией сепаратистскими силами самоуправления. заявили Донецкая и Луганская Народные Республики (ДНР и ЛНР соответственно) и правительство Украины . [174] [175] СБ утверждает основные командиров повстанческого движения во время начала конфликта, в том числе Игоря Стрелки и Безлер русских агентов. [176] [177] Премьер-министром Донецкой Народной Республики с мая по август 2014 года был гражданин России Александр Бородай . [178] С августа 2014 года все руководящие должности в Донецке и Луганске занимают граждане Украины. [179] [180] Сообщается, что российские добровольцы составляют от 15% до 80% комбатантов, [178] [181] [182] [183] [184], причем многие из них утверждают, что являются бывшими военнослужащими. [185] [186] Вербовка боевиков Донбасса проводилась открыто в российских городах с использованием частных или военкоматов , что было подтверждено рядом российских СМИ. [185] [187]
В интервью французскому телеканалу TF1 и Radio Europe1 в июне 2014 года президент России Владимир Путин сказал: «В Украине нет вооруженных сил, никаких« русских инструкторов »- и их никогда не было». [188]
Экономические и материальные обстоятельства на Донбассе не создали ни необходимых, ни достаточных условий для локального вооруженного конфликта, вызванного внутренними силами. Роль военного вмешательства Кремля была первостепенной для начала военных действий. [189]
Март – июль 2014 г.
В конце марта Россия продолжила наращивание вооруженных сил вблизи Украины, достигнув 30–40 000 человек. Высказывались опасения, что Россия может снова готовиться к вторжению на Украину после аннексии Крыма. [190]
Американские и украинские официальные лица заявили, что у них есть доказательства российского вмешательства в Украину, в том числе перехваченные сообщения между российскими официальными лицами и повстанцами Донбасса. [191] [192]
Украинские СМИ описывают хорошо организованных и хорошо вооруженных пророссийских боевиков, как тех, что оккупировали регионы Крыма во время крымского кризиса. [193] [194] Бывший заместитель начальника Генштаба Вооруженных сил Украины адмирал Игорь Кабаненко заявил, что боевики являются российскими военными разведывательно-диверсионными подразделениями. [195] Арсен Аваков заявил, что боевики в Красном Лимане использовали автоматы российского производства АК-100 с гранатометами, и что такое оружие выпускается только в Российской Федерации. «Правительство Украины рассматривает сегодняшние факты как проявление внешней агрессии со стороны России», - сказал Аваков. [196] Боевики в Славянск прибыли на военных грузовиках без номеров. [197] Репортер российской « Новой газеты» , посетивший позиции артиллерии сепаратистов в Авдеевке , написал, что, по его мнению, «невозможно, чтобы пушки управлялись добровольцами», поскольку они требуют обученной и опытной команды, включая наблюдателей и специалистов по корректировке. [198]
Дэвид Патрикаракос , корреспондент New Statesman, сказал следующее: «В то время как на других протестах / мероприятиях были вооруженные люди и много простых людей, здесь почти повсеместно были вооружены и были люди в масках в полной военной форме. Автоматическое оружие есть повсюду. Ясно. здесь профессиональные военные. Обычно местная милиция использует биты и палки, но также присутствует военное присутствие. В этом нет никаких сомнений ". [199] Збигнев Бжезинский , бывший советник по национальной безопасности США , сказал, что события на Донбассе были похожи на события в Крыму , которые привели к его аннексии Россией , и отметил, что Россия действовала аналогичным образом. [200]
В апреле 2014 года пресс-секретарь Госдепартамента США Джен Псаки заявила, что «в международном сообществе существует широкое единство в отношении связи между Россией и некоторыми вооруженными боевиками на востоке Украины». [201] Украинское правительство опубликовало фотографии солдат на востоке Украины, которые, по утверждению Госдепартамента США, показывают, что некоторые из бойцов были российскими спецназовцами. [146] [202] Госсекретарь США Джон Керри заявил, что боевики «были оснащены специальным российским оружием и такой же формой, как и российские войска, вторгшиеся в Крым». [203] Посол США в ООН сказал, что теракты в Славянске были «профессиональными», «скоординированными» и что «в этом не было ничего очевидного». [204] Министр иностранных дел Великобритании Уильям Хейг заявил: «Я не думаю, что отрицание причастности России вызывает хоть каплю доверия ... Вовлеченные силы хорошо вооружены, хорошо обучены, хорошо оснащены, хорошо скоординированы, ведут себя точно так же, как российские силы, которые, как выяснилось, вели себя в Крыму ». [205] Командующий операциями НАТО в Европе Филип М. Бридлов оценил, что солдаты выглядели хорошо подготовленными, а не спонтанно сформированными местными ополченцами, и что «происходящее на востоке Украины является хорошо спланированной и хорошо спланированной военной операцией. организована, и мы оцениваем, что она осуществляется по указанию России ». [206]
Журналисты New York Times взяли интервью у боевиков из Славянска и не обнаружили четкой связи с поддержкой России: «В арсенале 12-й роты не было четкой связи с Россией, но не было возможности подтвердить описания повстанцами источников их денег и оборудования. " [207] Комментируя присутствие батальона «Восток» в рядах повстанцев, Денис Пушилин , самопровозглашенный председатель Народного Совета Донецкой Народной Республики, сказал 30 мая: «Просто раньше не было добровольцев [из России] , а теперь они начали прибывать - и не только из России ». [208]
Значительное число граждан России, многие ветераны или ультранационалисты, в настоящее время вовлечены в продолжающийся вооруженный конфликт, что признают лидеры сепаратистов. Кэрол Сайвец, российский специалист программы исследований безопасности Массачусетского технологического института , описала роль российских солдат как «почти наверняка», действующую с благословения и поддержки российского государства, «даже если русские действительно являются добровольцами, а не служат. военнослужащие ". [12]
Поставка оружия
Российский оппозиционный политик Илья Пономарев заявил: «Я абсолютно уверен, что в восточных регионах Украины очень малочисленны российские войска. И это не рядовые солдаты, а, скорее всего, представители спецподразделений и военной разведки». [209] Позже в июле, после сбития рейса 17 Malaysia Airlines , он сказал, что «теперь Путин понимает, что передал оружие не тем людям». Он также сказал, что даже если Москва прекратит поставки оружия на Донбасс, в российских вооруженных силах все равно будет достаточно сторонников войны, чтобы продолжать такие поставки неофициально. [210]
Лидеры сепаратистов, такие как Алексей Мозговой, посещали Москву и уклонялись от того, кто поставлял их оружие. [211]
На встрече, состоявшейся 7 июля в Донецке, российский политик Сергей Кургинян провел пресс-конференцию с представителями Народного ополчения Донбасса , в том числе с Павлом Губаревым , и заявил, что Россия действительно оказала существенную военную поддержку сепаратистам. Во время обсуждения среди участников Губарев пожаловался, что присланное оружие было старым и не полностью работоспособным. В ответ Кургинян перечислил конкретные предметы, в том числе 12 000 автоматов, гранатометы, самоходные минометы 2С9 «Нона» , две БМП и три танка, которые, как он знал, были поставлены сепаратистам из России. Он также сказал, что видел новое, полностью функциональное оружие, разряженное в местах на Донбассе, которые он не стал «раскрывать, поскольку нас снимают камеры». Кургинян признал, что Россия изначально отправляла «оружие 4-й категории», но с 3 июня поставила полностью работоспособное оборудование. Он также сказал, что одной из его целей во время пребывания в Донецке было обеспечение увеличения военной поддержки со стороны России. [212] [213] [214] [215] [216]
Украинский -26 военно - транспортный самолет был сбит над украинской деревней Davydo Myilske вблизи российской границей 14 июля. Он летел на высоте 6500 метров. Глава Службы безопасности Украины Валентин Наливайченко заявил 15 июля, что у СБУ есть «неоспоримые» доказательства причастности России к нападению. [217]
Рейс 17 Malaysia Airlines был сбит 17 июля над зоной конфликта недалеко от Тореза в Донецкой области , над территорией Украины, контролируемой пророссийскими сепаратистами. [218] [219] [220] Свидетельства из открытых источников указывают на то, что ракетная установка «Бук», которая, как многие полагают, использовалась для сбития пассажирского самолета, прибыла из России, [221] [222] и была доставлена 17 июля из Донецк в Снежное. [223] По данным Bellingcat , пусковая установка принадлежала российским военным 53-й зенитно-ракетной бригады . [224] [225] [226]
В августе Россия отправила десятки белых грузовиков, зеленых армейских грузовиков, выкрашенных в белый цвет, на восток Украины без досмотра со стороны Украины. [227] Грузовики были «почти пустыми», как сообщил Би-би-си Стив Розенберг, и акция была охарактеризована как отвлечение внимания, так что в других точках в Украину прибыло оборудование и персонал. [72] [228]
17 августа Украина обвинила Россию в отправке дополнительной военной техники, в том числе ракетных установок «Град», через границу в Нижний Нагольчик. [229] Сергей Лавров продолжал отрицать, что Россия отправляла через границу какое-либо оборудование. Он утверждал, что миссия наблюдателей ОБСЕ, размещенная в пунктах пересечения границы в регионе, не выявила каких-либо незаконных переходов границы, но миссия ОБСЕ, о которой упоминал Лавров, не имела мандата на проверку протяженных неохраняемых участков границы, на которых пересекались люди и техника. происходило часто. [230]
Министр обороны Украины Валерий Хелетей заявил 21 августа, что боевики использовали оружие российского производства, которое никогда не использовалось и не покупалось Вооруженными силами Украины . [231] Раненые пророссийские боевики обычно лечились в России с помощью МЧС России . [232] Они также были допрошены и зарегистрированы Федеральной службой безопасности (ФСБ), российским агентством внутренней безопасности и разведки. [232]
Bellingcat сообщает о присутствии российских танков Т-72Б3 и Т-90А на Донбассе с 2014 года; Значение этого состоит в том, что эти танки не экспортировались и не использовались Украиной. Сообщается, что танки Т-72Б3 и Т-90А использовались в районе Иловайска, аэропорта Луганска и Дебальцево. [233] [234]
2014 г. приграничный артиллерийский обстрел
С середины июля Россия обстреливала украинские подразделения через границу. [235] [236] 11 июля 2014 года украинский лагерь в селе Зеленополье недалеко от украинско-российской границы был обстрелян современной российской РСЗО 9К51М «Торнадо-Г» , что привело к тяжелым потерям. [237] [238]
24 июля американское правительство заявило, что у него есть доказательства того, что российские военные вели огонь по украинской территории из-за границы. Представитель министерства обороны США заявил, что «нет никаких сомнений» относительно причастности России к атакам на Вооруженные силы Украины. [239] 28 июля он опубликовал спутниковые снимки, на которых видно, как тяжелая артиллерия обстреливает украинские позиции с территории России. [13] 27 июля официальные лица США подтвердили, что Россия обстреляла территорию Украины. [240] В то время официальный представитель правительства России опроверг эти обвинения. [241]
Обстрел усилился как минимум за неделю до вторжения. [242] Согласно сообщениям НАТО , с середины августа российские военные обстреливали украинские позиции через границу, а к 22 августа российская артиллерия и личный состав перешли границу на территорию самой Украины. [243] [244]
Август 2014 военное вторжение
В начале августа, по словам Игоря Стрелкова , на Донбасс начали прибывать российские военнослужащие, якобы находящиеся в «отпуске» из армии. [245]
13 августа члены Российской комиссии по правам человека заявили, что более 100 российских солдат были убиты в ходе боевых действий на Украине, и поинтересовались, зачем они там оказались. [246]
Колонна военной техники, включая бронетранспортеры, с официальными российскими военными номерами, пересекла границу Украины около контролируемого боевиками пограничного перехода Изварино 14 августа. [247] [248] Позже украинское правительство объявило, что они уничтожили большую часть бронетанковой колонны с помощью артиллерии. Генеральный секретарь НАТО Андерс Фог Расмуссен заявил, что этот инцидент является «явной демонстрацией продолжающегося участия России в дестабилизации восточной Украины». [249] В тот же день президент России Владимир Путин, обращаясь к российским министрам и крымским парламентариям во время визита в Крым, пообещал сделать все возможное, чтобы положить конец конфликту на Украине, заявив, что России необходимо строить спокойно и достойно, а не конфронтация и война, которые изолировали его от остального мира. Комментарии прозвучали в связи с ужесточением международных санкций против России. [250]
22 августа 2014 года, по словам представителей НАТО, Россия перебросила самоходную артиллерию на территорию Украины. [243]
24 августа 2014 года президент Украины Петр Порошенко назвал антитеррористическую операцию (АТО) «Отечественной войной 2014 года» Украины и войной против «внешней агрессии». [251] [252] Министерство иностранных дел Украины маркированы Конфликт вторжения 27 августа 2014 г. [253]
26 августа 2014 года на видео из Свердловска, Украина , Международным институтом стратегических исследований была обнаружена смешанная колонна, состоящая как минимум из трех Т-72Б1 и одинокого Т-72БМ . Это наблюдение подорвало попытки России сохранить правдоподобное отрицание вопроса о поставках танков и другого оружия сепаратистам. Россия постоянно заявляла, что любые танки сепаратистов должны были быть захвачены у украинской армии. Т-72БМ в большом количестве стоит на вооружении Российской армии. Известно, что этот модернизированный Т-72 не экспортировался и не эксплуатировался в какой-либо другой стране. [254] Рейтер обнаружил другие танки этого типа возле Горбатенко в октябре. [255] В ноябре посольство Соединенного Королевства в Украине также опубликовало инфографику, демонстрирующую особенности танков Т-72, используемых сепаратистами, не присутствующими в танках, удерживаемых украинской армией, обращаясь к этому, чтобы «помочь России распознать свои собственные танки» . [256] Оборудование включало, например, тепловизионные приборы Thales Optronics, экспортированные в Россию только в период с 2007 по 2012 год. [257]
27 августа две колонны российских танков вошли на территорию Украины в поддержку пророссийских сепаратистов в Донецке и Луганске и вступили в бой с украинскими пограничниками, но официальные лица США не хотели заявлять, что Россия начала вторжение в Украину. [258] Представители НАТО заявили, что на территории Украины действовало более 1000 российских военнослужащих, но назвали этот инцидент вторжением, а не вторжением. [259] Правительство России отрицает эти утверждения. НАТО опубликовало спутниковые снимки, на которых, по его словам, видно присутствие российских войск на территории Украины. [246] Пророссийские сепаратисты признали, что российские войска сражались вместе с ними, заявив, что это «не секрет», но что российские войска были просто солдатами, которые предпочитали брать отпуск, сражаясь на Украине, а не «на пляже» . Премьер-министр самопровозглашенной Донецкой Народной Республики заявил, что от 3000 до 4000 российских военнослужащих сражались в рядах сепаратистов и что большинство из них не вернулись в Россию, продолжая воевать на Украине. [260]
28 августа члены комиссии назвали присутствие российских войск на украинской земле «прямым вторжением». [261] В тот же день Украина ввела обязательный призыв на военную службу . [262]
В конце августа НАТО опубликовало спутниковые снимки, которые, по его мнению, свидетельствовали о российских операциях на Украине с применением современного оружия [263], и после неудач [79] украинских сил к началу сентября стало очевидно, что Россия послала солдат и бронетехнику через приграничные и местные жители признали роль Путина и российских солдат в изменении судьбы. [35] [76] [77] [264] [265]
Луганская обл.
76 - й гвардейской авиационной дивизии штурмовой основе в Пскове якобы вступили на территорию Украины в августе и участвовал в стычке возле Луганска , страдает 80 мертвое. В Минобороны Украины заявили, что они захватили две бронетранспортера части в районе Луганска, а также сообщили об уничтожении еще трех танков и двух бронемашин пророссийских сил в других регионах. [267] [268] Российское правительство отрицает факт перестрелки. [268]
Примерно 29–30 августа российские танки разрушили «практически каждый дом» в Новосветловке , пригороде Луганска, по словам официального представителя украинских военных Андрея Лысенко. [269]
18 августа 76-я гвардейская десантно-штурмовая дивизия была награждена одной из высших наград России - орденом Суворова - от министра обороны России Сергея Шойгу за «успешное выполнение боевых задач» и «мужество и героизм». [268] Российские СМИ подчеркнули, что медаль вручается исключительно за боевые действия, и сообщили, что большое количество солдат этой дивизии погибло на Украине всего за несколько дней до этого, но их захоронения были тайными. [270] [271] [272] Некоторые российские СМИ, такие как Псковская губерния , [273] сообщили, что российские десантники могли быть убиты на Украине. Журналисты отправились в Псков , место захоронения военнослужащих, чтобы провести расследование. Несколько репортеров заявили, что там на них напали или им угрожали, и что злоумышленники стерли несколько карт памяти камеры. [274] В Псковской губернии были обнаружены записи телефонных разговоров российских солдат, проходящих лечение в псковском госпитале от ран, полученных во время боев на Украине. Солдаты рассказывают, что их отправили на войну, но их офицеры сказали, что они собираются на «учение». [275] [276]
Bellingcat вкладчиком опубликовал ряд исследований , раскрывающих причастность России Северного флота единиц береговых войск, двухсотое мотострелковой бригады и 61 - й бригады морской пехоты , который участвовал в боях в Луганской области: Войск 200 - й мотострелковой бригады сражались в бою из аэропорта Луганска , [277] [278] , а затем в октябре в ходе столкновений на 32 - й контрольной точке. [279] Морпехи 61-й бригады морской пехоты были замечены в Луганске и участвовали в боях в близлежащих селах. [280]
Донецкая область
24 августа 2014 года Амвросиевка была оккупирована российскими десантниками [281] при поддержке 250 бронетранспортеров и артиллерийских орудий. [282] Десять российских десантников из 331-го гвардейского воздушно-десантного полка , в / ч 71211 из Костромы , были захвачены в тот день в Дзеркалном , селе недалеко от Амвросиевки, в 20 км от границы, [283] после того, как их бронетехника была поражена украинской артиллерией. 25 августа Служба безопасности Украины сообщила о захваченных десантниках, заявив, что они пересекли границу Украины в ночь на 23 августа. [284] СБУ также обнародовала их фото и имена. [285] На следующий день в Минобороны России заявили, что они пересекли границу «случайно». [283] [286] 31 августа российские СМИ сообщили, что десять российских десантников, захваченных на территории Украины, вернулись домой после обмена войсками. 64 украинских военнослужащих, предоставленных в обмен, были захвачены после вступления в Россию, чтобы избежать всплеска боевых действий. [287] Россия заявила, что российские войска по ошибке пересекли неотмеченный участок границы во время патрулирования. [288] Украина опубликовала видеозаписи захваченных в плен российских солдат, которые оспаривают утверждение России о том, что она не имеет никакого отношения к конфликту. [289]
29 августа, после того как украинские войска согласились сдать Иловайск , они подверглись бомбардировке со стороны российских войск, когда они эвакуировались через «зеленый коридор». Нападение на войска, отмеченные белыми флагами, называли «резней». [35] [290] [291] [292] [293] [294] По меньшей мере 100 человек погибли. [290]
По данным Bellingcat , российская военная техника, пересекающая границу Украины, и артиллерийские позиции вблизи украинской границы хорошо видны на спутниковых фотографиях от 23 августа 2014 г. [295]
Мариупольское вторжение
Сообщается, что 25 августа колонна российских танков и военной техники вторглась в Украину на юго-востоке, недалеко от города Новоазовск, расположенного на побережье Азовского моря , и направилась в сторону удерживаемого украинцами Мариуполя , [296] [297] [ 298] [299] [300] в районе, который не видел пророссийского присутствия в течение нескольких недель. [301] Bellingcat исследование «s раскрывает некоторые подробности этой операции. [302] Русские войска захватили город Новоазовск . [303] и российские солдаты начали арестовывать и депортировать в неизвестные места всех украинцев, у которых не было зарегистрированного адреса в городе. [304] Проукраинские антивоенные акции протеста прошли в Мариуполе, которому угрожали российские войска. [304] [305] Совет Безопасности ООН созвал экстренное заседание , чтобы обсудить ситуацию. [306]
On 3 September, a Sky News team filmed groups of troops near Novoazovsk wearing modern combat gear typical for Russian units and traveling in new military vehicles with number plates and other markings removed. Specialists consulted by the journalists identified parts of the equipment (uniform, rifles) as currently used by Russian ground forces and paratroopers.[307]
Result
On 3 September 2014, Ukrainian President Poroshenko said he had reached a "permanent ceasefire" agreement with Russian President Putin.[308] Russia denied the ceasefire agreement took place, denying being party to the conflict at all, adding that "they only discussed how to settle the conflict".[309][310] Poroshenko then backtracked from his previous statement about the agreement.[311][312]
Also on 3 September, the OSCE for the first time reported "light and heavy calibre shootings from the east and south-east areas which are also bordering Ukraine". The report also stated that the OSCE Observer Teams had seen an increase of military-style dressed men crossing the border in both directions, including ones with LPR and Novorossiya symbols and flags, and wounded being transported back to Russia.[313]
Reaction
Lindsey Hilsum wrote in the Channel 4 news blog that in early September Ukrainian troops at Dmytrivka came under attack from BM-30 Smerch rockets from Russia.[314] On 4 September, she wrote of rumours that Ukrainian troops who had been shelling Luhansk for weeks were retreating west and that Russian soldiers with heavy armour were reported to have come over the border to back up the rebels.[315]
Journalist Tim Judah wrote in the NYR blog about the scale of the devastation suffered by Ukrainian forces in southeastern Ukraine over the last week of August 2014 that it amounted "to a catastrophic defeat and will long be remembered by embittered Ukrainians as among the darkest days of their history." The scale of the destruction achieved in several ambushes revealed "that those attacking the pro-government forces were highly professional and using very powerful weapons." The fighting in Ilovaysk had begun on 7 August when units from three Ukrainian volunteer militias and the police attempted to take it back from rebel control. Then, on 28 August, the rebels were able to launch a major offensive, with help from elsewhere, including Donetsk—though "not Russia," according to Commander Givi, the head of rebel forces there. By 1 September it was all over and the Ukrainians had been decisively defeated. Commander Givi said the ambushed forces were militias, not regular soldiers, whose numbers had been boosted, 'by foreigners, including Czechs, Hungarians, and "niggers." '[316]
Mick Krever wrote on the CNN blog that on 5 September Russia's Permanent Representative to the OSCE, Andrey Kelin had said it was natural pro-Russian separatists "are going to liberate" Mariupol. Ukrainian forces stated that Russian intelligence groups had been spotted in the area. Kelin said 'there might be volunteers over there.'[317] On 4 September 2014, NATO officer said there were several thousand regular Russian forces operating in Ukraine.[318] Lindsey Hilsum reported on the Channel 4 news blog about the total destruction of Luhansk International Airport which was being used as a base by the Ukrainian forces to shell Luhansk, probably because the Russians decided to 'turn the tide' - the terminal building and everything around was utterly destroyed. Forces from Azerbaijan, Belarus and Tajikistan who were fighting on the side of the rebels allowed themselves to be filmed.[319]
On 12 September 2014, The Guardian saw a Russian armoured personnel carrier in Lutuhyne.[320] The next day, it was reported that Moscow had sent a convoy of trucks delivering "aid" into Ukraine without Kyiv's consent. This convoy was not inspected by Ukraine or accompanied by the ICRC. Top Ukrainian leaders largely remained silent about the convoys after the ceasefire deal was reached. The "aid" was part of the 12-point Minsk agreement.[321][322]
The speaker of Russia's upper house of parliament and Russian state television channels acknowledged that Russian soldiers entered Ukraine, but referred to them as "volunteers".[323] A reporter for Novaya Gazeta, an opposition newspaper in Russia, stated that the Russian military leadership paid soldiers to resign their commissions and fight in Ukraine in the early summer of 2014, and then began ordering soldiers into Ukraine. This reporter mentioned knowledge of at least one case when soldiers who refused were threatened with prosecution.[324] Russian opposition MP Lev Shlosberg made similar statements, although he said combatants from his country are "regular Russian troops", disguised as units of the DPR and LPR.[325]
In December, Ukrainian hackers published a large cache of documents coming allegedly from a hacked server of Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs (MID). The documents originated from various departments coordinated by MID, such as local police, road police, emergency services etc. The cache included documents describing Russian military casualties arriving on 25 August to hospitals in the Rostov area after a battle "10 km northwest of the small village of Prognoi", which matched a battle in Krasnaya Talovka reported on the same date by Ukrainian side.[326]
In early September 2014, Russian state-owned television channels reported on the funerals of Russian soldiers who died in Ukraine during the war in Donbas, but described them as "volunteers" fighting for the "Russian world". Valentina Matviyenko, a top politician in the ruling United Russia party, also praised "volunteers" fighting in "our fraternal nation", referring to Ukraine.[323] Russian state television for the first time showed the funeral of a soldier killed fighting in east Ukraine. State-controlled TV station Channel One showed the burial of paratrooper Anatoly Travkin in the central Russian city of Kostroma. The broadcaster said Travkin had not told his wife or commanders about his decision to fight alongside pro-Russia rebels battling government forces. "Officially he just went on leave," the news reader said.[327]
After a series of military defeats and setbacks for the Donetsk and Lugansk separatists, who united under the banner of "Novorossiya", a term Russian President Vladimir Putin used to describe southeastern Ukraine,[328][329] Russia dispatched what it called a "humanitarian convoy" of trucks across the Russo-Ukrainian border in mid-August 2014. Ukraine reacted to the move by calling it a "direct invasion".[330] Ukraine's National Security and Defense Council published a report on the number and contents of these convoys, claiming they were arriving almost daily in November (up to 9 convoys on 30 November) and their contents were mainly arms and ammunition. In total, in November there were 1,903 trucks crossing the border from Russia to Donbas, 20 buses with soldiers or volunteers, 402 armoured personnel carriers, 256 tanks, 138 "Grad" launchers, 42 cannons and howitzers, 35 self-propelled artillery vehicles, 5 "Buk" launchers, 4 "Uragan" launchers, 4 "Buratino" flamethrowers, 6 pontoon bridge trucks, 5 "Taran" radio interception systems, 5 armoured recovery vehicles, 3 radiolocation systems, 2 truck cranes, 1 track layer vehicle, 1 radiolocation station, unknown number of "Rtut-BM" electronic warfare systems, 242 fuel tankers and 205 light off-road vehicles and vans.[331]
About the same time, multiple reports indicated separatist militias were receiving reinforcements that allowed them to turn the tables on government forces.[332] Armoured columns coming from Russia also pushed into southern Donetsk Oblast and reportedly captured the town of Novoazovsk, clashing with Ukrainian forces and opening a new front in the Donbas conflict.[297][333]
Russian officials denied[334] reports that Russian military units were operating in Ukraine (see war in Donbas), claiming instead they had been sent on routine drills close to the border with Ukraine[335] and crossed the border by mistake.[336] On 28 August 2014, Dutch Brigadier-General Nico Tak, head of NATO's crisis management center, said that "over 1,000 Russian troops are now operating inside Ukraine".[337]
On 5 September, Sergey Krivenko, a member of Russian President's Council for Civil Society and Human Rights, commented on the growing number of Russian soldiers killed in Ukraine, saying that "the situation now is very strange, something unusual is going on; it could be described as massive dying of soldiers, which is not typical for a time of peace; people from different military units are killed as a result of shots, from loss of blood, all these reasons are documented; and the military command explains that it happened during training or provides no explanation at all".[338][339]
November 2014 escalation
On 7 November, NATO officials confirmed the continued invasion of Ukraine, with 32 Russian tanks, 16 howitzer cannons and 30 trucks of troops entering the country.[340] On 12 November, NATO reiterated the prevalence of Russian troops; US general Philip Breedlove said "Russian tanks, Russian artillery, Russian air defence systems and Russian combat troops" were sighted.[155] The Lithuanian Mission to the United Nations denounced Russia's 'undeclared war' on Ukraine.[341] Journalist Menahem Kahana took a picture showing a 1RL232 "Leopard" battlefield surveillance radar system in Torez, east of Donetsk; and Dutch freelance journalist Stefan Huijboom took pictures which showed the 1RL232 traveling with the 1RL239 "Lynx" radar system.[342]
Burnt-out remains of tanks and vehicles left after battles appeared to provide further evidence of Russian involvement.[343]
The Associated Press reported 80 unmarked military vehicles on the move in rebel-controlled areas. Three separate columns were observed, one near the main separatist stronghold of Donetsk and two outside the town of Snizhne. Several of the trucks were seen to be carrying troops.[82]
OSCE monitors further observed vehicles apparently used to transport soldiers' dead bodies crossing the Russian-Ukrainian border – in one case a vehicle marked with Russia's military code for soldiers killed in action crossed from Russia into Ukraine on 11 November 2014, and later returned.[84] On 23 January 2015 the Committee of Soldiers' Mothers warned about conscripts being sent to east Ukraine.[344] NATO said it had seen an increase in Russian tanks, artillery pieces and other heavy military equipment in eastern Ukraine and renewed its call for Moscow to withdraw its forces.[345]
The Center for Eurasian Strategic Intelligence estimated, based on "official statements and interrogation records of captured military men from these units, satellite surveillance data" as well as verified announcements from relatives and profiles in social networks, that over 30 Russian military units were taking part in the conflict in Ukraine. In total, over 8,000 soldiers had fought there at different moments.[346] The Chicago Council on Global Affairs stated that the Russian separatists enjoyed technical advantages over the Ukrainian army since the large inflow of advanced military systems in mid-2014: effective anti-aircraft weapons ("Buk", MANPADS) suppressed Ukrainian air strikes, Russian drones provided intelligence, and Russian secure communications system thwarted the Ukrainian side from communications intelligence. The Russian side also frequently employed electronic warfare systems that Ukraine lacked. Similar conclusions about the technical advantage of the Russian separatists were voiced by the Conflict Studies Research Centre.[347]
In November 2014, Igor Girkin gave a long interview to the extreme right-wing[348] nationalist newspaper Zavtra ("Tomorrow") where for the first time he released details about the beginning of the conflict in Donbas. According to Girkin, he was the one who "pulled the trigger of war" and it was necessary because acquisition of Crimea alone by Russia "did not make sense" and Crimea as part of the Novorossiya "would make the jewel in the crown of the Russian Empire". Girkin had been directed to Donbas by Sergey Aksyonov and he entered Ukraine with a group of 52 officers in April, initially taking Slavyansk, Kramatorsk and then other cities. Girkin also talked about the situation in August, when separatist forces were close to defeat and only a prompt intervention of Russian "leavers" (ironic term for "soldiers on leave") saved them. Their forces took command in the siege of Mariupol as well.[349][350] In response to internal criticism of the Russian government's policy of not officially recognizing Russian soldiers in Ukraine as fulfilling military service and leaving their families without any source of income if they are killed, president Vladimir Putin signed a new law in October entitling their families to a monthly compensation. Two new entitlement categories were added: "missing in action" and "declared dead" (as of 1 January 2016).[351][352]
Alexandr Negrebetskih, a deputy from the Russian city of Zlatoust who fought as a volunteer on the side of separatists, complained in an interview that "the locals run to Russia, and we have to come here as they are reluctant to defend their land" which resulted in his detachment being composed of 90% Russians and only 10% locals from Donetsk.[353]
In November, Lev Shlosberg published a response from a military attorney's office to questions he asked about the status of Pskov paratroopers killed in Ukraine in August. The office answered that the soldiers died while "fulfilling military service outside of their permanent dislocation units" (Pskov), but any further information on their orders or location of death was withheld as "classified". A political expert Alexey Makarkin compared these answers to those provided by Soviet ministry of defence during the Soviet–Afghan War when the USSR attempted to hide the scale of their casualties at any cost.[354]
Numerous reports of Russian troops and warfare on Ukrainian territory were raised in United Nations Security Council meetings. In 12 November meeting, the representative of the United Kingdom also accused Russia of intentionally constraining OSCE observatory missions' capabilities, pointing out that the observers were allowed to monitor only two kilometers of border between Ukraine and Russia, and drones deployed to extend their capabilities were being jammed or shot down.[355]
In November, Armament Research Services published a detailed report on arms used by both sides of the conflict, documenting a number of "flag items". Among vehicles, they documented the presence of T-72B Model 1989 and T-72B3 tanks, armoured vehicles of models BTR-82AM, MT-LB 6MA, MT-LBVM, and MT-LBVMK, and an Orlan-10 drone and 1RL239 radar vehicle. Among the ammunition, they documented 9K38 Igla (date of manufacture 2014), ASVK rifle (2012), RPG-18 rocket launchers (2011), 95Ya6 rocket boosters (2009) MRO-A (2008), 9M133 Kornet anti-tank weapons (2007), PPZR Grom (2007), MON-50 (2002), RPO-A (2002), PKP (2001), OG-7 (2001), and VSS rifles (1987). These weapons, mostly manufactured in Russia, were used by pro-Russian separatists in the conflict zone, but never "were in the Ukrainian government inventory prior to the outbreak of hostilities". The report also noted the use of PPZR Grom MANPADs, produced in Poland and never exported to Ukraine. They were however exported to Georgia in 2007 and subsequently captured by the Russian army during the Russian-Georgian War 2008.[356] Also in November, Pantsir-S1 units were observed in separatist-controlled areas near Novoazovsk, which were never part of the UAF's inventory.[357] Bellingcat maintains a dedicated database of geolocated images of military vehicles specific to each side of the conflict, mostly focused on Russian military equipment found on Ukrainian territory.[358]
2015
In January, Donetsk, Lugansk, and Mariupol were the three cities that represented the three fronts on which Ukraine was pressed by forces allegedly armed, trained and backed by Russia.[359]
In early January 2015, an image of a BPM-97 apparently inside Ukraine, in Luhansk, provided further evidence of Russian military vehicles inside Ukraine.[360][361]
Poroshenko spoke of a dangerous escalation on 21 January amid reports of more than 2,000 additional Russian troops crossing the border, together with 200 tanks and armed personnel carriers. He abbreviated his visit to the World Economic Forum in Davos because of his concerns at the worsening situation.[362] On 29 January, the chief of Ukraine's General Military Staff Viktor Muzhenko said 'the Ukrainian army is not engaged in combat operations against Russian regular units,' but that he had information about Russian civilian and military individuals fighting alongside 'illegal armed groups in combat activities.'[363] Reporting from DPR-controlled areas on 28 January, the OSCE observed on the outskirts of Khartsyzk, east of Donetsk, "a column of five T-72 tanks facing east, and immediately after, another column of four T-72 tanks moving east on the same road which was accompanied by four unmarked military trucks, type URAL. All vehicles and tanks were unmarked." It reported on an intensified movement of unmarked military trucks, covered with canvas.[364] After the shelling of residential areas in Mariupol, NATO's Jens Stoltenberg said: "Russian troops in eastern Ukraine are supporting these offensive operations with command and control systems, air defence systems with advanced surface-to-air missiles, unmanned aerial systems, advanced multiple rocket launcher systems, and electronic warfare systems."'[345][365]
Svetlana Davydova, a mother of seven, was accused of treason for calling the Ukrainian embassy about Russian troop movements and arrested on 27 January 2015. She was held at the high-security Lefortovo jail in Moscow until her release on 3 February with charges against her still pending. The Russian General Staff said details of the case constituted a "state secret."[366][367] On 9 February 2015, a group of twenty contract soldiers from Murmansk raised an official complaint to the Russian ministry of defence when they were told they would "go to the Rostov area and possibly cross the Ukrainian border to fulfill their patriotic duty". The soldiers notified human rights activists and requested the orders in written form, which they were not given.[368][369] On 13 February, a young soldier, Ilya Kudryavtsev, was found dead after calling home and informing his relatives that he was to be sent on a mission to Rostov-on-Don, which is the usual starting point to Ukraine. Although he was severely beaten, his death was officially classified as a suicide.[370]
According to a top U.S. general in January, Russian supplied drones and electronic jamming have ensured Ukrainian troops struggle to counter artillery fire by pro-Russian militants. "The rebels have Russian-provided UAVs (unmanned aerial vehicles) that are giving the rebels the detection capability and the ability to target Ukrainian forces".[371] Advanced electronic jamming was also reported by OSCE observers on numerous occasions.[372]
In February, both Ukrainian and DNR sides reported unknown sabotage groups firing at both sides of the conflict and also on residential areas, calling them a "third force".[373] SBU published an intercepted call in which DNR commanders reported such a group had been arrested with Russian passports and military documents.[374] DNR confirmed that such groups were indeed stopped and "destroyed" but called them "Ukrainian sabotage groups working to discredit the armed forces of the Russian Federation".[375]
US Army commander in Europe Ben Hodges stated in February 2015 that "it's very obvious from the amount of ammunition, type of equipment, there's direct Russian military intervention in the Debaltseve area".[376] According to estimates by the Chicago Council on Global Affairs in February, Russian separatists forces number around 36,000 troops (as compared to 34,000 Ukrainian), of which 8,500-10,000 are purely Russian soldiers. Additionally, around 1,000 GRU troops are operating in the area.[377] According to a military expert, Ilya Kramnik, total Ukrainian forces outnumber the Russian forces by a factor of two (20,000 Russian separatists vs. 40,000 fighting for Ukraine).[378]
In February 2015, the leading independent Russian newspaper Novaya Gazeta reported[379] that it had obtained documents, allegedly written by oligarch Konstantin Malofayev and others, which provided the Russian government with a strategy in the event of Viktor Yanukovych's removal from power and the break-up of Ukraine, which were considered likely. The documents outlined plans for the annexation of Crimea and the eastern portions of the country, closely describing the events that actually followed after Yanukovych's fall. The documents also described plans for a public relations campaign which would seek to justify Russian actions.[380][381][382]
In March 2015, Novaya Gazeta published an interview with a Russian soldier, Dorzhi Batomunkuev, who operated a tank in the Battle of Debaltseve and was wounded. He confirmed that the tanks came from his military unit in Ulan-Ude in Russia and that his unit "painted over the serial numbers and unit signs straight away on the rail platforms". In November 2014, Batomunkuev was sent as a conscript to Rostov-on-Don, where he became a contract soldier. Traveling by train with his unit from Ulan-Ude, Batomunkuev said he saw "plenty of such trains" travelling along with them "day after day". After three months at Kosminskiy training facility, their unit of 31 tanks and 300 soldiers in total (mostly Buryats) was given an order to move on 8 February 2015 and crossed the Ukrainian border in the night, arriving in Donetsk in the morning. They took part in the battle on 12–14 February.[383][384][385] Joseph Kobzon met Batomunkuev in the same hospital a few days before the NG interview.[386] In 2016 Alexander Minakov, another Russian soldier wounded in the battle of Debaltseve, was awarded a medal "For services to the Fatherland".[387] In March 2015, president Putin awarded the honorary name of "Guards" to two divisions: 11. paratroopers brigade from Ulan-Ude, 83. paratroopers brigade from Ussuriysk and 38. communications regiment from Moscow area. The status was awarded for undisclosed combat operations.[388]
A report by Igor Sutyagin published by the Royal United Services Institute in March 2015 stated that a total of 42,000 regular Russian combat troops have been involved in the fighting, with a peak strength of 10,000 in December 2014. The direct involvement of the Russian troops on Ukrainian territory began in August 2014, at a time when Ukrainian military successes created the possibility that the pro-Russian rebels would collapse. According to the report, the Russian troops are the most capable units on the anti-Ukrainian side, with the regular Donetsk and Luhansk rebel formations being used essentially as "cannon fodder".[389][390] The Chicago Council on Global Affairs stated that the Russian separatists enjoyed technical advantages over the Ukrainian army since the large inflow of advanced military systems in mid-2014: effective anti-aircraft weapons ("Buk", MANPADS) suppressed Ukrainian air strikes, Russian drones provided intelligence, and Russian secure communications system thwarted the Ukrainian side from communications intelligence. The Russian side also frequently employed electronic warfare systems that Ukraine lacked. Similar conclusions about the technical advantage of the Russian separatists were voiced by the Conflict Studies Research Centre.[390]
In March 2015, a commander of the DPR special forces unit, Dmitry Sapozhnikov, gave an interview to the BBC[391] in which he spoke openly about the involvement of Russian soldiers in the conflict. He described the arrival of Russian military vehicles and personnel from across the border as critical to the success of large-scale operations such as the battle of Debaltseve. Russian high-rank officers planned the operations and regular Russian army units with DPR forces carried them out jointly. In Sapozhnikov's opinion, "everyone knows that" and it's "no secret", but he was surprised to find out that it is not so widely acknowledged in Russia when he returned to Saint Petersburg.[392]
In April 2015, a group of Russian volunteers returning to Ekaterinburg complained in an interview to local media about a lack of support from the local population, who sometimes called them "occupiers", and their highly ambiguous status while in Donbas: Ukraine and "the court in Madrid" considered them to be terrorists; the DPR considered them "illegal armed groups" and offered them contracts, but if they signed they would become mercenaries under Russian law.[393] Another volunteer, a citizen of Latvia nicknamed "Latgalian", told on his return from Donbas that he was disappointed with how the situation there differed from what he had seen in the Russian media: he saw no support and sometimes open hostility to the insurgents from the local civilians, presence of Russian troops and military equipment.[394] Also in early April, a number of Russian spetsnaz soldiers took pictures of themselves changing their military uniforms into "miner's battledress" used by the insurgents, and posted them on their VK pages, where they were picked up by Ukrainian media.[395] Another volunteer, Bondo Dorovskih, who left to Donbas to "fight fascism" gave a long interview to Russian media on his return, describing how he found himself "not in an army, but in a gang", involved in large-scale looting. He also described the methods used by Russian army to covertly deliver military equipment, people and ammunition to Donbas, as well as hostile attitude of the local civilian population.[396]
On 22 April 2015, the US Department of State accused the "combined Russian-separatist forces" of accumulating air defence systems, UAV along with command and control equipment in eastern Ukraine, and of conducting "complex" military training that "leaves no doubt that Russia is involved in the training". Russia is also reinforcing its military presence on the eastern border with Ukraine as well as near Belgorod which is close to Kharkiv.[397]
In May 2015, Reuters interviewed a number of Russian soldiers, some named and some speaking under condition of anonymity, who were serving in Donbas as truck drivers, crew of a T-72B3 tank and of a "Grad" launcher. Some of their colleagues resigned when asked to go to Donbas by their commanders, which was "not an easy decision" because the salary offered was between 20 and 60,000 rubles per month. The members of the "Grad" launcher crew confirmed they were shelling targets in Ukraine from Russian territory, around 2 km from the border.[398]
Allies of Boris Nemtsov released Putin. War in May 2015, a report on Russian involvement that he had been working on before his death.[399] Other Russian opposition activists announced that they had found fresh graves of members of a GRU special forces brigade that had operated in Ukraine.[400]
In May, two GRU soldiers, Alexander Alexandrov and Yevgeny Yerofeyev, were captured in a battle near Schastie and were later interviewed by press, admitting to being on active duty at the time of capture. Russian military command declared they left active service in December 2014, a claim that was repeated on Russian television by the wife of Alexandrov.[400][401] Consequently, Ukraine declared it would try them as terrorists, not prisoners of war, and a controversy developed in the Russian press regarding the status of the soldiers.[402] At the same time, Russian journalists found out that their families were strictly isolated from contacts with press and the captured soldiers.[403] While Alexandrov declared he would seek legal methods to confirm his status in Russia, military analyst Alexander Golts considers this impossible as special forces soldiers routinely sign contract termination declaration to be backdated in such a situation.[404]
Shortly afterward, a Russian military drone, "Forpost", was shot down near Avdeevka and recovered in good condition, with all the serial numbers and nameplates intact.[405][406] On 28 May 2015, the Atlantic Council released Hiding in Plain Sight: Putin's War in Ukraine, a report which they said provided "irrefutable evidence of direct Russian military involvement in eastern Ukraine".[407]
On 17 May 2015 two Russian soldiers of the 3rd Guards Spetsnaz Brigade were captured by Secret Service of Ukraine during a battle near town Shchastya (Lughansk oblast, Ukraine).[408] On 18 May they were transferred to Kyiv.[409] On 19 May a spokesman for the Russian Defense Ministry stated that the two named prisoners were not active servicemen when they were captured,[410] thus depriving the two Russians of their status as combatants and their protection under the Geneva Convention. The head of Ukraine's Security Service stated that the two men will be prosecuted for "terrorist acts".[410] On 20 May 2015 members of the OSCE mission to Ukraine spoke with the Russian soldiers in the hospital.[411] The OSCE 20 May 2015 report includes the following:
One of them said he had received orders from his military unit to go to Ukraine; he was to "rotate" after three months. Both of them said they had been to Ukraine "on missions" before.
— OSCE, report of May 20, 2015[411]
In June 2015, Vice News reporter Simon Ostrovsky investigated the movements of Bato Dambaev, a Russian contract soldier from Buryatia, through a military camp in Rostov Oblast to Vuhlehirsk in Ukraine during the battle of Debaltseve and back to Buryatia, finding exact locations where Dambaev photographed himself, and came to a conclusion that Dambaev had fought in Ukraine while in active service in the Russian army.[412] With Russia refusing to allow the OSCE to expand its mission, OSCE observer Paul Picard stated that "We often see how Russian media outlets manipulate our statements. They say that we have not seen Russian troops crossing the borders. But that only applies to two border crossings. We have no idea what is going on at the others."[413]
In July 2015, Ukraine arrested a Russian officer, Vladimir Starkov, when his truck loaded with ammunition took a wrong turn and ended up at a Ukrainian checkpoint. On arrest, Starkov declared that he was a Russian military officer in active service and later explained that he was officially assigned to a Russian military unit in Novocherkassk, but immediately on arrival reassigned to join DPR forces.[414][415]
In November 2015, a Russian judge accepted a Russian citizen's claim that serving in the DNR militia was a mitigating circumstance.[416] On 17 December 2015, Putin admitted that Russian military intelligence officers were operating in Ukraine, stating "We never said there were not people there who carried out certain tasks including in the military sphere."[94]
In 2020 analysis of publicly available Russian railway traffic data (gdevagon.ru) indicated that in January 2015, period of especially heavy fighting, thousands of tons of cargo declared "high explosives" was sent by railway from various places in Russia into Uspenskaya, a small train station on a line crossing from Rostovskaya oblast' (Russia) into separatist-controlled part of Ukraine.[417]
2016
In September 2016, OSCE monitoring mission noticed military trucks with partially covered Russian number plates 26 km east from Donetsk.[418] Also in September a Russian soldier Denis Sidorov surrendered to the Ukrainian forces in Shirokaya Balka, revealing details of Russian leadership of the local DNR forces in the area.[419]
On 17 October 2016, the OSCE mission noted a minivan with "black licence plates with white lettering" which are used on military vehicles in Russia. A number of people in civilian and military camouflage were travelling on the vehicle.[420]
Details of Russian involvement
Russia officially has long denied organized presence of their military units in Ukraine. Nevertheless, evidence of its soldiers' involvement is rampant.[421] OSCE monitoring mission has on numerous occasions spotted military convoys covertly crossing the border from Russia into Donbas,[422][423] as well as presence of military equipment produced in Russia and never exported to Ukraine.[424]
On 25 August 2014, ten Russian paratroopers were captured in Ukraine, the Russian Ministry of Defense maintained that the men were lost and crossed the border into Ukraine by accident.[425][426] In May 2015 two suspected Russian GRU agents (Military intelligence) were detained by Ukrainian forces, Russia's Ministry of Defense stated the men were former soldiers who were not on active duty at the time of capture. The two men were later exchanged for captured Ukrainian pilot and politician Nadiya Savchenko.[427] In July 2015 a Russian major was detained near Donetsk as he drove an ammunition truck into a Ukrainian checkpoint, the Russian military maintained the man was not involved with the Russian military and fought for local separatists. The major was later exchanged for captured Ukrainian soldiers.[428][429] In September 2015 Ukraine's border guards detained 2 Russian internal troops when they crossed the border in Ukraine's Luhansk oblast, the Russian servicemen stated they were lost and crossed the border by accident, with the Russian Military of Defense accusing Ukraine's forces of crossing into the nearby Russian village and abducting the servicemen.[430][431] In October 2015, Russian Ministry of Defence admitted that "special forces were pulled out of Ukraine and sent to Syria" and that they were serving in eastern Ukraine on territories held by pro-Russian rebels.[432] On 17 December 2015 when asked about the two detained Russian citizens in Ukraine who were being accused of being military intelligence officers President Vladimir Putin responded: "We never said there were not people there who carried out certain tasks including in the military sphere." This was generally taken as an admission that Russian military operatives were deployed to Ukraine.[433] Before that declaration there had been a large amount of circumstantial evidence that confirmed the presence of Russia's military.[39][434][435][436][437][438][439][440][441]
Large part of the circumstantial evidence are military vehicles and weapons that are unique to Russian armed forces and never present in Ukraine before the conflict captured by journalists and found on social media. The OSCE monitoring mission has also noted the presence of troops declaring themselves as Russian servicemen in DPR-controlled territory.[442] As the rest of the post-Soviet republics every Russian military equipment has a hull number (bortovoi nomer). However equipment in possession of the LPR and DPR has all hull number painted over to conceal its relation to the Russian Armed Forces."THE BATTLE OF ILOVAISK". Forensic Architecture. 19 August 2019. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
In 2015, NATO spokesman Robert Pszczel stated in an interview for Dozhd TV that the alliance has sufficient evidence to make "28 member states of the alliance have no doubts about military involvement of Russia" in the Donbas conflict.[443]
In a battle at Donetsk airport at least 31 of the people killed were Russian citizens and were delivered back to Russia.[444] A report for the independent news site Novaya Gazeta, reprinted in The Guardian, tracked down the widow of one Russian man who died during the fighting at Donetsk airport, and sought to shed light onto the obscure structures that organised the transfer of fighters to Ukraine. The report further highlighted the 'frustration of dealing with Russian officialdom apparently so keen to cover up all traces of those fighting across the border'.[445]
Alexander Zakharchenko said that 1200 fighters had trained in Russia for four months, crossed the border, and were ready to fight. Zakharchenko said the reinforcements included 30 tanks and 120 armoured vehicles.[446] He later denied making the comments.[447]
Cases of Russian soldiers killed and wounded in Ukraine are widely discussed in local Russian media in the republics from which they originated.[448] Recruitment for Donbas is performed rather openly via veteran and other paramilitary organisations. Vladimir Yefimov, leader of one of such organisations, explained in details in an interview how the process works in Ural area. The organisation recruits mostly army veterans, but also policemen, firefighters etc. with military experience. The cost of equipping one volunteer is estimated at around 350,000 rubles (around $6500) plus cost of the volunteer's salary from 60,000 to 240,000 rubles per month depending on their experience. The volunteers are issued a document claiming that their participation is limited to "offering humanitarian help" to avoid Russian mercenary laws. In Russia's anti-mercenary legislation a mercenary is defined as someone who "takes part [in fighting] with aims counter to the interests of the Russian Federation".[449] The recruited travel to the conflict zone without weapons, which are given at the destination. Often, Russian troops have travelled disguised as Red Cross personnel.[186][450][451][452] Igor Trunov, head of Russian Red Cross in Moscow condemned these convoys, saying they made delivery of real humanitarian aid more difficult.[453]
Another leader of a "patriotic organisation" from Orsk, Pavel Korovin, estimated that a total of around 12,000 fighters for Donbas had been recruited from Russia. A significant proportion were people in difficult financial situations, attracted by a high salary (one of the volunteers was promised 100,000 rubles or $1600). Responding to concerns about crossing the Ukrainian border, he explained that "there is a green light for the volunteers on the border" and "all that is covered by appropriate structures". The family of a killed volunteer, when asking about help in bringing back the body, is advised to "speak to the FSB, only they are controlling everything there".[454]
Shortly before his death, Boris Nemtsov was reportedly contacted by a group of "paratroopers from Ivanovo" who complained about significant losses in their unit during a battle in Ukraine and the lack of the promised payment. Nemtsov was preparing a larger report documenting cases of Russian soldiers taking part in the war in Donbas, which is considered a possible reason for his assassination.[455]
The repatriation of Russians killed in action or taken as prisoners of war has become a controversial topic in the media due to the Russian state's denial of involvement in Ukraine.[456][457][458][459] The Associated Press compared it to the Soviet Union's secrecy during its war in Afghanistan, noting "When the true numbers of casualties became known, the invasion turned unpopular."[437] Russian military officials tell family members only that the soldiers are on "training exercises".[460]
Valentina Melnikova, head of the Russian Union of Committees of Soldiers' Mothers, has said that the Russian authorities were threatening the relatives of soldiers who had been killed in Ukraine, and forcing them to keep silent about their deaths.[461] The Kremlin has tried to systematically intimidate and silence human rights workers who have raised questions about Russian soldiers' deaths in Ukraine.[86] In mid-September 2014, Ksenia Batanova, a senior producer for the news network Dozhd, was assaulted in an attack that fractured her skull. Dozhd is a channel that has covered the Russian involvement in Ukraine, and kept a running tally of soldiers' deaths. The Kremlin's pressure on Dozhd intensified during the Ukrainian crisis.[462] The BBC reported on the death on 12 August 2014 of a Russian soldier, Konstantin, whose telephone calls to his sister had spoken of Ukraine. The BBC team was stopped and attacked by thugs and its video camera smashed.[463][464] Lev Shlosberg, an MP who was beaten unconscious after investigating the deaths of twelve paratroopers, said, "A great many Russian servicemen have died in Ukraine and their families are outraged but they don't speak out because they are afraid for their lives."[465] Boris Vishnevsky, of the Yabloko political party, and Lyudmila Ivakhnina of the civil rights group Memorial, said that gathering information about conscripts pressured to sign professional contracts is difficult because of the fear of reprisals.[466]
The Union of the Committees of Soldiers' Mothers of Russia started actively questioning the government's policy of "secret war" after a number of Russian soldiers officially sent for "training" to Rostov area died for reasons never officially revealed to the families. These cases were further investigated by non-mainstream media in Russia. The Russian Ministry of Defence always denied the presence of any Russian soldiers in Ukraine and, when presented with undeniable evidence about specific individuals, suggested that they might have crossed the border "by mistake", were "on holiday" at the time, or that their contracts were cancelled (but actually backdated). Soldier's Mothers stated that if the deceased Russian soldiers weren't officially sent to the war zone, their families would not receive social support and the veteran's pension.[467][468]
On 2 October 2014, RBC published An RBC investigation: Where Russian soldiers in Ukraine are from, in which it listed Russian military divisions, soldiers of which are assumed to have been secretly dispatched from Russia to Ukraine and used there.[469] In 2015, Vice News published a series titled Russia's Ghost Army in Ukraine in which they spoke to a number of families of Russian soldiers killed in Ukraine. The mother of Sergey Andrianov, a Russian from Podsolnechnoe in Samara Oblast who was killed on 28 August 2014, presents a number of documents she received from her son's military unit: the death certificate issued in Rostov-on-Don that specifies that he died at a "place of temporary placement" while "completing a special task" and a document certifying "transportation of the body through the border of Russian Federation". All of the mother's questions to her son's commanders were dismissed as a "state secret" and she was told that she would receive compensation of 100,000 rubles ($1600).[470]
On 16 October 2014, the deputy chief of the Security Service of Ukraine said that the service had released 16 out of 131 servicemen of the Armed Forces of Russian Federation back home to their relatives who petitioned through a hotline.[471]
According to soldiers' rights advocates, the families of Russian soldiers killed after being sent to Ukraine have been told to keep silent, and some families say they have not received the various compensations they are entitled to after a breadwinner in military service has been killed.[472] Svetlana Davydova, a mother of seven, was arrested in 2015, accused of treason for calling the Ukrainian embassy about Russian troop movements, and was held at the high-security Lefortovo jail in Moscow. The Russian General Staff said details of the case constituted a "state secret".[366] The charges against Davydova were dropped the following month.[473] An amendment signed by Putin in late May 2015 banned information about the deaths of Russian servicemen "during special operations" in peacetime.[473][474]
Discussing Russian volunteers in an interview with RIA Novosti on 22 June 2015, Nikolai Patrushev, secretary of the Security Council of Russia, stated: "We don't call on anyone to do this, we don't encourage it. But realistically, to stop them would be impossible".[449] While Russia has charged one of its citizens, Roman Zheleznov, for fighting in the Ukrainian Azov Battalion, as of 25 June 2015, it has charged no one for fighting alongside the separatists.[449] Since counting began on 1 September 2014 until 1 June 2015, the European monitoring mission on the Russian side of the border has recorded 20,021 men in military uniforms crossing to and from rebel-controlled eastern Ukraine.[475]
In July 2015, a number of Russian contract soldiers at "Kadamovskiy" poligon (Rostovskaya oblast) were charged with desertion after they refused to go into Ukraine as "volunteers". They reported frequent visits of recruiters promising veteran status and daily payment of 8,000 rubles for those fighting in Donbas. They said they were unaware that the money is rarely paid and in case of death, capture or injury in battle they will be most likely abandoned and their official military status denied by Russian army.[476][477] Later that year they were convicted for "refusal to carry out orders" in spite of lack of any orders presented by the prosecution and other inconsistencies.[478]
In September 2015 OSCE monitoring mission spotted Russian TOS-1 "Buratino" thermobaric weapon launchers in separatist training area near Lugansk[479] and in June 2016 its drone spotted a camouflaged R-330ZH "Zhitel" electronic countermeasure station 15 km from Donetsk, these findings being notable as both weapons are unique to the army of Russian Federation.[480]
By October 2015, eastern Ukraine and Crimea were two of Russia's frozen zones.[481] The chances were that the frozen conflict might persist in the Donbas, where the fighting was at a low level, but the threat of escalation remained.[482][483]
In June 2017 another GRU officer Viktor Ageyev was captured by Ukrainian Forces in Zhelobok in the Luhansk oblast. Russian Ministry of Defence denied that he was in active military service but investigation by BBC Russian Service confirmed Ageyev was on military contract in Russian army since March 2017.[484][485]
On 30 June 2017 Sergey Lavrov, Russian minister of foreign affairs, openly admitted and justified Russian involvement in Donbas:[486]
I have read and heard much criticism regarding our decision to join the fight in Donbass and in Syria. ... Would it be acceptable for Russia, considering its international standing, to keep mum and recognise the coup in Ukraine, and to leave Russians and Russian speakers in Ukraine in the lurch after the first order issued by the organisers of the anti-constitutional armed revolt, which was supported by their foreign sponsors, banned many things that were connected with the Russian language?
— Sergey Lavrov, Primakov Readings International Forum, Moscow, June 30, 2017
Russian medal count
Bellingcat founder and journalist Eliot Higgins has referred to the unusual spike in medals awarded to Russian troops coinciding with major battles occurring in Ukraine. It was noticed that between 25 August 2003 and 7 November 2014 there was 0.6 medals For Distinction in Combat awarded to Russian servicemen per day. However, between 7 November 2014 and 18 February 2016 there was an average of 9.3 medals awarded per day, over a fifteenfold increase. Moreover, the award dates directly coincide with major conflicts occurring in Ukraine at the time. August 2014 sees an initial spike of 60 medal per day being awarded, which coincides with reports of regular Russian troops crossing into Ukraine to aid separatist forces. The medal awards peak during November and December 2014, at over 70 per day, which was a crucial turning point during the Second Battle of Donetsk Airport, continuing to remain at over 10 medals per day until March 2015, which coincides with the Battle of Debaltseve. Also important to note is that the medal For Distinction in Combat may only be awarded for activities undertaken during a combat mission, therefore the large spike in medals awarded in late 2014 and early 2015 suggests a large contingent of Russian servicemen undertaking combat missions. In all 4300 medals were awarded between 7 July 2014 and 18 February 2016, suggesting combat operations involving active duty Russian military personnel occurred during the time period. Likewise spikes in awarding other medals were seen as well. The medal For Courage which was awarded at a rate of 1.4 medals per day between September 2008 and August 2014 increased to 6.3 medals per day between August 2014 and November 2015. The Medal of Suvorov saw an increase of award rate from 1.5 medals per day between October 2013 and November 2014 to 6.8 medals per day after November 2014. In fact in the time period between 24 November 2014 and 25 January 2015 more of the medals were awarded then all of 2013 combined.[487][488]
Training facility
In a press briefing by the Ukrainian Secretary of the National Security and Defence Council (NSDC), Andriy Parubiy stated that militants were trained in a military facility in Rostov-on-Don, Russia. "Near Rostov-on-Don, there is a big military base where terrorists are preparing for deployment into the territory of the Ukrainian state. This is confirmed not only by our intelligence, but also Russian prisoners who were detained, and they testify about this base," Parubiy said. He added that more than a thousand militants are trained by Russian instructors, and then they in small armed groups try to break into the territory of Ukraine.[489] On 21 May, Ukraine detained a Russian citizen trying to enter the country; he had military experience and was found to have recently trained in the Rostov facility.[490]
According to Russian 'volunteer' insurgent organiser Aleksandr Zhuchkovsky, Rostov-on-Don acts as a staging area, where soldiers live in hotels, rented flats and tent camps.[12] In particular, the New York Times reports that the small village of Golovinka (about 60 kilometres (37 mi) northwest of Rostov-on-Don) and nearby Kuzminka military base is a staging area for Russian soldiers and weapons headed to Ukraine.[491]
In June 2014, Jen Psaki stated that the United States Department of State was confident that Russia had sent tanks and rocket launchers from a deployment site in southwest Russia into eastern Ukraine,[492] and NATO satellite imagery showed that on 10 and 11 June main battle tanks were stationed across the border at Donetsk in a staging area in Rostov-on-Don.[493][494]
In July 2014, Reuters published a logbook of an 9K38 Igla missile that was signed out of military storage in Moscow for a military base in Rostov-on-Don, and ended up with insurgents in Donbas, where it was eventually taken over by the Ukrainian forces.[495]
After OSCE observers arrived at Gukovo border crossing on 9 August, they reported that there was a stream of multiple groups of people wearing military-style dress crossing the border between Russia and Ukraine, in both directions, some of them clearly identifying themselves as members of DNR militia. They also observed several ambulance evacuations of wounded supporters of the DPR and LPR.[496]
In February 2015, a group of Spanish nationals were arrested in Madrid for fighting in the war in Donbas on the separatist side. Travelling through Moscow, they were met by a "government official" and sent to Donetsk, where they were provided with accommodation, uniforms and weapons, but they fought as volunteers. They stated there are "a few hundreds" of Western volunteers, mostly from Serbia and France, "half of them communists, half Nazis", fighting jointly for the "liberation of Russia from Ukrainian invasion".[497]
Governance
In March 2016, Germany's Bild reported that minutes from an October 2015 meeting of the "Interministerial Commission for the Provision of Humanitarian Aid for the Affected Areas of the Southeast of the Donetsk and Lugansk Regions" indicated that Russia was running militant-controlled parts of east Ukraine. According to Bild, "It is notable that no members of the self-declared people's republics in eastern Ukraine are on the commission".[498]
Russian Order of Battle: 2021
Separatist Forces in the Donbas are organized into two corps: 1st Army Corps and 2nd Army Corps. Ukrainian sources have described these two corps as "operationally subordinate" to the 8th Guards Combined Arms Army HQ within Russia's Southern Military District.[499] As of 2021, subordinate units in these two corps are said to include:
- 1st Army Corps:
- 4 Motorized Rifle Brigades (1st, 3rd, 5th, 100th Motorized Rifle Brigades)
- 2 Motorized Rifle Regiments (9th and 11th Motorized Rifle Regiments)
- 2 special forces battalions (1st and 3rd SF Battalions)
- 1 tank battalion (2nd Battalion)
- 1 reconnaissance battalion (Sparta Separate Reconnaissance Battalion)
- 1 artillery brigade (Kalmius Artillery Brigade)[500]
- 2nd Army Corps:
- 3 Motorized Rifle Brigades (2nd, 4th, 7th Motorized Rifle Brigades)
- 1 Motorized Rifle Regiment (6th Motorized Rifle Regiment)
- 1 tank battalion (Pantzir Special Mechanized Force)
- 1 reconnaissance battalion (Greka" Separate Reconnaissance Battalion)
- 1 artillery brigade[500]
2019
More than 110 Ukrainian soldiers were killed in the conflict between Ukrainian government forces and Russian-backed separatists in 2019.[501]
In May 2019, the newly elected Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky took office promising to end the War in Donbas.[501]
Prisoner exchange
In December 2019, Ukraine and pro-Russian separatists began swapping prisoners of war. Around 200 prisoners were exchanged on 29 December 2019.[502][503][504][505]
Другие регионы
In addition to the Crimea annexation and war in Donbas, the conflict has also been linked to:
- Russian-Ukrainian cyberwarfare
- December 2015 Ukraine power grid cyberattack
- May 2017 WannaCry ransomware attack
- June 2017 cyberattacks on Ukraine
- Related to Ukrainian military supply chain
- 2014 Vrbětice ammunition warehouses explosions
- 2015 poisoning of Emiliyan Gebrev and several arms depot explosions in Bulgaria
- 2015 depot explosion in Svatove, Ukraine
- 2017 Kalynivka ammunition depot explosion
- 2017 depot explosion in Balakliia, Ukraine
- Maritime activities
- Black Sea incidents involving Russia and Ukraine
- Russian restrictions on navigation in the Kerch Strait; soft blockade of Ukraine's Azov Sea coast
- Russia–Ukraine gas disputes
- Russian military buildups and snap exercises in regions bordering Ukraine and in Crimea
2021 Russian military buildup
In late March–early April 2021, the Russian military moved large quantities of arms and equipment from western and central Russia, and as far away as Siberia, into occupied Crimea and the Voronezh and Rostov oblasts of Russia.[506] A Janes intelligence specialist identified fourteen Russian military units from the Central Military District that had moved into the vicinity of the Russo-Ukrainian border, and called it the largest unannounced military movement since the 2014 invasion of Crimea.[507] Commander-in-Chief of the Ukrainian Armed Forces Ruslan Khomchak said that Russia has stationed twenty-eight BTGs (battalion tactical groups) along the border, and that it was expected that twenty-five more were to be brought in,[508] including in Bryansk and Voronezh oblasts in Russia's Western Military District. The following day, Russian state news agency TASS reported that fifty of its BTGs consisting of 15,000 soldiers were massed for drills in the Southern Military District, which includes occupied Crimea and also borders the Donbas conflict zone.[509] By 9 April, the head of the Ukrainian border guard estimated that 85,000 Russian soldiers were already in Crimea or within 40 kilometres (25 mi) of the Ukrainian border.[510]
Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelensky spoke to American president Joe Biden and urged NATO members to speed up Ukraine's request for membership.[511][512] A Kremlin spokesman said that Russian military movements pose no threat,[513] but Russian official Dmitry Kozak warned that Russian forces could act to "defend" Russian citizens in Ukraine, and any escalation of the conflict would mean "the beginning of the end of Ukraine" – "not a shot in the leg, but in the face".[514][515] At the time some half a million people in the self-proclaimed Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic had been issued with Russian passports since fighting broke out in 2014.[516] Russia refused to participate when Ukraine requested a Vienna Document meeting with France, Germany, and the OSCE.[517][518] German chancellor Angela Merkel telephoned Russian president Vladimir Putin to demand a reversal of the buildup.[519] United States White House press secretary Jen Psaki announced in early April 2021 that a buildup of Russian troops on Ukrainian border was the largest since 2014.[520]
On 17 April, Russian Federal Security Service (FSB) detained the Ukrainian consul general in Saint Petersburg, Oleksandr Sosoniuk, over spying allegations, accusing Sosoniuk of trying to get classified information from a database of FSB.[521][522] The Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs stated that it had summoned Ukraine's chargé d'affaires, Vasyl Pokotylo, and told him that Sosoniuk had to leave the country by 22 April.[523] Ukrainian Ministry of Foreign Affairs then stated that Sosoniuk was held for several hours before being released.[524] It also protested Sosoniuk's detention and rejected Russia's accusations, adding that it will expel a "senior diplomat of the Russian embassy in Kyiv" in response to the "provocation" within 72 hours beginning 19 April.[525]
Реакция на вторжение России в Крым
Ukrainian response
Interim Ukrainian President Oleksandr Turchynov accused Russia of "provoking a conflict" by backing the seizure of the Crimean parliament building and other government offices on the Crimean peninsula. He compared Russia's military actions to the 2008 Russo-Georgian War, when Russian troops occupied parts of the Republic of Georgia and the breakaway enclaves of Abkhazia and South Ossetia were established under the control of Russian-backed administrations. He called on Putin to withdraw Russian troops from Crimea and stated that Ukraine will "preserve its territory" and "defend its independence".[526] On 1 March, he warned, "Military intervention would be the beginning of war and the end of any relations between Ukraine and Russia."[527]
On 1 March, Acting President Oleksandr Turchynov placed the Armed Forces of Ukraine on full alert and combat readiness.[528]
On 15 April 2014, the Law of Ukraine No. 1207-VII "On Securing the Rights and Freedoms of Citizens and the Legal Regime on the Temporarily Occupied Territory of Ukraine" was adopted.[529]
On 16 September 2015, the Ukrainian parliament voted for the law that sets 20 February 2014 as the official date of the Russian temporary occupation of Crimean peninsula.[530][531] On 7 October 2015 the President of Ukraine signed the law into force.[532]
The Ministry of Temporarily Occupied Territories and IDPs was established by Ukrainian government on 20 April 2016 to manage occupied parts of Donetsk, Luhansk and Crimea regions affected by Russian military intervention of 2014.[533]
US and NATO military response
On 4 March 2014, the United States pledged $1 billion in aid to Ukraine.[534]
Russia's actions increased tensions in nearby countries historically within its sphere of influence, particularly the Baltic and Moldova. All have large Russian-speaking populations, and Russian troops are stationed in the breakaway Moldovan territory of Transnistria.[535] Some devoted resources to increasing defensive capabilities,[536] and many requested increased support from the U.S. and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, which they had joined in recent years.[535][536] The conflict "reinvigorated" NATO, which had been created to face the Soviet Union, but had devoted more resources to "expeditionary missions" in recent years.[537]
In 2014, Alexander Vershbow said, that Russia "have declared NATO as an adversary", adding, that NATO must do the same.[538] Initial deployments in March and early April were restricted to increased air force monitoring and training in the Baltics and Poland, and single ships in the Black Sea.[538][539] On 16 April, officials announced the deployment of ships to the Baltic and Mediterranean Seas, and increasing exercises in "Eastern Europe". The measures were apparently limited so as not to appear aggressive.[540] Leaders emphasized that the conflict was not a new Cold War[541] but Robert Legvold disagreed.[541] Others[who?] supported applying George F. Kennan's concept of containment to possible Russian expansion.[542][543] Former U.S. Ambassador to Russia Michael McFaul said, "We are enduring a drift of disengagement in world affairs. As we pull back, Russia is pushing forward. I worry about the new nationalism that Putin has unleashed and understand that many young Russians also embrace these extremist ideas."[544]
Beginning 23 April 600 US troops from the 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team held bilateral exercises in Poland and the Baltic.[545] Plans were made for a communications mission to counter Russian propaganda in eastern Ukraine, improve internal Ukrainian military communication, and handle apparent Russian infiltration of the security services.[546]
In addition to diplomatic support in its conflict with Russia, the U.S. provided Ukraine with US$1.5 billion in military aid during the 2010s.[547] In 2018 the U.S. House of Representatives passed a provision blocking any training of Azov Battalion of the Ukrainian National Guard by American forces. In previous years, between 2014 and 2017, the U.S. House of Representatives passed amendments banning support of Azov, but due to pressure from the Pentagon, the amendments were quietly lifted.[548][549][550] On 24 September 2019 the U.S. House of Representatives initiated an impeachment inquiry against incumbent U.S. president Donald Trump in the wake of scandal surrounding a phone conversation that Trump had with Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky on 25 July.[551]
Georgia intensified its push for entry into NATO. It had hoped to gain Membership Action Plan status in September.[552] It also expressed interest in a missile defence system via NATO.[553]
Baltic states
On 5 March the Pentagon announced, independently of NATO, that it would send six fighter jets and a refueling aircraft to augment the four already participating in the Baltic Air Policing mission.[554][555] The US rotation was due to last through the end of April.[554] The Polish Air Force was scheduled to participate from 1 May through 31 August.[556]
- Throughout the second half of March, the UK, France, the Czech Republic, and Denmark all offered aircraft to augment the Polish rotation. UK officials announced plans to send six Eurofighter Typhoon.[557] Over the next two weeks, France offered four fighters, and anonymous officials mentioned possible air support for Poland and stationing AWACs in Poland and Romania.[558][559] The Czech Republic offered to deploy fighter aircraft to interested countries bordering or near Ukraine.[559] Denmark planned to send six F-16 fighters.[560]
- After some consideration,[561] Germany's Defence Ministry committed to sending six Eurofighters (to reinforce the Portuguese rotation beginning in September[562]) and leading "minesweeping maneuvers" in the Baltic Sea.[540] A multinational group of four minesweeper ships and a supply ship from the Standing NATO Mine Countermeasures Group 1 left Kiel, Germany on 22 April.[563]
- Swedish, Lithuanian, and US aircraft took part in exercises over the Baltic in early April.[564][565] The US was considering establishing a small but "continuous" military force in the Baltic to reassure its allies.[566] NATO and Estonia agreed to base aircraft at the Ämari Air Base, which was reportedly possible due to the increased number of planes offered by allies.[567] The Lithuanian defence ministry reported that the number of Russian planes flying close to the border had increased in January and February.[568]
Black and Mediterranean Seas
An Arleigh Burke-class destroyer, USS Truxtun, crossed into the Black Sea on 6 March to participate in long-planned exercises with Bulgaria and Romania.[d] American officials stated that it was part of a routine deployment for exercises with the Bulgarian and Romanian navies.[570][571] Truxtun left the Black Sea by 28 March, but some politicians argued that it should return as a show of support.[572] An additional 175 Marines were to be deployed to the Black Sea Rotational Force in Romania, though this was decided in late 2012.[573]
On 10 April, the guided missile destroyer USS Donald Cook entered the Black Sea to "reassure NATO allies and Black Sea partners of America's commitment to strengthen and improve interoperability while working towards mutual goals in the region", according to a Pentagon spokesman.[574][575] On 14 April, the ship was repeatedly buzzed by a Su-24 Russian attack aircraft.[576][577] Donald Cook left the Black Sea on 28 April, leaving USS Taylor.[578]
On 30 April, Canada redeployed HMCS Regina from counter-terrorist operations in the Arabian Sea, likely to join Standing NATO Maritime Group 1, which had itself been reassigned to the eastern Mediterranean in response to events in Ukraine.[579]
Poland and Romania
- Seven U.S. F-16's were scheduled to participate in a training exercise in Poland. On 6 March, it was announced that 12 fighters and 300 service personnel would go to Poland.[580] The increase was attributed to concerns over Russian activities in Crimea.[580][581] It was later announced that the detachment from the 555th Fighter Squadron would remain through the end of 2014.[582] Six F-16's were also stationed in Romania with no given departure date.[562]
- On 10 March, NATO began using Boeing E-3 Sentry AWACS airborne radar aircraft to monitor Poland's and Lithuania's border with Kaliningrad.[583] Monitoring also took place in Romania.[584]
- On 26 March, US and UK defence chiefs agreed to accelerate the development of the NATO missile defence system. Talks were "dominated" by the situation in Ukraine, but officials emphasized that this was not a response to Russian actions.[585]
NATO foreign ministers at a meeting in early April did not rule out stationing troops in countries near Russia, saying that Russia had "gravely breached the trust upon which our cooperation must be based".[537] Poland requested that "two heavy brigades" be stationed on its territory, to mixed responses; NATO considered increased support for Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Moldova.[586]
- On 17 April, Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced a deployment of six CF-18 jet fighters to be based in Poland,[563][587] and 20 additional staff officers to the NATO headquarters.[587][588] The planes were apparently redirected[589] to Romania, along with at least 220 Canadian personnel.[588]
- On 24 April, France announced the deployment of four Rafale fighters to Poland's Malbork Airbase as a "defensive posture".[562] The jets have been replaced by four Mirage 2000.[590]
- The Allied Joint Force Command based in Naples, Italy, relocates to Cincu, Romania, for 12 days.[591]
Relations with Russia
According to Stars and Stripes, the Atlas Vision exercise with Russia (planned for July) was cancelled.[592] The Rapid Trident exercise in western Ukraine, scheduled for the same time, was to proceed as planned,[592][593] as was the naval exercise Sea Breeze.[593]
France suspended most military cooperation with Russia and considered halting the sale of two Mistral-class warships it had been contracted to build.[594] Canada,[595] the UK,[596] and Norway[597] all suspended cooperation to some extent. On 1 April, NATO suspended all military and civilian cooperation with Russia.[598] Russian diplomatic access to NATO headquarters was restricted.[599]
On 8 May, Russia conducted a large-scale military drill simulating US/NATO nuclear attacks. Analysts considered it to be politically motivated to compete with NATO.[600][601]
NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg has called for more cooperation with Russia in the fight against terrorism following a deadly attack on the headquarters of a French satirical weekly magazine Charlie Hebdo in January 2015.[602]
Military actions in other countries
Belarus
In March 2014, Ukraine reported that Russian units in Belarus were participating in Russia's military exercises near the Ukrainian border and expressed concern about this being a direct threat to Ukraine.[603]
Turkey
On 7 March 2014, the Turkish Air Force reported it scrambled six F-16 fighter jets after a Russian surveillance plane flew along Turkey's Black Sea coast.[604] It was the second incident of its kind reported that week, with one occurring the day before on 6 March. The Russian plane remained in international airspace. Diplomatic sources revealed that Turkey has warned Russia that if it attacks Ukraine and its Crimean Tatar population, it would blockade Russian ships' passage to the Black Sea.[605]
International diplomatic and economic responses
Several members of the international community have expressed grave concerns over the Russian intervention in Ukraine and criticized Russia for its actions in post-revolutionary Ukraine, including the United States,[606] the United Kingdom,[607] France,[608] Germany,[609] Italy,[610] Poland,[611] Canada,[612] Japan,[613] the Netherlands,[614] Norway,[615] South Korea,[616] Georgia,[617] Moldova,[618] Turkey,[619] Australia[620] and the European Union as a whole, which condemned Russia, accusing it of breaking international law and violating Ukrainian sovereignty.[621] Many of these countries implemented economic sanctions against Russia or Russian individuals or companies, to which Russia responded in kind. Amnesty International has expressed its belief that Russia is fuelling the conflict.[622] The UN Security Council held a special meeting 1 March 2014 on the crisis.[623] The G7 countries condemned the violation of Ukraine's sovereignty, and urged Russia to withdraw.[624][625] All G7 leaders are refusing to participate in it due to assumed violation of the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Ukraine, in contravention of Russia's obligations under the UN Charter and its 1997 basing agreement with Ukraine.[626]
In 2014, OSCE Parliamentary Assembly published a statement (the "Baku Declaration") discussing the events in Ukraine in detail. Specifically, it pointed out that Russia is a signatory of the Helsinki Accords and committed to observing its rules, including respecting the sovereignty and territorial integrity of other member countries, as well as the Budapest Memorandum on Security Assurances that specifically guaranteed the integrity of Ukraine's borders. As noted by OSCE, "Russian Federation has, since February 2014, violated every one of the ten Helsinki principles in its relations with Ukraine, some in a clear, gross and thus far uncorrected manner, and is in violation with the commitments it undertook in the Budapest Memorandum, as well as other international obligations". OSCE condemned actions of the Russian Federation, calling them "coercion" and "military aggression" that are "designed to subordinate the rights inherent in Ukraine's sovereignty to the Russian Federation's own interests".[627] In 2016 OSCE deputy mission head in Ukraine Alexander Hug summarized the mission's two years of observations stating that "since the beginning of the conflict" the mission has seen "armed people with Russian insignia", vehicle tracks crossing border between Russia and Ukraine as well as talked to prisoners who were declaring themselves Russian soldiers.[628]
In January 2015, Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) accepted a resolution that noted "the direct involvement of the Russian Federation in the emergence and worsening of the situation in these parts of Ukraine" and called both sides to fully respect the terms of Minsk Agreement.[629]
In June 2015, OSCE PA repeated condemnation of "Russia's aggression against Ukraine, including its illegal annexation and occupation of Crimea" ("Helsinki Declaration").[630] On 28 August 2015 Poland's newly elected President Andrzej Duda said in Berlin during talks with German President Joachim Gauck and Chancellor Angela Merkel that Poland is already taking in large numbers of refugees from the Ukraine conflict as part of the EU's refugee programme, and does not intend to join in talks conducted since 2014 by France, Germany, Russia and Ukraine.[631] The policy of strategic partnership between Kyiv and Warsaw requires further strengthening of military and technical cooperation,[632] best exemplified by the Lithuanian–Polish–Ukrainian Brigade,[633] but the more immediate task, informed Poland's State secretary Krzysztof Szczerski, is Ukraine's constitutional reform leading to broad decentralization of power, in which Poland's post-Soviet experience is going to be used.[632]
In September 2015 the United Nations Human Rights Office estimated that 8000 casualties had resulted from the conflict, noting that the violence has been "fuelled by the presence and continuing influx of foreign fighters and sophisticated weapons and ammunition from the Russian Federation".[634]
Financial markets
The intervention caused turbulence in financial markets. Many markets around the world fell slightly due to the threat of instability.[citation needed] The Swiss franc climbed to a 2-year high against the dollar and 1-year high against the Euro. The Euro and the US dollar both rose, as did the Australian dollar.[635] The Russian stock market declined by more than 10 percent, whilst the Russian ruble hit all-time lows against the US dollar and the Euro.[636][637][638] The Russian central bank hiked interest rates and intervened in the foreign exchange markets to the tune of $12 billion to try to stabilize its currency.[635] Prices for wheat and grain rose, with Ukraine being a major exporter of both crops.[639] In early August 2014, the German DAX was down by 6 percent for the year, and 11 percent since June, over concerns Russia, Germany's 13th biggest trade partner, would retaliate against sanctions.[640]
Реакция на российскую интервенцию на Донбассе
- Amnesty International considers the war to be "an international armed conflict" and presented independent satellite photos analysis proving involvement of regular Russian army in the conflict. It accuses Ukrainian militia and separatist forces for being responsible for war crimes and has called on all parties, including Russia, to stop violations of the laws of war.[622] Amnesty has expressed its belief that Russia is fueling the conflict, 'both through direct interference and by supporting the separatists in the East' and called on Russia to 'stop the steady flow of weapons and other support to an insurgent force heavily implicated in gross human rights violations.'[622]
- NATO – The Russian government's decision to send a truck convoy into Luhansk on 22 August without Ukrainian consent was condemned by NATO and several NATO member states, including the United States.[641] NATO Secretary General Anders Fogh Rasmussen called it "a blatant breach of Russia's international commitments" and "a further violation of Ukraine's sovereignty by Russia".[642]
- European Union – Leaders warned that Russia faced harsher economic sanctions than the EU had previously imposed if it failed to withdraw troops from Ukraine.[643] In 2015 the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe [PACE] published a resolution that openly speaks about a "Russian aggression in Ukraine".[644]
- Ukraine – Chairman of the Ukrainian Parliament Oleksandr Turchynov said "It's a hybrid war that Russia has begun against Ukraine, a war with the participation of the Russian security services and the army."[645]
- United States – US Ambassador to the United Nations Samantha Power commented on the invasion by noting that "At every step, Russia has come before this council to say everything but the truth. It has manipulated, obfuscated and outright lied. Russia has to stop lying and has to stop fuelling this conflict."[306][646] The United States government said it supported stiffer sanctions as well.[647]
- Nordic countries – On 9 April 2015 a joint declaration by the ministers of defence of Norway, Denmark, Finland and Sweden and the minister of foreign affairs of Iceland (which does not have a ministry of defence) was brought by the Norwegian newspaper Aftenposten. The declaration first asserts that the Russian aggression against Ukraine and the illegal annexation of Crimea is a violation of international law and other international treaties and that the Nordic countries must judge Russia not by the rhetoric of the Kremlin, but by the actions of the country. After pointing out that Russia has increased its military exercise and intelligence gathering activity in the Baltic and Northern areas violating Nordic borders and jeopardizing civilian air traffic, the declaration states the intention of the Nordic countries to face this new situation with solidarity and increased cooperation. The Nordic unity commitment is extended to include solidarity with the Baltic countries and to a collaboration within NATO and EU to strengthen also the unity within these entities and to maintain the cross-Atlantic link.[648]
Russian protests
Street protests against the war in Ukraine have arisen in Russia itself. Notable protests first occurred in March[649][650] and large protests occurred in September when "tens of thousands" protested the war in Ukraine with a peace march in downtown Moscow on Sunday, 21 September 2014, "under heavy police supervision".[651]
Critics of Vladimir Putin also express cautious criticism in the press and social media. Garry Kasparov, a consistent critic of Putin, whom he has called 'a revanchist KGB thug', has written[652] on the Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 shootdown and called for Western action.[653][654]
An August 2014 survey by the Levada Center reported that only 13% of those Russians polled would support the Russian government in an open war with Ukraine.[655]
Former Russian vice-minister of foreign affairs Georgy Kunadze (1991 –1993) said that if Western policy toward Russia had been tougher in 2008, during the Russo-Georgian War, "there would be no Crimea nor Lugandon" (the latter was a reference to the LPR).[656]
Ukrainian public opinion
A poll of the Ukrainian public, excluding Russian-annexed Crimea, was taken by the International Republican Institute from 12 to 25 September 2014.[657] 89% of those polled opposed 2014 Russian military intervention in Ukraine. As broken down by region, 78% of those polled from Eastern Ukraine (including Dnipropetrovsk Oblast) opposed said intervention, along with 89% in Southern Ukraine, 93% in Central Ukraine, and 99% in Western Ukraine.[657] As broken down by native language, 79% of Russian speakers and 95% of Ukrainian speakers opposed the intervention. 80% of those polled said the country should remain a unitary country.[657]
A poll of the Crimean public in Russian-annexed Crimea was taken by the Ukrainian branch of Germany's biggest market research organization, GfK, on 16–22 January 2015. According to its results: "Eighty-two percent of those polled said they fully supported Crimea's inclusion in Russia, and another 11 percent expressed partial support. Only 4 percent spoke out against it."[658][659][660]
International reaction
In March 2014, Estonia's president Toomas Hendrik Ilves said: "Justification of a military invasion by a fabricated need to protect ethnic "compatriots" resuscitates the arguments used to annex Sudetenland in 1938."[661] During the Group of 20 (G-20) summit of world leaders in Brisbane, Australia in November 2014, an incident occurred during private meetings that became quite public. At the private leaders' retreat, held the weekend before the official opening of the summit, Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper told Russian President Vladimir Putin "I guess I'll shake your hand but I have only one thing to say to you: You need to get out of Ukraine." The incident occurred as Putin approached Harper and a group of G-20 leaders and extended his hand toward Harper. After the event was over, a "spokesman for the Russian delegation said Putin's response was: 'That's impossible because we are not there'."[662]
In March 2015, NATO's top commander in Europe General Philip M. Breedlove has been criticized by German politicians and diplomats as spreading "dangerous propaganda" by constantly inflating the figures of Russian military involvement in an attempt to subvert the diplomatic solution of the war in Donbas spearheaded by German Chancellor Angela Merkel.[663][664] According to Germany's Der Spiegel magazine, "the German government, supported by intelligence gathered by the Bundesnachrichtendienst (BND), Germany's foreign intelligence agency, did not share the view of NATO's Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR)."[663]
In 2017, Ukraine opened a case against Russia for involvement and financing of terrorism and racial discrimination in military occupied Autonomous Republic of Crimea and part of Donbas.[665][666]
Смотрите также
- Buhas bus attack near Volnovakha
- Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 shootdown
- Russia–Ukraine border and Russia–Ukraine barrier
- Russia–Ukraine relations
- Russian military intervention in Syria
- Temporarily occupied territories of Ukraine
- Occupied territories of Georgia
- Ministry of Temporarily Occupied Territories and IDPs
- The Forgotten (2019 film)
- Cherkasy (film)
Заметки
- ^ Arms, military exercises and general aid.
- ^ There remain "some contradictions and inherent problems" regarding date on which the annexation began.[4] Ukraine claims 20 February 2014 as the date of "the beginning of the temporary occupation of Crimea and Sevastopol by Russia.", citing timeframe inscribed on the Russian medal "For the Return of Crimea",[5] and in 2015 the Ukrainian parliament officially designated the date as such.[6] On 20 February 2014 Vladimir Konstantinov who at that time was a chairman of the republican council of Crimea and representing the Party of Regions express his thoughts about succession of the region from Ukraine.[7] On 23 February 2014 the Russian ambassador to Ukraine Mikhail Zurabov was recalled to Moscow to due "worsening of situation in Ukraine". In early March 2015, President Putin stated in a Russian movie about annexation of Crimea that he ordered the operation to "restore" Crimea to Russia following an all-night emergency meeting of 22–23 February 2014,[4][8] and in 2018 Russian Foreign Minister claimed that earlier "start date" on the medal was due to "technical misunderstanding".[9]
- ^ Feffer (2014) "Article 11 maintains that a vote on impeachment must pass by two-thirds of the members, and the impeachment itself requires a vote by three-quarters of the members. In this case, the 328 out of 447 votes were about 10 votes short of three-quarters,"[105]
- ^ Baldor (2014) "A U.S. warship is also now in the Black Sea to participate in long-planned exercises."[569]
Рекомендации
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- ^ https://www.eca.europa.eu/Lists/ECADocuments/SR16_32/SR_UKRAINE_EN.pdf
- ^ Russian Opposition Party Will Not Campaign In Annexed Crimea, Radio Free Europe (19 August 2016)
- ^ a b McDermott, Roger N. (2016). "Brothers Disunited: Russia's use of military power in Ukraine". In Black, J.; Johns, Michael (eds.). The Return of the Cold War: Ukraine, the West and Russia. London. pp. 99–129. doi:10.4324/9781315684567-5. ISBN 9781138924093. OCLC 909325250.
- ^ "7683rd meeting of the United Nations Security Council. Thursday, 28 April 2016, 3 p.m. New York".
Mr. Prystaiko (Ukraine): <...> In that regard, I have to remind the Council that the official medal that was produced by the Russian Federation for the so-called return of Crimea has the dates on it, starting with 20 February, which is the day before that agreement was brought to the attention of the Security Council by the representative of the Russian Federation. Therefore, the Russian Federation started — not just planned, but started — the annexation of Crimea the day before we reached the first agreement and while President Yanukovych was still in power.
- ^ (in Ukrainian) "Nasha" Poklonsky promises to the "Berkut" fighters to punish the participants of the Maidan, Segodnya (20 March 2016)
- ^ The speaker of the ARC Verkhovna Rada considers that the Crimea may get detached from Ukraine (Спікер ВР АРК вважає, що Крим може відокремитися від України). Ukrayinska Pravda. 20 February 2019
- ^ "Putin describes secret operation to seize Crimea". Yahoo News. 8 March 2015. Retrieved 24 March 2015.
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- ^ Russian Military Forces Come Into Chonhar Village, Kherson Region. Ukrainian News, 8 March 2014
- ^ a b Office of the Spokesperson (13 April 2014). "Evidence of Russian Support for Destabilization of Ukraine". Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 14 April 2014.
- ^ a b c Kramer, Andrew E. (9 June 2014). "Russians Yearning to Join Ukraine Battle Find Lots of Helping Hands". The New York Times. Retrieved 11 April 2015.
- ^ a b "US: Photos show Russia fired into Ukraine – Videos – CBS News". cbsnews.com. 28 July 2014. Retrieved 30 January 2019.
- ^ "Eight border guards rescued, two missing after shelling in Sea of Azov". Kyiv Post. 1 September 2014. Archived from the original on 1 September 2014. Retrieved 29 December 2014.
- ^ a b "Putin admits Russian forces were deployed to Crimea", Reuters, 17 April 2014, archived from the original on 19 April 2014,
We had to take unavoidable steps so that events did not develop as they are currently developing in southeast Ukraine. ... Of course our troops stood behind Crimea's self-defence forces.
- ^ Alison Smale (3 March 2014). "Ukraine puts troops on high alert, threatening war". The New York Times. Reuters. Retrieved 11 January 2015.
- ^ Willis Raburu (17 April 2014). "Putin admits unmarked soldiers in Ukraine were Russian; optimistic about Geneva talks". PBS. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
- ^ Дороги в Крым перекрыли блокпостами, которые охраняет Беркут и вооруженные люди в камуфляже [Roads in Crimea are blocked by checkpoints protecting Berkut and armed men in camouflage]. Gazeta.ua (in Russian). 27 February 2014. Retrieved 14 October 2014.
- ^ a b Paul Sonne (28 February 2014). "Crimea Checkpoints Raise Secession Fears". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 17 April 2014.
- ^ a b c d Под Армянск стянулись силовики из "Беркута". armyansk.info (in Russian). 27 February 2014. Retrieved 15 March 2014.
- ^ Chonhar Peninsula fully under Ukraine's control, Interfax-Ukraine (27 December 2014)
(in Ukrainian) Ukrainian military released Chonhar in Kherson oblast, korrespondent.net (26 December 2014) - ^ "Vladimir Putin cools Ukraine tensions as U.S. talks sanctions". CBC News. CBC. 4 March 2014. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
- ^ Steven Lee Myers; Alison Smale (13 March 2014). "Russian Troops Mass at Border With Ukraine". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 March 2014.
- ^ "DOD Video Exercise Rapid Trident 2019". Retrieved 8 December 2019.
- ^ Juergen Baetz; John-Thor Dahlburg (16 April 2014). "NATO increases military moves to counter Russia". The Star (Canada). Brussels. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 16 April 2014. Retrieved 19 April 2014.
- ^ Nicolas Miletitch; Dmitry Zaks (15 April 2014). "Ukraine pushes tanks toward flashpoint separatist city". The Daily Star (Lebanon). Agence France-Presse. Retrieved 15 April 2014.
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- ^ Linda Kinstler (16 December 2014). "Russian Ruble Collapses, Performs Worse Than Ukraine's Hryvnia in 2014". New Republic. Archived from the original on 16 December 2014. Retrieved 17 December 2014.
- ^ Zahra Hankir; Natasha Doff (15 December 2014). "Russia Takes Ukraine's Spot in Currency Abyss: Chart of the Day". Bloomberg. Retrieved 17 December 2014.
- ^ "Russian ruble falls to historic lows, while pressure increases on Putin". Fox News. Associated Press. 16 December 2014. Archived from the original on 16 December 2014. Retrieved 17 December 2014.
- ^ Irakli Metreveli (1 January 2015). "Ex-Soviet republics hit by Russian economic crisis". The China Post. AFP. Retrieved 1 January 2015.
- ^ "Russian Lieutenant General Alexander Lentsov leading Russian groups in Debaltseve". YouTube, LifeNews. 18 February 2015. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
- ^ https://informnapalm.org/en/russian-t-90-tanks-136th-motorized-rifle-brigade-luhansk-region/
- ^ a b c В Джанкое находятся войска Чеченской Республики [Armies of the Chechen Republic to be found in Dzhankoy] (in Russian). IPC-Dzhankoy. 5 March 2014. Archived from the original on 10 July 2015. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
- ^ a b c d Shaun Walker; Oksana Grytsenko; Leonid Ragozin (4 September 2014). "Russian soldier: 'You're better clueless because the truth is horrible'". The Guardian. Retrieved 21 March 2015.
- ^ "Russia's 200th Motorized Infantry Brigade in the Donbass: The Hero of Russia". 21 June 2016. Retrieved 21 June 2016.
- ^ Депутат: Псковские десантники переброшены на Украину [Deputy: Pskov paratroopers deployed in Ukraine] (in Russian). Pskov Lenta News. 28 February 2014. Retrieved 16 September 2014.
- ^ В СНБО подтвердили захват силами АТО 2 БМД Псковской дивизии [The National Security Council confirmed the seizure of two airborne combat vehicles by the ATO 2 BMD Pskov division] (in Russian). Interfax-Ukraine. 21 August 2014. Retrieved 21 March 2015.
- ^ a b Anna Nemtsova (10 September 2014). "Russian Soldiers Reveal the Truth Behind Putin's Secret War". Newsweek. Retrieved 20 March 2015.
- ^ "Russia redeploys ships of Baltic and Northern fleets to Sevastopol, violates agreement with Ukraine". Ukrinform. 3 March 2014. Archived from the original on 10 September 2015. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
- ^ "Ukraine says Russian special forces involved in attacks on airport in east". Reuters. 1 December 2014. Retrieved 11 April 2015.
- ^ "Ukraina: Krimmis on Tšetšeeniast ja Uljanovskist pärit Vene sõdurid" [Ukraine:In Crimea there are Russian troops from Chechnya and Ulyanovsk] (in Estonian). Postimees. 5 March 2014. Retrieved 16 September 2014.
- ^ Interest, The National. "Get Ready, America: Russia Has Its Own Deadly 'Delta Force'". Retrieved 12 April 2017.
- ^ Galeotti, Mark (2015). Spetsnaz: Russia's Special Forces (Elite ed.). Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-4728-0722-9. Retrieved 11 April 2017.
- ^ Gambarli, Gulnaz. "REN TV-nin aparıcısı keçmiş azərbaycanlı hərbçiləri "terrorçu" adlandırdı" [The host of REN TV called the former Azerbaijani servicemen "terrorists"]. Meydan TV (in Azerbaijani). Retrieved 2 April 2021.
"Verilişin aparıcısı İqor Prokopenko onların Cövhər Dudayev adına Könüllülər Batalyonunda fundamental islamçılar, terrorçu və banditlərlə birlikdə Rusiyaya qarşı vuruşduğunu iddia edərək deyir: “Belə könüllülər arasında İslamçı-Bozqurd dəstəsinin keçmiş komandiri, 703 sayli briqadanın tərkibində Azərbaycan tərəfindən Dağılq Qarabağda döyüşən Nurəddin İsmayılov və “Bozqurd”çu dəstəsinin daha bir keçmiş döyüşçüsü İsa Sadıqovdur. İsa Sadıqov 1990-ci illərdə Azərbaycan müdafiə nazirinin müavini olub. Sonra isə axtarışa verilib. Lakin bu, onun 2004-cu ildə Norveçdə məskunlaşmasına mane olmayıb. Hazırda Norveç vətəndaşıdır. İndi isə Ukraynada Cövhər Dudayev adına batalyonun qərargah rəisidir".
- ^ "Poroşenkonun mükafatlandırdığı azərbaycanlı: "Bu, Ukrayna uğrunda döyüşən bütün azərbaycanlıların xidmətinə verilən qiymətdir"" [The Azerbaijani that was awarded by Poroshenko: "This is an appreciation of the services of all Azerbaijanis fighting for Ukraine"]. Azeri Press Agency (in Azerbaijani). 25 October 2017. Retrieved 2 April 2021.
- ^ Lashenko, Sergei (20 October 2016). ""На Украину вся надежда": Почему азербайджанцы воюют за нас" ["All hope for Ukraine": Why are Azerbaijanis fighting for us]. The Day (in Russian). Retrieved 2 April 2021.
- ^ Greg Botelho; Diana Magnay; Phil Black (5 March 2014). "Ukraine looks for 'sign of hope' from Russia over Crimea". CNN. Retrieved 11 January 2015.
- ^ В Криму перебувають вже 30 тисяч російских військових - прикордонники [Already 30 thousand Russian military personnel in Crimea in the capacity of border guards]. Ukrayinska Pravda (in Ukrainian). 7 March 2014. Retrieved 11 January 2015.
- ^ Michael Weiss (3 January 2014). "Russia Stages a Coup in Crimea". The Daily Beast. Retrieved 11 January 2015.
- ^ "An eerie mood on the ground in Crimea". CNN. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
- ^ Lizzie Dearden (1 March 2014). "Ukraine crisis: Putin asks Russian parliament's permission for military invasion in Crimea". The Independent. London. Retrieved 11 January 2015.
- ^ Россия незаконно увеличила численность своих войск в Украине до 16 тыс. – и.о. министра обороны [Russia illegally increased the number of its troops in Ukraine up to 21 thousand - Acting Minister of Defence] (in Russian). Interfax.ua. 3 March 2014. Retrieved 11 January 2015.
- ^ "Insider's view: Moscow is in control of Crimea in Ukraine". Daily News. New York. 3 March 2014. Archived from the original on 6 March 2014. Retrieved 6 March 2014.
- ^ "Putin: You better not come after a nuclear-armed Russia". CNN. 29 August 2014. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
- ^ "Russia has '7500 troops in Ukraine'". NewsCom.au. 23 November 2014. Retrieved 15 February 2015.
- ^ "Some 12,000 Russian soldiers in Ukraine supporting rebels - U.S. commander". Reuters. 3 March 2015. Retrieved 3 March 2015.
- ^ "Kyiv Says 42,500 Rebels, Russian Soldiers Stationed in East Ukraine". RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. 8 June 2015. Retrieved 25 June 2015.
- ^ a b c d e "Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Report on the human rights situation in Ukraine 16 November 2019 to 15 February 2020" (PDF). OHCHR. 12 March 2020. Retrieved 12 March 2020.
- ^ Книга пам'яті загиблих [Memorial Book to the Fallen]. Herman Shapovalenko, Yevhen Vorokh, Yuriy Hirchenko (in Ukrainian). Retrieved 31 January 2015.
- ^ The Museum of Military History also lists separately 139 currently unidentified soldiers who were killed: 66 at Krasnopolye cemetery,[1] 63 at Kushugum cemetery [2] and 10 at Starobilsk cemetery.[3]
- ^ Top Ukrainian And German Diplomats Talk NATO And Conflict In Eastern Ukraine
- ^ "UNIAN: 70 missing soldiers officially reported over years of war in Donbas". Ukrainian Independent Information Agency. 6 September 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2019.
- ^ "Militants held in captivity 180 Ukrainian servicemen". Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 16 March 2015.
- ^ Isaac Webb (22 April 2015). "An Eye for an Eye: Ukraine's POW Problem". The Moscow Times. Archived from the original on 18 May 2015. Retrieved 25 April 2015.
- ^ "Donbas rebels still hold 300 Ukraine army servicemen and civilians prisoners". zik.ua. 2 May 2015.
- ^ Pike, John. "Ukrainian Military Personnel". www.globalsecurity.org.
- ^ "В жертву "Оплотам": Почему тормозит модернизация Т-64". www.depo.ua.
- ^ Snyder, Timothy (2018). The Road to Unfreedom: Russia, Europe, America. New York: Tim Duggan Books. p. 197. ISBN 9780525574477.
Almost everyone lost the Russo-Ukrainian war: Russia, Ukraine, the EU, the United States. The only winner was China.
; Mulford, Joshua P. (2016). "Non-State Actors in the Russo-Ukrainian War". Connections. 15 (2): 89–107. doi:10.11610/Connections.15.2.07. ISSN 1812-1098. JSTOR 26326442.; Shevko, Demian; Khrul, Kristina (2017). "Why the Conflict Between Russia and Ukraine Is a Hybrid Aggression Against the West and Nothing Else". In Gutsul, Nazarii; Khrul, Kristina (eds.). Multicultural Societies and their Threats: Real, Hybrid and Media Wars in Eastern and South-Eastern Europe. Zürich: LIT Verlag Münster. p. 100. ISBN 9783643908254. - ^ The Federation Council gave approval on use of the Russian Armed Forces on territory of Ukraine (Совет Федерации дал согласие на использование Вооруженных Сил России на территории Украины). Federation Council. 1 March 2014
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- ^ unian, 8 April 2015 debaltseve pocket created by Russian troops - yashin
- ^ a b Channel 4 News, 2 September 2014 tensions still high in Ukraine
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- ^ "Kiev claims 'intensive' movements of troops crossing from Russia". AFP. 2 November 2014. Archived from the original on 14 November 2014. Retrieved 13 November 2014.
- ^ a b various reuters (9 November 2014). "worst east Ukraine shelling for month". Reuters. Retrieved 10 November 2014.
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- ^ a b "Ukraine crisis: Russian 'Cargo 200' crossed border — OSCE". BBC. 13 November 2014. Retrieved 13 November 2014.
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дальнейшее чтение
- Bowen, Andrew (2017). "Coercive Diplomacy and the Donbas: Explaining Russian Strategy in Eastern Ukraine". Journal of Strategic Studies. 42 (3–4): 312–343. doi:10.1080/01402390.2017.1413550. S2CID 158522112.
- Bremmer, Ian (1994). "The Politics of Ethnicity: Russians in the New Ukraine". Europe-Asia Studies. 46 (2): 261–283. doi:10.1080/09668139408412161.
- Hagendoorn, A.; Linssen, H.; Tumanov, S. V. (2001). Intergroup Relations in States of the former Soviet Union: The Perception of Russians. New York: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-84169-231-9.
- Legvold, Robert (2013). Russian Foreign Policy in the Twenty-first Century and the Shadow of the Past. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-51217-6.
Внешние ссылки
- Гай-Нижник Павло Павлович Росія проти України (1990–2016 рр.): від політики шантажу і примусу до війни на поглинання та спроби знищення. – К.: «МП Леся», 2017. – 332 с. ISBN 978-617-7530-02-1
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- "Ukraine crisis: an essential guide to everything that's happened so far". The Guardian. Retrieved 11 April 2015.
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