Восточная православная церковь , официально православная католическая церковь , [7] [8] [9] [10] является вторым по величине христианский храм , [а] [11] с приблизительно 220 миллионов крещеных членов. [12] [6] [13] Он действует как общение с автокефальных церквей, каждый из которых регулируется ее епископов в местных синодах . [13] Примерно половина православных христиан проживает на территории бывшего Советского Союза , в основном в России . [14] [15]Церковь не имеет центральной доктринальной или государственной власти, аналогичной епископу Рима ( Папе ), но вселенский патриарх Константинополя признается всеми как primus inter pares («первый среди равных») епископов. Исторически Вселенский Патриархат был наднациональной церковью на территориях Османской империи , населенными православными , и предшествовал некоторым из сегодняшних независимых православных церквей на Балканах . Восточная православная церковь, как одно из старейших сохранившихся религиозных институтов в мире, сыграла выдающуюся роль в истории и культуре Восточной и Юго-Восточной Европы , Кавказа и Ближнего Востока . [16]
Восточная Православная Церковь | |
---|---|
Тип | Восточно-христианский |
Священное писание | Септуагинта , Новый Завет |
Богословие | Восточно-православное богословие |
Политика | Епископальный |
Состав | Причастие |
Primus среди пар | Вселенский Патриарх Варфоломей I |
Область, край | Юго-Восточная Европа , Восточная Европа , Кипр , Грузия , [1] Сибирь , а также большие сообщества в Восточном Средиземноморье и на Ближнем Востоке. |
Язык | Койне Греческий , церковнославянский , просторечный [2] [3] [4] |
Литургия | Византийский ; Западный |
Штаб-квартира | Константинополь [5] |
Основатель | Иисус Христос |
Источник | Иудея I века , Римская империя |
Разлуки | Староверы (17 век) Истинное Православие (1920-е годы) |
Члены | 220 миллионов [6] |
Другие названия) | Православная Церковь, Православная Христианская Церковь |
Восточно-православное богословие основано на священной традиции, которая включает в себя догматические постановления семи Вселенских соборов , Священное Писание и учение Отцов Церкви . Церковь учит , что это один, святую, соборную и апостольскую Церковь создана Иисусом Христом в его Великое Поручение , [17] и что ее епископы являются преемниками от Христа апостолам . [18] Он утверждает, что исповедует изначальную христианскую веру, переданную священным преданием. Его патриархаты , напоминающие пентархию , и другие автокефальные и автономные церкви отражают разнообразие иерархической организации . Он признает семь основных таинств, из которых Евхаристия является основным, совершается литургически в синаксисе . Церковь учит , что через освящение вызывается с помощью священника , жертвенный хлеб и вино становятся телом и кровью Христа. Дева Мария является почитается в Православной Церкви как Богоносца , почитается в набожности .
Восточная Православная Церковь разделяла общение с Римско-католической церковью в государственной церкви Рима до раскола Востока и Запада в 1054 году, особенно оспаривая авторитет Папы . Перед Эфесским собором в 431 году нашей эры Церковь Востока также разделяла это общение, как и Восточные Православные церкви до Халкидонского Собора в 451 году нашей эры, все расходились в первую очередь из-за различий в христологии .
Большинство православных христиан живут в основном в Юго-Восточной и Восточной Европе , на Кипре , в Грузии и других общинах Кавказского региона, а также в общинах Сибири, доходящих до Дальнего Востока России . Есть также небольшие общины в бывших византийских регионах в Африке , в Восточном Средиземноморье и на Ближнем Востоке , которые убывающих из - за вынужденной миграции обусловлен увеличением религиозных преследований в последние годы. [19] [20] Восточно-православные общины также присутствуют во многих других частях мира, сформированные благодаря диаспоре , обращению в христианство и миссионерской деятельности.
Название и характеристики
В соответствии с учением церкви об универсальности и Никейским символом веры, восточно-православные авторитеты, такие как Святой Рафаил Бруклинский , настаивали на том, чтобы полное название церкви всегда включало термин « католическая », как в «Святая Православная Католическая Апостольская Церковь». . [21] [22] [23] Официальное название Восточной Православной церкви - «Православная католическая церковь». [7] [8] [9] [10] Это имя, под которым церковь называет себя в своих литургических или канонических текстах, [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30 ] ] [31] в официальных публикациях, [32] [33] и в официальных контекстах или административных документах. [34] [35] Православные учителя называют церковь католической. [36] [37] Это имя и более длинные варианты, содержащие слово «католик», также признаются и упоминаются в других книгах и публикациях светскими или неправославными писателями. [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43]
Общее название церкви «Восточная Православная Церковь» - это сокращенное практичное слово, которое помогает избежать путаницы при случайном использовании. С древних времен до первого тысячелетия греческий язык был наиболее распространенным общим языком в демографических регионах, где процветала Византийская империя , а греческий, будучи языком, на котором был написан Новый Завет , был основным литургическим языком церкви. По этой причине восточные церкви иногда назывались «греческими» (в отличие от «римских» или «латинских» церквей, которые использовали латинский перевод Библии) даже до Великого раскола 1054 года. После 1054 года » Греческий православный »или« греко-католический »обозначал церковь как находящуюся в общении с Константинополем, так же как« католическая »относилась к общению с Римом. Однако это отождествление с греческим со временем становилось все более запутанным. Миссионеры принесли восточное православие во многие регионы, где не было этнических греков, где не говорили на греческом языке. Кроме того, борьба между Римом и Константинополем за контроль над частями Юго-Восточной Европы привела к преобразованию некоторых церквей в Рим, который затем также использовал слово «греко-католический», чтобы указать на продолжающееся использование византийских обрядов. Сегодня многие из тех же церквей остались, в то время как очень большое количество православных не имеют греческого национального происхождения и не используют греческий язык в качестве языка поклонения. [44] Таким образом, «восточный» указывает на географический элемент в зарождении и развитии Церкви, в то время как «православный» указывает на веру, а также на общение со Вселенским Патриархатом Константинополя. [45] Есть и другие христианские церкви на востоке, которые не находятся в общении ни с Римом, ни с Константинополем, которые, как правило, выделяются категорией под названием «Восточные православные». Хотя церковь продолжает официально называть себя «католической», из соображений универсальности общее название «Восточная православная церковь» позволяет избежать случайного смешения с Римско-католической церковью.
Православие
Первое известное употребление фразы «католическая церковь» ( он же katholike ekklesia ) произошло в письме, написанном около 110 г. н.э. от одной греческой церкви к другой ( Святой Игнатий Антиохийский к смирнецам ). В письме говорится: «Куда бы ни явился епископ, пусть будет народ, даже где бы ни был Иисус, там вселенская [католическая] Церковь». [46] Таким образом, почти с самого начала христиане называли христианскую Церковь «единой, святой, католической (от греч. Καθολική,« согласно целому, вселенской » [47] ) и апостольской церковью». [17] Восточная Православная Церковь утверждает, что сегодня она является продолжением и сохранением той же самой ранней церкви.
Ряд других христианских церквей также заявляют о том же: Римско- католическая церковь , Англиканская община , Ассирийская церковь и Восточные православные . Согласно восточно-православным взглядам, ассирийцы и жители Востока покинули Православную Церковь в годы после Третьего Вселенского Эфесского Собора (431 г.) и Четвертого Вселенского Халкидонского Собора (451 г.), соответственно, в своем отказе принять христологические определения этих соборов. . Точно так же церкви в Риме и Константинополе разделились в результате события, известного как раскол между Востоком и Западом , который традиционно датируется 1054 годом, хотя это был скорее постепенный процесс, чем внезапный разрыв. Церковь Англии отделены от католической церкви, а не непосредственно из Восточной Православной Церкви, в первый раз в 1530 году (и, после краткого воссоединения в 1555 году, опять же, наконец , в 1558 году). Таким образом, хотя оно было объединено с Православием, когда оно было основано трудами святого Августина Кентерберийского в начале VII века, его отделение от Восточного Православия произошло косвенно через Римский престол .
Для всех этих церквей претензия на соборность (универсальность, единство с древней церковью) важна по множеству доктринальных причин, которые имеют большее значение внутри каждой церкви, чем в их отношении к другим, теперь разделенным в вере. Смысл держаться за истинную веру является основной причиной того, почему чье-либо заявление о том, какая церковь отделилась от другой, имеет какое-либо значение; проблемы доходят до расколов. Глубина этого значения в Восточной Православной церкви прежде всего зафиксирована в использовании самого слова « православный », союза греческих ортосов («прямой», «правильный», «истинный», «правильный») и докса (« общая вера », от древнего глагола δοκέω-δοκῶ, что переводится как« верить »,« думать »,« рассматривать »,« воображать »,« предполагать »). [48]
Двойное значение doxa , «слава» или «прославление» (Бога Церковью и Церкви Богом), особенно в богослужении, дает пару «правильная вера» и «истинное поклонение». Вместе они выражают суть фундаментального учения о нераздельности веры и поклонения и их роли в сближении церкви со Христом. [49] [50] болгарский и все славянские церкви использовать название Православие ( кириллица : Православие), что означает «правильность прославления», чтобы обозначить то , что в английском языке православия , а грузины используют название Martlmadidebeli . Несколько других церквей в Европе , Азии и Африке также стали использовать православие в своих названиях, но все еще отличаются от Восточной православной церкви, как описано в этой статье.
Термин «Восточная Церковь» (географический восток в расколе Восток-Запад) использовался, чтобы отличить ее от западного христианского мира (географический Запад, который сначала стал обозначать католическую общину, а затем также различные протестантские и англиканские ветви) . «Восточная» используется для обозначения того, что самая высокая концентрация присутствия Восточной Православной церкви остается в восточной части христианского мира, хотя она растет во всем мире. Православные христиане во всем мире используют различные этнические или национальные юрисдикционные титулы, или, в более широком смысле, титул «восточно-православный», «православный католик» или просто «православный». [45]
Православных христиан объединяет католическая вера, воплощенная в священном предании . Эта вера наиболее фундаментально выражается в Священных Писаниях и богослужении [51], а последнее наиболее существенно в крещении и в Божественной литургии . [52] Православные христиане провозглашают, что вера живет и дышит энергиями Бога в общении с церковью. Взаимосвязь - это лакмусовая бумажка, по которой все могут увидеть, что две церкви разделяют одну и ту же веру; Отсутствие взаимного общения (отлучение от церкви, буквально «вне общения») является признаком различных верований, хотя некоторые центральные богословские вопросы могут быть общими. Разделение верований может иметь большое значение, но, по мнению православных, это не полная мера веры.
Однако границы даже этого теста могут размыться, когда возникают разногласия не из-за доктрины, а из-за признания юрисдикции. По мере того как Восточная Православная Церковь распространилась на Запад и по всему миру, церкви в целом еще предстоит разобраться со всеми межведомственными проблемами, возникшими в ходе расширения, что оставляет некоторые области сомнений в том, что такое надлежащее церковное управление. [53] И, как и в случае с древними церковными гонениями, последствия гонений на христиан в коммунистических странах оставили после себя как некоторые вопросы управления, так и некоторые вопросы веры, которые еще предстоит полностью решить. [54]
Все члены Восточной православной церкви исповедуют одну и ту же веру, независимо от расы или национальности, юрисдикции, местных обычаев или возраста рождения. Священная традиция включает в себя понимание и средства, с помощью которых единство веры передается через границы времени, географии и культуры. Это преемственность, существующая лишь постольку, поскольку она живет внутри самих христиан. [55] Это не статичность и не соблюдение правил, а скорее обмен наблюдениями, которые происходят как изнутри, так и в соответствии с другими, даже с теми, кто жил давно прошлыми жизнями. Церковь провозглашает, что Святой Дух поддерживает единство и последовательность святой традиции, чтобы сохранить целостность веры в церкви, как это дано в библейских обетованиях. [56]
Общие верования Православия и его богословие существуют в рамках священного предания и не могут быть отделены от него, поскольку их значение не выражается одними лишь словами. [57] Доктрину нельзя понять, если за нее не молиться. [58] Доктрину также нужно прожить, чтобы молиться, потому что без действия молитва будет праздной и пустой, просто тщеславием и, следовательно, богословием демонов. [59] Согласно этим учениям древней церкви, никакая поверхностная вера не может быть ортодоксальной . Точно так же примирение и единство не являются поверхностными, это происходит с молитвой и продолжением жизни.
Католицизм
Восточная Православная Церковь считает себя одновременно ортодоксальной и католической. Доктрина католицизма Церкви , вытекающая из Никейского символа веры , имеет важное значение для восточно-православной экклезиологии . Термин « Атоличность Церкви» ( греч. Καθολικότης τῆς Ἐκκλησίας ) используется в своем первоначальном значении как обозначение универсальности христианской церкви, сосредоточенной вокруг Христа. Следовательно, восточно-православное понятие кафоличности не сосредоточено вокруг какого-то единственного престола, в отличие от католической церкви, имеющей один земной центр.
Из-за влияния католической церкви на западе, где развился сам английский язык , слова «католический» и «кафоличность» иногда используются специально для обозначения этой церкви. Тем не менее, более выраженный словарный смысл, данный для общего использования, по-прежнему разделяется другими языками, подразумевая широту и универсальность, отражая всеобъемлющий охват. [60] В христианском контексте христианская церковь, отождествляемая с первоначальной церковью, основанной Христом и его апостолами, считается католической (или вселенской) в отношении ее единства с Христом в вере. Как Христос неделим, так и единство с Ним и вера в Него, посредством чего христианская Церковь является «универсальной», неотделимой и всеобъемлющей, включая всех, кто разделяет эту веру. Православный епископ Каллистос Вар назвал это «простым христианством». [61] Это смысл раннего и святоотеческого использования, в котором церковь обычно называет себя «католической церковью» [62] [63], чья вера является «православной верой». Это также смысл во фразе «единая святая, католическая и апостольская Церковь», найденной в Никейском символе веры и упоминаемой в православном богослужении, например, в ектении оглашенных в Божественной литургии.
После взаимного отлучения от церкви в результате раскола между Востоком и Западом в 1054 году церкви в Риме и Константинополе рассматривали друг друга как отошедшие от истинной церкви , оставив небольшую, но все еще католическую церковь. Каждая из них сохранила «католическую» часть своего названия, « Римско- католическая церковь» (или католическая церковь) с одной стороны и « Православная католическая церковь» с другой, каждая из которых была определена с точки зрения взаимодействия с либо Рим, либо Константинополь. В то время как Восточная Православная Церковь признает то, что у нее есть общего с другими церквями, включая Католическую церковь, она видит соборность в терминах полного единства в общении и вере с Церковью во все времена, и разделение остается неполным, если не разделяется полностью.
Организация и руководство
Религиозным авторитетом восточного православия является не патриарх или епископ Рима, как в католицизме, или Библия, как в протестантизме , а священные писания в интерпретации семи экуменических соборов имперской Римской церкви . Восточная Православная Церковь - это сообщество « автокефальных » (греч. « Самовлюбленных ») церквей, при этом вселенский патриарх Константинополя является единственным автокефальным главой , имеющим титул primus inter pares , что на латыни означает «первый среди равных». Константинопольский патриарх имеет честь первенства, но его титул является только первым среди равных и не имеет реальной власти над церквями, кроме Константинопольского, и устанавливает прерогативы, интерпретируемые вселенским патриархом, [64] [65] [66] [67 ] ] хотя иногда офис вселенского патриарха обвиняли в константинопольском или восточном папизме. [68] [69] [70] Восточная Православная Церковь считает Иисуса Христа главой церкви, а церковь - Его телом. Считается, что власть и благодать Божья напрямую передаются православным епископам и духовенству через возложение рук - практика, начатая апостолами , и что эта непрерывная историческая и физическая связь является важным элементом истинной Церкви ( Деяния 8:17, 1 Тим. 4:14, Евр. 6: 2). Восточные православные утверждают, что апостольское преемство требует апостольской веры, а епископы без апостольской веры, пребывающие в ереси , теряют свои права на апостольское преемство. [71]
Восточно-православная община состоит из нескольких региональных церквей, которые являются либо автокефальными («самовлюбленными»), либо низшими автономными (греческий термин «самоуправляющиеся») церковными органами, объединенными в богословии и богослужении. К ним относятся четырнадцать автокефальных церквей Константинополя , Александрии , Антиохии , Иерусалима , Грузии , Кипра , Болгарии , Сербии , России , Греции , Польши , Румынии , Албании , Чехии и Словакии , которые были официально приглашены на Всеправославный собор. 2016, [72] Православная Церковь в Америке формируется в 1970 году автокефальная православная церковь Украины создана в 2019 году, а также ряд автономных церквей. [64] В каждой церкви есть правящий епископ и священный синод, которые управляют ее юрисдикцией и руководят Восточной Православной Церковью в сохранении и обучении апостольских и святоотеческих традиций и церковных обычаев.
У каждого епископа есть территория ( см. ), Которой он управляет. [65] Его главная обязанность - обеспечить сохранение традиций и обычаев Восточной Православной церкви. Епископы имеют равную власть и не могут вмешиваться в юрисдикцию другого епископа. В административном отношении , эти епископы и их территория , организованы в различные автокефальные группы или синоды из епископов , которые собираются вместе , по крайней мере два раза в году , чтобы обсудить положение дел в пределах их соответствующие видит. В то время как епископы и их автокефальные синоды имеют возможность руководить в отдельных случаях, их действия обычно не создают прецедентов, влияющих на всю Восточную Православную Церковь. Епископы почти всегда выбираются из монашеских рядов и должны оставаться холостыми.
Церковные советы
Неоднократно возникали альтернативные богословские идеи, бросающие вызов православной вере. В такие моменты православная община считала необходимым созвать общий или «великий» собор всех имеющихся епископов мира. Восточная православная церковь считает, что семь вселенских соборов , проведенных между 4 и 8 веками, являются авторитетными.
Вселенские соборы следовали демократической форме, при этом каждый епископ имел один голос. Хотя настоящее и разрешено выступать перед советом, члены Императорского римского / Византийского двора, аббатов, священников, диаконов, монахов и мирян , не были допущены к голосованию. Основная цель этих великих соборов состояла в том, чтобы проверить и подтвердить фундаментальные убеждения Великой христианской церкви как истину и удалить как ересь любые ложные учения, которые могли бы угрожать христианской церкви. Папа Римский в это время занимал должность первого среди равных ( «первым среди равных») и, в то время как он не присутствовал на любой из советов, он продолжал держать этот титул до тех пор , Восток-Запад схизмы 1054 [ 73] [74] [75] [76]
Другие советы помогли определить Восточную православную позицию, в частности трулльского собора , Синоды Константинополя , 879-880 , 1341, 1347, 1351 , 1583, 1819 и 1872 г. , в Синоде Яссы , 1642, и Всеправославная Синод Иерусалима , 1672 г .; Всеправославный Совет провел в Греции в 2016 году, был только такой Восточный ортодокс совет в наше время.
Согласно восточно-православному учению, положение «первый среди равных» не дает никаких дополнительных полномочий или полномочий епископу, который его держит, а скорее то, что этот человек сидит в качестве организационного главы совета равных (как президент). [77] Его слова и мнения несут не больше проницательности или мудрости, чем любой другой епископ. Считается, что Святой Дух ведет Восточную Православную Церковь через решения всего Собора, а не одного человека. Кроме того, понимается, что даже решения Собора должны быть приняты всей Православной Церковью, чтобы они были действительными.
Одним из решений, принятых Первым Константинопольским собором (второй Вселенский собор, собравшийся в 381 г.) и поддержанного более поздними такими соборами, было то, что Константинопольский Патриарх должен быть удостоен равной чести с Папой Римским, поскольку Константинополь считался Римским Патриархом. « Новый Рим ». Согласно третьему канону второго Вселенского собора: «Поскольку [Константинополь] - это новый Рим, епископ Константинополя должен пользоваться привилегиями чести после епископа Рима». [78] Это означает, что оба пользуются одинаковыми привилегиями, потому что они оба являются епископами имперских столиц, но епископ Рима будет предшествовать епископу Константинополя, поскольку Старый Рим предшествует Новому Риму.
28-й канон четвертого Вселенского собора прояснил этот момент, заявив: «Ибо отцы справедливо предоставили привилегии престолу Старого Рима, потому что это был царский город. И сто пятьдесят самых религиозных епископов (т.е. второй Вселенский собор в 381), руководствуясь тем же соображением, предоставил равные привилегии Святейшему престолу Нового Рима, справедливо рассудив, что город, который удостоен суверенитета и сената и пользуется равными привилегиями со старым имперским Римом, должен также и в церковных делах. быть увеличенным, как она есть ". [79]
Из-за раскола православные больше не признают примат римского папы. Таким образом, Константинопольский патриарх, как и предшествовавший ему Папа, теперь имеет титул «первого среди равных».
Приверженцы
Политика, войны, преследования, притеснения и связанные с ними потенциальные угрозы [80] могут затруднить точный подсчет православного членства в лучшем случае в некоторых регионах. Исторически сложилось так, что принудительная миграция также меняла демографию за относительно короткие периоды времени. Согласно наиболее надежным оценкам, число приверженцев православия составляет около 220 миллионов во всем мире [6], что делает восточное православие вторым по величине христианским сообществом в мире после католической церкви [81] (многочисленные протестантские группы в мире, если брать их все вместе, значительно превосходят числом восточно-православных [82], но они богословски различаются и не образуют единой общины). [81]
Согласно Ежегоднику международной религиозной демографии за 2015 год, православное население Восточной Европы в 2010 году сократилось до 4% от мирового населения с 7,1% мирового населения в 1910 году. процентное соотношение составляло 12,2% и 20,4% соответственно. [83] Исследование, проведенное в 2017 году исследовательским центром Pew Research Center, показало аналогичные цифры, отметив, что восточное православие пережило гораздо меньший рост и географическое распространение, чем католицизм и протестантизм, которые в значительной степени определялись колониализмом и миссионерской деятельностью. [84]
Большинство членов сегодня сосредоточено в Южной Европе , Восточной Европе и азиатской России , помимо значительных меньшинств в Центральной Азии и Леванте ; тем не менее, восточное православие стало более глобальной религией за последнее столетие, наблюдая больший рост в Западной Европе , Америке и некоторых частях Африки, с церквями в большинстве стран и крупных городов. Приверженцы составляют самую большую единую религиозную общину в России [85] [b], где проживает примерно половина православных христиан. Православное христианство является основной религией в Украине , [87] [88] Румынии , [87] Беларуси , [89] Греции , [c] [87] Сербии , [87] Болгарии , [87] Молдове , [87] Грузии , [87] Северная Македония , [87] Кипр , [87] и Черногория ; [87] они также доминируют на спорных территориях Абхазии , Южной Осетии и Приднестровья . Значительные меньшинства православных проживают в Боснии и Герцеговине (абсолютное большинство в Республике Сербской ), [87] Латвии , [90] Эстонии , [91] Казахстане , [92] Кыргызстане , [93] Ливане , [94] Албании , Сирии. , [87] и многие другие страны.
Православие является наиболее быстрорастущей религией в некоторых западных странах, в основном из-за трудовой миграции из Восточной Европы и, в меньшей степени, обращения в христианство, хотя православие не является «центральным маркером идентичности меньшинства» для мигрантов. [95] В период с 2006 по 2011 год в Ирландии увеличилось вдвое православное население, [95] [96] [97], в то время как в семи западноевропейских странах насчитывается более 100 000 общин, по сравнению с менее чем 1000-4000 за столетие до этого; из них наибольшее население составляет Германия - 1,1 миллиона человек, за ней следует Испания, у которой в 1910 году было менее 1000 сторонников, но сейчас их насчитывается 900 000.
В Северной и Южной Америке в четырех странах проживает более 100 000 православных христиан: в Канаде, Мексике, Бразилии и США, причем у всех, кроме последних, на рубеже 20-го века было менее 20 000 человек. [98] В США количество православных приходов растет, [99] [d] [e], и община увеличилась более чем в четыре раза с 1910 года, с 460 000 до 1,8 миллиона по состоянию на 2017 год. [103] Кения и Австралия также входит в число стран с самым быстрым и большим ростом православия; в первом случае большую роль играет прозелитизм, а не иммиграция.
Доля христиан в Турции , которая когда-то была одной из самых больших общин, упала с 19 процентов в 1914 году до 2,5 процентов в 1927 году; [104] это было в основном из-за преследований, включая геноцид против армянской , греческой , ассирийской общин и последующего обмена населением между Грецией и Турцией [105] и Болгарией и Турцией, а также связанной с этим эмиграцией христиан в зарубежные страны (в основном в Европу). и Америка ). [106] Сегодня насчитывается более 160 000 человек (около 0,2%) различных христианских конфессий . [87]
Богословие
Троица
Православные христиане верят в Троицу , трех различных божественных лиц ( ипостасей ), без пересечения или модальности между ними, каждая из которых имеет одну божественную сущность ( ousia греч. Οὐσία) - несотворенную, нематериальную и вечную . [107] Эти три человека обычно различаются своим отношением друг к другу. Отец вечен и не рожденные и не исходит из каких - либо, то Сын вечен и рожденного от Отца, а Святой Дух вечен и исходит от Отца. Православное учение о Троице резюмируется в Никейском символе веры . [108]
Обсуждая отношения Бога к Его творению, православное богословие проводит различие между вечной сущностью Бога, которая полностью трансцендентна, и его несотворенными энергиями , которыми он достигает человечества. Бог трансцендентный и Бог, касающийся людей, - одно и то же. То есть эти энергии не являются чем-то, что исходит от Бога или что Бог производит, но, скорее, они являются Самим Богом: отличными, но неотделимыми от внутреннего существа Бога. [109]
При понимании Троицы как «одного Бога в трех лицах», «три личности» не следует выделять больше, чем «один Бог», и наоборот. Хотя эти три личности различны, они объединены в одну божественную сущность, и их единство выражается в общности и действии настолько полно, что их нельзя рассматривать по отдельности. Например, их спасение человечества - это совместная деятельность: «Христос стал человеком по доброй воле Отца и благодаря сотрудничеству Святого Духа. Христос посылает Святого Духа, который исходит от Отца, а Святой Дух формирует Христос в наших сердцах, и таким образом прославляется Бог Отец ». Их «общность сущностей» «неделима». Терминология троицы - сущность, ипостась и т. Д. - используется «философски», «чтобы ответить на идеи еретиков» и «поставить термины, разделяющие заблуждение и истину». [110] Слова делают то, что они могут делать, но считается, что природа Троицы во всей ее полноте остается за пределами человеческого понимания и выражения, это святая тайна, которую можно только испытать.
Грех, спасение и воплощение
Согласно восточно-православной вере, в какой-то момент на заре человеческого существования человечество столкнулось с выбором: познать разницу между добром и злом посредством наблюдения или участия. Библейская история Адама и Евы повествует об этом выборе человечества участвовать во зле, совершенном через неповиновение Божьему повелению. И намерение, и действие были отделены от воли Бога; именно это разделение определяет и отмечает любую операцию как грех. Отделение от Бога привело к потере (падению) Его благодати, отделению человечества от его создателя и источника его жизни. Конечным результатом было ослабление человеческой натуры и ее подчинение смерти и тлению, событие, обычно называемое «падением человека».
Когда православные христиане говорят о падшей природе, они не говорят, что человеческая природа стала злой сама по себе. Человеческая природа все еще сформирована по образу Бога; люди по-прежнему являются творением Бога, и Бог никогда не создавал ничего злого, но падшая природа остается открытой для злых намерений и действий. Среди православных иногда говорят, что люди «склонны грешить»; то есть люди находят привлекательными некоторые греховные поступки. По своей природе искушение заставляет греховные вещи казаться более привлекательными, и падшая природа людей стремится к этому влечению или уступает ему. Православные христиане отвергают позицию августинцев , согласно которой потомки Адама и Евы действительно виновны в первородном грехе своих предков. [111] Но точно так же, как любой вид порождает себе подобных, падшие люди порождают падших людей, и с самого начала существования человечества люди открыты для греха по своему собственному выбору.
Таким образом, после грехопадения человечество столкнулось с дилеммой, заключающейся в том, что ни один человек не может восстановить свою природу для союза с Божьей благодатью; Богу было необходимо произвести еще одно изменение в человеческой природе. Православные христиане верят, что Христос Иисус был Богом и Человеком полностью и полностью, имея две неделимые природы: вечно рожденный от Отца в его божественности, он родился в своей человечности от женщины, Марии, по ее согласию, через сошествие Святых. Дух. Он жил на земле во времени и в истории как человек. Как человек, он также умер и пошел в место мертвых, то есть в Аид . Но, будучи Богом, ни смерть, ни Аид не могли сдержать его, и он воскрес к жизни снова, в своей человечности, силой Святого Духа, тем самым разрушив силу Аида и самой смерти. [112] Благодаря Божьему участию в человечестве человеческая природа Христа, усовершенствованная и объединенная с Его божественной природой, вознеслась на небеса, чтобы царствовать там в общении с Отцом и Святым Духом.
Этими действиями спасения Христос предоставил падшему человечеству путь, чтобы избежать его падшей природы. Восточная Православная Церковь учит, что через крещение в смерть Христа и смерть человека для греха в покаянии с Божьей помощью человечество также может подняться со Христом на небо, исцелившись от разлома падшей природы человека и восстановлено в Божьей благодати. Для православных христиан этот процесс и есть то, что понимается под «спасением», которое состоит из христианской жизни. Конечная цель - это теозис , еще более тесный союз с Богом и более близкое подобие Богу, чем существовало в Эдемском саду . Этот процесс называется обожествлением или «Бог стал человеком, чтобы человек стал« богом »». Однако следует подчеркнуть, что православные христиане не верят, что человек становится Богом по своей сути или богом по своей природе. Точнее, спасительная работа Христа позволяет человеку в его человеческой природе стать «причастниками Божественной природы» (2 Петра 1: 4); то есть человек соединен с Богом во Христе.
Через уничтожение Христом силы Аида держать человечество в заложниках, он сделал путь к спасению эффективным для всех праведников, умерших от начала времен, спасая многих, включая Адама и Еву, которых Церковь помнит как святых. [113]
Восточные православные отвергают идею о том, что Христос умер, чтобы доставить Богу «удовлетворение», как учил Ансельм , или как наказание, как учили реформаторы. Грех (разлука с Богом, который является источником всей жизни) - это собственное наказание, способное заключить душу в тюрьму в существовании без жизни, без чего-либо хорошего и без надежды: ад по любой мере. Жизнь на Земле - это дар Бога, чтобы дать человечеству возможность сделать свой выбор реальным: разделение или союз. [ необходима цитата ]
Воскресение Христа
Восточная Православная Церковь понимает смерть и воскресение Иисуса как реальные исторические события, описанные в Евангелиях Нового Завета . Согласно православному учению, Иисус Христос, Сын Божий, в своей человеческой природе (то есть в истории) был распят и умер, спустившись в ад ( шеол ), место мертвых, как и все люди. . Но он, единственный среди людей, имеет две природы, одну человеческую, одну божественную, которые неделимы и неотделимы друг от друга через тайну воплощения . Аид не мог сдержать бесконечного Бога. Христос в своей божественной природе захватил ключи от ада и разорвал оковы, сковавшие человеческие души, удерживавшиеся там из-за их отделения от Бога.
Также смерть не могла вместить Сына Божьего, Источника Жизни, который возник из смерти даже в своей человеческой природе. Более того, он открыл врата ада для всех умерших праведников прошлых веков, спасая их от падшей человеческой природы и возвращая их к природе благодати с Богом, возвращая их к жизни, на этот раз в небесном царстве Бога. . И этот путь он открыл для всех, кто решит следовать за ним в будущем, тем самым спасая человечество. Таким образом, восточные православные провозглашают каждый год во время Пасхи ( Пасхи ), что Христос «попирал смерть смертью и тем, кто в гробницах, даровал жизнь».
Празднование Воскресения Христова на Пасху - центральное событие литургического года Восточной Православной Церкви. Согласно православной традиции, каждый человек может приобщиться к этому бессмертию, что было бы невозможно без Воскресения; это главное обещание, данное Богом в Новом Завете . Каждый священный день восточно-православного литургического года прямо или косвенно связан с Воскресением. Каждое воскресенье специально посвящено празднованию Воскресения и Триединого Бога, представляющего мини-Пасху. В литургических поминовениях Страстей Христовых во время Страстной недели часто упоминается окончательная победа по ее завершению.
Христианская жизнь
Церковное учение состоит в том, что православные христиане через крещение вступают в новую жизнь спасения через покаяние, цель которого - участвовать в жизни Бога через работу Святого Духа. Жизнь Восточной православной духовное паломничество , в котором каждый человек, через подражание Христу и исихазма , [114] культивирует практику непрестанной молитвы. Каждая жизнь происходит в жизни церкви как члена тела Христова . [115] Именно тогда через огонь Божьей любви в действии Святого Духа каждый член становится более святым, более целиком объединенным со Христом, начиная с этой жизни и продолжая в следующей. [116] [117] Церковь учит, что каждый, рожденный по образу Божьему, призван к обожествлению , исполнению образа по подобию Богу. Бог-творец, обладающий божественностью по своей природе, предлагает каждому человеку приобщиться к божественности, сообща приняв Его дар благодати. [118]
Восточная Православная Церковь, понимая себя как Тело Христово, а также понимая христианскую жизнь, ведущую к объединению во Христе всех членов Его тела, рассматривает церковь как охватывающую всех членов Христа, живущих сейчас на Земле. , а также всех тех, кто на протяжении веков перешел к небесной жизни. В состав церкви входят христианские святые всех времен, а также судьи, пророки и праведные евреи первого завета, Адам и Ева, даже ангелы и небесные воинства. [119] В православных службах земные члены вместе с небесными членами поклоняются Богу как одно сообщество во Христе, в союзе, превосходящем время и пространство и соединяющем небо с землей. Это единство Церкви иногда называют общением святых . [120]
Дева Мария и другие святые
Восточная православная церковь считает смерть и разделение души и тела неестественными - результатом грехопадения человека . Они также считают, что прихожане церкви состоят как из живых, так и из мертвых. Все люди, пребывающие в настоящее время на небесах, считаются святыми , независимо от того, известны их имена или нет. Однако есть такие выдающиеся святые, которых Бог показал как особенно хорошие примеры. Когда святой открывается и в конечном итоге признается значительной частью церкви, совершается служба официального признания ( прославления ).
Это не «делает» человека святым; он просто признает факт и объявляет об этом остальной церкви. Устанавливается день чествования святого, сочиняются гимны и создаются иконы. Каждый день в году празднуют множество святых. Их почитают (проявляют большое уважение и любовь), но не поклоняются, поскольку поклонение принадлежит только Богу (этого взгляда также придерживаются Восточная Православная и Католическая церкви ). Показывая святым эту любовь и прося их молитв, восточные православные выражают свою веру в то, что святые таким образом помогают в процессе спасения других.
Среди святых выделяется Дева Мария (обычно именуемая Богородицей или Богородицей ) (« Богородица »). В православном богословии Богородица - это исполнение ветхозаветных архетипов, явленных в Ковчеге Завета (потому что она несла Новый Завет в лице Христа) и в горящем кусте , явившемся перед Моисеем (символизирующим Богородицу. ношение Бога без поглощения). [121] Соответственно, восточные православные считают Марию Ковчегом Нового Завета и оказывают ей уважение и почтение как таковые. Богородица в православном учении была избрана Богом, и она свободно участвовала в этом выборе, чтобы стать Матерью Иисуса Христа, Богочеловеком.
The Eastern Orthodox believe that Christ, from the moment of his conception, was both fully God and fully human. Mary is thus called the Theotokos or Bogoroditsa as an affirmation of the divinity of the one to whom she gave birth. It is also believed that her virginity was not compromised in conceiving God-incarnate, that she was not harmed and that she remained forever a virgin. Scriptural references to "brothers" of Christ are interpreted as kin, given that the word "brother" was used in multiple ways, as was the term "father". Due to her unique place in salvation history, Mary is honoured above all other saints and especially venerated for the great work that God accomplished through her.[122]
The Eastern Orthodox Church regards the bodies of all saints as holy, made such by participation in the holy mysteries, especially the communion of Christ's holy body and blood, and by the indwelling of the Holy Spirit within the church. Indeed, that persons and physical things can be made holy is a cornerstone of the doctrine of the Incarnation, made manifest also directly by God in Old Testament times through his dwelling in the Ark of the Covenant. Thus, physical items connected with saints are also regarded as holy, through their participation in the earthly works of those saints. According to church teaching and tradition, God himself bears witness to this holiness of saints' relics through the many miracles connected with them that have been reported throughout history since Biblical times, often including healing from disease and injury.[123]
Eschatology
Orthodox Christians believe that when a person dies the soul is temporarily separated from the body. Though it may linger for a short period on Earth, it is ultimately escorted either to paradise (Abraham's bosom) or the darkness of Hades, following the Temporary Judgment. Orthodox do not accept the doctrine of Purgatory, which is held by Catholicism. The soul's experience of either of these states is only a "foretaste"—being experienced only by the soul—until the Final Judgment, when the soul and body will be reunited.[124][125]
The Eastern Orthodox believe that the state of the soul in Hades can be affected by the love and prayers of the righteous up until the Last Judgment.[126] For this reason the Church offers a special prayer for the dead on the third day, ninth day, fortieth day, and the one-year anniversary after the death of an Orthodox Christian. There are also several days throughout the year that are set aside for general commemoration of the departed, sometimes including nonbelievers. These days usually fall on a Saturday, since it was on a Saturday that Christ lay in the Tomb.[125]
While the Eastern Orthodox consider the text of the Apocalypse (Book of Revelation) to be a part of Scripture, it is also regarded to be a holy mystery. Speculation on the contents of Revelation are minimal and it is never read as part of the regular order of services.[citation needed] Those theologians who have delved into its pages tend to be amillennialist in their eschatology, believing that the "thousand years" spoken of in biblical prophecy refers to the present time: from the Crucifixion of Christ until the Second Coming.
While it is not usually taught in church it is often used as a reminder of God's promise to those who love him, and of the benefits of avoiding sinful passions. Iconographic depictions of the Final Judgment are often portrayed on the back (western) wall of the church building to remind the departing faithful to be vigilant in their struggle against sin. Likewise it is often painted on the walls of the Trapeza (refectory) in a monastery where monks may be inspired to sobriety and detachment from worldly things while they eat.
The Eastern Orthodox believe that Hell, though often described in metaphor as punishment inflicted by God, is in reality the soul's rejection of God's infinite love which is offered freely and abundantly to everyone.
The Eastern Orthodox believe that after the Final Judgment:
- All souls will be reunited with their resurrected bodies.
- All souls will fully experience their spiritual state.
- Having been perfected, the saints will forever progress towards a deeper and fuller love of God, which equates with eternal happiness.[125]
Bible
The official Bible of the Eastern Orthodox Church contains the Septuagint text of the Old Testament, with the Book of Daniel given in the translation by Theodotion. The Patriarchal Text is used for the New Testament.[127][128] Orthodox Christians hold that the Bible is a verbal icon of Christ, as proclaimed by the 7th ecumenical council.[129] They refer to the Bible as holy scripture, meaning writings containing the foundational truths of the Christian faith as revealed by Christ and the Holy Spirit to its divinely inspired human authors. Holy scripture forms the primary and authoritative written witness of holy tradition and is essential as the basis for all Orthodox teaching and belief.[130] The Bible provides the only texts held to be suitable for reading in Orthodox worship services. Through the many scriptural quotations embedded in the worship service texts themselves, it is often said that the Eastern Orthodox pray the Bible as well as read it.
St. Jerome completed the well-known Vulgate Latin translation only in the early 5th century, around the time the accepted lists of scripture were resolved in the west. The east took up to a century longer to resolve the lists in use there, and ended by accepting a few additional writings from the Septuagint that did not appear in the lists of the west. The differences were small and were not considered to compromise the unity of the faith shared between east and west. They did not play a role in the eventual schism in the 11th century that separated the See of Rome and the West from the See of Constantinople and the other apostolic Orthodox churches, and remained as defined essentially without controversy in the East or West for at least one thousand years. It was only in the 16th century that Reformation Protestants challenged the lists, proclaiming a canon that rejected those Old Testament books that did not appear in the 3rd-century Hebrew Bible. In response, the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches reaffirmed their accepted scriptural lists in more formal canons of their own.
Once established as holy scripture, there has never been any question that the Eastern Orthodox Church holds the full list of books to be venerable and beneficial for reading and study,[131] even though it informally holds some books in higher esteem than others, the four gospels highest of all. Of the subgroups significant enough to be named, the "Anagignoskomena" (ἀναγιγνωσκόμενα, "things that are read") comprises ten of the Old Testament books rejected in the Protestant canon,[132] but deemed by the Eastern Orthodox worthy to be read in worship services, even though they carry a lesser esteem than the 39 books of the Hebrew canon.[133] The lowest tier contains the remaining books not accepted by either Protestants or Catholics, among them, Psalm 151. Though it is a psalm, and is in the book of psalms, it is not classified as being within the Psalter (the first 150 psalms),[134] and hence does not participate in the various liturgical and prayer uses of the Psalter.
In a very strict sense, it is not entirely orthodox to call the holy scripture the "Word of God". That is a title the Eastern Orthodox Church reserves for Christ, as supported in the scriptures themselves, most explicitly in the first chapter of the gospel of John. God's Word is not hollow, like human words. "God said, 'let there be light'; and there was light."[135] This is the Word which spoke the universe into being, and resonates in creation without diminution throughout all history, a Word of divine power.
As much as the Eastern Orthodox Church reveres and depends on the scriptures, they cannot compare to the Word of God's manifest action. But the Eastern Orthodox do believe that the holy scriptures testify to God's manifest actions in history, and that through its divine inspiration God's Word is manifested both in the scriptures themselves and in the cooperative human participation that composed them. It is in that sense that the Eastern Orthodox refer to the scriptures as "God's Word".
The Eastern Orthodox Church does not subscribe to the Protestant doctrine of sola scriptura. The church has defined what Scripture is; it also interprets what its meaning is.[136] Christ promised: "When He, the Spirit of truth, has come, He will guide you into all truth".[137] The Holy Spirit, then, is the infallible guide for the church to the interpretation of Scripture. The church depends upon those saints who, by lives lived in imitation of Christ, achieving theosis, can serve as reliable witnesses to the Holy Spirit's guidance. Individual interpretation occurs within the church and is informed by the church. It is rational and reasoned, but is not arrived at only by means of deductive reasoning.
Scriptures are understood to contain historical fact, poetry, idiom, metaphor, simile, moral fable, parable, prophecy and wisdom literature, and each bears its own consideration in its interpretation. While divinely inspired, the text stills consists of words in human languages, arranged in humanly recognisable forms. The Eastern Orthodox Church does not oppose honest critical and historical study of the Bible.[138] In biblical interpretation, it does not use speculations, suggestive theories, or incomplete indications, not going beyond what is fully known.
Holy tradition and the patristic consensus
"That faith which has been believed everywhere, always, and by all", the faith taught by Jesus to the apostles, given life by the Holy Spirit at Pentecost, and passed down to future generations without additions and without subtractions, is known as holy tradition.[139][140] Holy tradition does not change in the Eastern Orthodox Church because it encompasses those things that do not change: the nature of the one God in Trinity, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, the history of God's interactions with his peoples, the Law as given to the Israelites, all Christ's teaching as given to the disciples and Jews and recorded in scripture, including the parables, the prophecies, the miracles, and his own example to humanity in his extreme humility. It encompasses also the worship of the church, which grew out of the worship of the synagogue and temple and was extended by Christ at the last supper, and the relationship between God and his people which that worship expresses, which is also evidenced between Christ and his disciples. It includes the authority that Christ bestowed on his disciples when he made them apostles,[141] for the preserving and teaching of the faith, and for governing the organisation and conduct of the church (in its administration by bishops).
Holy tradition is firm, even unyielding, but not rigid or legalistic; instead, it lives and breathes within the church.[142] For example, the New Testament was entirely written by the early church (mostly the apostles). The whole Bible was accepted as scripture by means of holy tradition practised within the early church. The writing and acceptance took five centuries, by which time the holy scriptures themselves had become in their entirety a part of holy tradition.[143] But holy tradition did not change, because "that faith which has been believed everywhere, always, and by all" remained consistent, without additions, and without subtractions. The historical development of the Divine Liturgy and other worship services and devotional practices of the church provide a similar example of extension and growth "without change".[144]
The continuity and stability of Orthodox worship throughout the centuries is one means by which holy tradition expresses the unity of the whole church throughout time. Not only can the Eastern Orthodox of today visit a church in a place that speaks a language unknown to the visitors yet have the service remain familiar and understandable to them, but the same would hold true were any able to visit past eras. The church strives to preserve holy tradition "unchanging" that it may express the one unchanging faith for all time to come as well.
Besides these, holy tradition includes the doctrinal definitions and statements of faith of the seven ecumenical councils, including the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed, and some later local councils, patristic writings, canon law, and icons.[138] Not all portions of holy tradition are held to be equally strong. Some—the holy scriptures foremost, certain aspects of worship, especially in the Divine Liturgy, the doctrines of the ecumenical councils, the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed—possess a verified authority that endures forever, irrevocably.[138] However, with local councils and patristic writings, the church applies a selective judgement. Some councils and writers have occasionally fallen into error, and some contradict each other.[138]
In other cases, opinions differ, no consensus is forthcoming, and all are free to choose. With agreement among the Church Fathers, though, the authority of interpretation grows, and full patristic consensus is very strong. With canon law (which tends to be highly rigorous and very strict, especially with clergy) an unalterable validity also does not apply, since canons deal with living on earth, where conditions are always changing and each case is subject to almost infinite variation from the next.[138] Even when and where they were once used with full strictness, their application was not absolute, and was carried out for individuals under the pastoral care of their bishop, who had the authority to decide when individual discipline had been satisfied. This too is a part of the holy tradition.
By tradition, the Eastern Orthodox Church, when faced with issues that are larger than a single bishop can resolve, holds a local council. The bishops and such others as may attend convene (as St. Paul called the Corinthians to do) to seek the mind of the church.[145] A council's declarations or edicts then reflect its consensus (if one can be found). An ecumencial council is only called for issues of such import or difficulty or pervasiveness that smaller councils are insufficient to address them. Ecumenical councils' declarations and canons carry binding weight by virtue of their representation across the whole church, by which the mind of the church can be readily seen. However, not all issues are so difficult as to require an ecumenical council to resolve. Some doctrines or decisions, not defined in a formal statement or proclaimed officially, nevertheless are held by the church unshakably and unanimously without internal disturbance, and these, also reflecting the mind of the church, are just as firmly irrevocable as a formal declaration of an ecumenical council. Lack of formality does not imply lack of authority within holy tradition.[138] An example of such unanimity can be found in the acceptance in the 5th century of the lists of books that comprise holy scripture, a true canon without official stamp.
Territorial expansion and doctrinal integrity
During the course of the early church, there were numerous followers who attached themselves to the Christ and his mission here on Earth, as well as followers who retained the distinct duty of being commissioned with preserving the quality of life and lessons revealed through the experience of Jesus living, dying, resurrecting and ascending among them. As a matter of practical distinction and logistics, people of varying gifts were accorded stations within the community structure— ranging from the host of agape meals (shared with brotherly and fatherly love), to prophecy and the reading of Scripture, to preaching and interpretations and giving aid to the sick and the poor. Sometime after Pentecost the Church grew to a point where it was no longer possible for the Apostles to minister alone. Overseers (bishops)[146] and assistants (deacons and deaconesses)[147] were appointed to further the mission of the Church.
The church recognised the gathering of these early church communities as being greatest in areas of the known world that were famous for their significance on the world stage—either as hotbeds of intellectual discourse, high volumes of trade, or proximity to the original sacred sites. These locations were targeted by the early apostles, who recognised the need for humanitarian efforts in these large urban centers and sought to bring as many people as possible into the church—such a life was seen as a form of deliverance from the decadent lifestyles promoted throughout the eastern and western Roman empires.
As the church increased in size through the centuries, the logistic dynamics of operating such large entities shifted: patriarchs, metropolitans, archimandrites, abbots and abbesses, all rose up to cover certain points of administration.[148]
As a result of heightened exposure and popularity of the philosophical schools (haereseis) of Greco-Roman society and education, synods and councils were forced to engage such schools that sought to co-opt the language and pretext of the Christian faith in order to gain power and popularity for their own political and cultural expansion. As a result, ecumenical councils were held to attempt to rebuild solidarity by using the strength of distant orthodox witnesses to dampen the intense local effects of particular philosophical schools within a given area.
While originally intended to serve as an internal check and balance for the defense of the doctrine developed and spread by the apostles to the various sees against faulty local doctrine, at times the church found its own bishops and emperors falling prey to local conventions. At these crucial moments in the history of the church, it found itself able to rebuild on the basis of the faith as it was kept and maintained by monastic communities, who subsisted without reliance on the community of the state or popular culture and were generally unaffected by the materialism and rhetoric that often dominated and threatened the integrity and stability of the urban churches.
In this sense, the aim of the councils was not to expand or fuel a popular need for a clearer or relevant picture of the original apostolic teaching. Rather, the theologians spoke to address the issues of external schools of thought who wished to distort the simplicity and neutrality of the apostolic teaching for personal or political gain. The consistency of the Eastern Orthodox faith is entirely dependent on the holy tradition of the accepted corpus of belief–the decisions ratified by the fathers of the seven ecumenical councils, and this is only done at the beginning of a consecutive council so that the effects of the decisions of the prior council can be audited and verified as being both conceptually sound and pragmatically feasible and beneficial for the church as a whole.
Поклонение
Church calendar
One part of the autocephalous Orthodox churches follows the Julian calendar, while the other part follows the Revised Julian calendar. The autonomous Church of Finland of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, as well as parts of the Church of the Czech Lands and Slovakia, use the Gregorian calendar.[citation needed] Many church traditions, including the schedules of services, feasts, and fasts, are structured by the church's calendar, which provides a strictly observed intermingled set of cycles of varying lengths. The fixed annual cycle begins on 1 September and establishes the times for all annual observances that are fixed by date, such as Christmas. The annual Paschal cycle is established relative to the varying date of Pascha each year and affects the times for such observances as Pascha itself, Great Lent, Holy Week, and the feasts of Ascension and Pentecost.
Lesser cycles also run in tandem with the annual ones. A weekly cycle of days prescribes a specific focus for each day in addition to others that may be observed.[149]
Each day of the Weekly Cycle is dedicated to certain special memorials. Sunday is dedicated to Christ's Resurrection; Monday honors the holy bodiless powers (angels, archangels, etc.); Tuesday is dedicated to the prophets and especially the greatest of the prophets, St. John the Forerunner and Baptist of the Lord; Wednesday is consecrated to the Cross and recalls Judas' betrayal; Thursday honors the holy apostles and hierarchs, especially St. Nicholas, Bishop of Myra in Lycia; Friday is also consecrated to the Cross and recalls the day of the Crucifixion; Saturday is dedicated to All Saints, especially the Mother of God, and to the memory of all those who have departed this life in the hope of resurrection and eternal life.
Church services
The services of the church are conducted each day according to the church calendar. Parts of each service remain fixed, while others change depending on the observances prescribed for the specific day in the various cycles, ever providing a flow of constancy within variation. Services are conducted in the church and involve both the clergy and faithful. Services cannot properly be conducted by a single person, but must have at least one other person present (i.e. a priest cannot celebrate alone, but must have at least a chanter present and participating).
Usually, all of the services are conducted on a daily basis only in monasteries and cathedrals, while parish churches might only do the services on the weekend and major feast days. On certain Great Feasts (and, according to some traditions, every Sunday) a special All-Night Vigil (Agrypnia) will be celebrated from late at night on the eve of the feast until early the next morning. Because of its festal nature it is usually followed by a breakfast feast shared together by the congregation.
The journey is to the Kingdom. This is where we are going—not symbolically, but really.
— Fr. Alexander Schmemann, For the Life of the World
We knew not whether we were in heaven or on earth.
— Ambassadors of Kievan Rus (10th Century), Apocryphal quote from conversion of Kievan Rus.
Services, especially the Divine Liturgy, may only be celebrated once a day on a single altar (some churches have multiple altars in order to accommodate large congregations). Each priest may only celebrate the Divine Liturgy once a day.
From its Jewish roots, the liturgical day begins at sundown. The traditional daily cycle of services is as follows:
- Vespers – (Greek Hesperinos) Sundown, the beginning of the liturgical day.
- Compline (Greek Apodeipnon, lit. "After-supper") – After the evening meal, and before sleeping.
- Midnight Office – Usually served only in monasteries.
- Matins (Greek Orthros) – First service of the morning. Prescribed to start before sunrise.
- Hours – First, Third, Sixth, and Ninth – Sung either at their appropriate times, or in aggregate at other customary times of convenience. If the latter, The First Hour is sung immediately following Orthros, the Third and Sixth before the Divine Liturgy, and the Ninth before Vespers.
- Divine Liturgy – The Eucharistic service. (Called Holy Mass in the Western Rite)
The Divine Liturgy is the celebration of the Eucharist. Although it is usually celebrated between the Sixth and Ninth Hours, it is not considered to be part of the daily cycle of services, as it occurs outside the normal time of the world. The Divine Liturgy is not celebrated on weekdays during Great Lent, and in some places during the lesser fasting seasons either; however, reserve communion is prepared on Sundays and is distributed during the week at the Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts.
Other items brought to the altar during the Divine Liturgy include a gold or silver chalice with red wine, a small metallic urn of warm water, a metallic communion spoon, a little metallic spear, a sponge, a metal disk with cut pieces of bread upon it, and a star, which is a star-shaped piece of metal over which the priest places a cloth covering when transporting the holy gifts to and from the altar. Also found on the altar table is the antimins. The antimins is a silk cloth, signed by the appropriate diocesan bishop, upon which the sanctification of the holy gifts takes place during each Divine Liturgy. The antimins contain the relics of a saint. When a church is consecrated by a bishop, there is a formal service or prayers and sanctification in the name of the saint that the church is named after. The bishop will also often present a small relic of a saint to place in or on the altar as part of the consecration of a new church.
The book containing liturgically read portions of the four gospels is permanently "enthroned" on the altar table. Eastern Orthodox bishops, priests, deacons and readers sing/chant specific verses from this Gospel Book on each different day of the year.
This daily cycle services is conceived of as both the sanctification of time (chronos, the specific times during which they are celebrated), and entry into eternity (kairos). They consist to a large degree of litanies asking for God's mercy on the living and the dead, readings from the Psalter with introductory prayers, troparia, and other prayers and hymns surrounding them. The Psalms are so arranged that when all the services are celebrated the entire Psalter is read through in their course once a week, and twice a week during Great Lent when the services are celebrated in an extended form.
Music and chanting
Orthodox services are sung nearly in their entirety. Services consist in part of a dialogue between the clergy and the people (often represented by the choir or the Psaltis Cantor). In each case the prayers are sung or chanted following a prescribed musical form. Almost nothing is read in a normal speaking voice, with the exception of the homily if one is given.
Because the human voice is seen as the most perfect instrument of praise, musical instruments (organs, etc.) are not generally used to accompany the choir.
The church has developed eight modes or tones (see Octoechos) within which a chant may be set, depending on the time of year, feast day, or other considerations of the Typikon. There are numerous versions and styles that are traditional and acceptable and these vary a great deal between cultures.[150] It is common, especially in the United States, for a choir to learn many different styles and to mix them, singing one response in Greek, then English, then Russian, etc.
In the Russian tradition there have been some famous composers of "unaccompanied" church music, such as Tchaikovsky (Liturgy of St John Chrysostom, op. 41, 1878, and All-Night Vigil, op. 52, 1882) and Rachmaninoff (Liturgy of St John Chrysostom, op. 31, 1910, and All-Night Vigil, op. 37, 1915); and many church tones can likewise be heard influencing their music.
Incense
As part of the legacy handed down from its Judaic roots, incense is used during all services in the Eastern Orthodox Church as an offering of worship to God as it was done in the Jewish First and Second Temples in Jerusalem (Exodus chapter 30). Incense is also prophesied in the book of Malachi 1:11[151] as a "pure offering" in the glorification of God by the Gentiles in "every place" where the name of God is regarded as "great". Traditionally, the base of the incense used is the resin of Boswellia sacra, also known as frankincense, but the resin of fir trees has been used as well. It is usually mixed with various floral essential oils giving it a sweet smell.
Incense represents the sweetness of the prayers of the saints rising up to God.[152] The incense is burned in an ornate golden censer that hangs at the end of three chains representing the Trinity. Two chains represent the human and Godly nature of the Son, one chain for the Father and one chain for the Holy Spirit. The lower cup represents the earth and the upper cup the heaven. In the Greek, Slavic, and Syrian traditions there are 12 bells hung along these chains representing the 12 apostles. There are also 72 links representing 72 evangelists.
The charcoal represents the sinners. Fire signifies the Holy Spirit and frankincense the good deeds. The incense also represents the grace of the Trinity. The censer is used (swung back and forth) by the priest/deacon to venerate all four sides of the altar, the holy gifts, the clergy, the icons, the congregation, and the church structure itself. Incense is also used in the home where the individual will go around the house and "cross" all of the icons saying in Greek: Ἅγιος ὁ Θεός, Ἅγιος ἰσχυρός, Ἅγιος ἀθάνατος, ἐλέησον ἡμᾶς, or in English: Holy God, Holy Mighty, Holy Immortal, have mercy on us.
Fasting
The number of fast days varies from year to year, but in general the Eastern Orthodox Christian can expect to spend a little over half the year fasting at some level of strictness. There are spiritual, symbolic, and even practical reasons for fasting. In the Fall from Paradise mankind became possessed by a carnal nature; that is to say, became inclined towards the passions. Through fasting, Orthodox Christians attempt to return to the relationship of love and obedience to God enjoyed by Adam and Eve in Paradise in their own lives, by refraining from carnal practices, by bridling the tongue,[153] confession of sins, prayer and almsgiving.
Fasting is seen as purification and the regaining of innocence. It is a practice of learning to temper the body's primary desire for food. By learning to temper this basic desire of the body, the practitioner can more readily temper other worldly desires, and thus, become better enabled to draw closer to God in the hope of becoming more Christ-like. Through obedience to the church and its ascetic practices the Eastern Orthodox Christian seeks to rid himself or herself of the passions (The desires of our fallen carnal nature). All Orthodox Christians are provided with a prescribed set of guidelines. They do not view fasting as a hardship, but rather as a privilege and joy. The teaching of the Church provides both the time and the amount of fasting that is expected as a minimum for every member who chooses to participate. For greater ascesis, some may choose to go without food entirely for a short period of time. A complete three-day fast at the beginning and end of a fasting period is not unusual, and some fast for even longer periods, though this is usually practised only in monasteries.
In general, fasting means abstaining from meat and meat products, dairy (eggs and cheese) and dairy products, fish, olive oil, and wine. Wine and oil—and, less frequently, fish—are allowed on certain feast days when they happen to fall on a day of fasting; but animal products and dairy are forbidden on fast days, with the exception of "Cheese Fare" week which precedes Great Lent, during which dairy products are allowed. Wine and oil are usually also allowed on Saturdays and Sundays during periods of fast. In some Orthodox traditions, caviar is permitted on Lazarus Saturday, the Saturday before Palm Sunday, although the day is otherwise a fast day. Married couples also abstain from sexual activity on fast days so that they may devote themselves fulsomely to prayer.[154]
While it may seem that fasting in the manner set forth by the Church is a strict rule, there are circumstances where a person's spiritual guide may allow an Economy because of some physical necessity (e.g. those who are pregnant or infirm, the very young and the elderly, or those who have no control over their diet, such as prisoners or soldiers).
The time and type of fast is generally uniform for all Orthodox Christians; the times of fasting are part of the ecclesiastical calendar, and the method of fasting is set by canon law and holy tradition. There are four major fasting periods during the year: Nativity Fast, Great Lent, Apostles' Fast, and the Dormition Fast. In addition to these fasting seasons, Orthodox Christians fast on every Wednesday (in commemoration of Christ's betrayal by Judas Iscariot), and Friday (in commemoration of Christ's Crucifixion) throughout the year. Monastics often fast on Mondays.
Orthodox Christians who are preparing to receive the Eucharist do not eat or drink at all from vespers (sunset) until after taking Holy Communion. A similar total fast is expected to be kept on the Eve of Nativity, the Eve of Theophany (Epiphany), Great Friday and Holy Saturday for those who can do so. There are other individual days observed as fasts (though not as days of total fasting) no matter what day of the week they fall on, such as the Beheading of St. John the Baptist on 29 August and the Exaltation of the Holy Cross on 14 September.
Almsgiving
Almsgiving, more comprehensively described as "acts of mercy", refers to any giving of oneself in charity to someone who has a need, such as material resources, work, assistance, counsel, support, or kindness. Along with prayer and fasting, it is considered a pillar of the personal spiritual practices of the Eastern Orthodox Christian tradition. Almsgiving is particularly important during periods of fasting, when the Eastern Orthodox believer is expected to share with those in need the monetary savings from his or her decreased consumption. As with fasting, mentioning to others one's own virtuous deeds tends to reflect a sinful pride, and may also be considered extremely rude.
Традиции
Monasticism
The Eastern Orthodox Church places heavy emphasis and awards a high level of prestige to traditions of monasticism and asceticism with roots in Early Christianity in the Near East and Byzantine Anatolia. The most important centres of Christian Orthodox monasticism are Saint Catherine's Monastery in the Sinai Peninsula (Egypt) and Mount Athos in Northern Greece.
All Orthodox Christians are expected to participate in at least some ascetic works, in response to the commandment of Christ to "come, take up the cross, and follow me." (Mark 10:21 and elsewhere) They are therefore all called to imitate, in one way or another, Christ himself who denied himself to the extent of literally taking up the cross on the way to his voluntary self-sacrifice. However, laypeople are not expected to live in extreme asceticism since this is close to impossible while undertaking the normal responsibilities of worldly life.
Those who wish to do this therefore separate themselves from the world and live as monastics: monks and nuns. As ascetics par excellence, using the allegorical weapons of prayer and fasting in spiritual warfare against their passions, monastics hold a very special and important place in the Church. This kind of life is often seen as incompatible with any kind of worldly activity including that which is normally regarded as virtuous. Social work, school teaching, and other such work is therefore usually left to laypeople. Ascetics of the Eastern Orthodox Church are recognised by their long hair, and in case of male monks, long beards.
There are three main types of monastics. Those who live in monasteries under a common rule are coenobitic. Each monastery may formulate its own rule, and although there are no religious orders in Orthodoxy some respected monastic centers such as Mount Athos are highly influential. Eremitic monks, or hermits, are those who live solitary lives. It is the yearning of many who enter the monastic life to eventually become solitary hermits. This most austere life is only granted to the most advanced monastics and only when their superiors feel they are ready for it.
Hermits are usually associated with a larger monastery but live in seclusion some distance from the main compound. Their local monastery will see to their physical needs, supplying them with simple foods while disturbing them as little as possible. In between are those in semi-eremitic communities, or sketes, where one or two monks share each of a group of nearby dwellings under their own rules and only gather together in the central chapel, or katholikon, for liturgical observances.
The spiritual insight gained from their ascetic struggles make monastics preferred for missionary activity. Bishops are almost always chosen from among monks, and those who are not generally receive the monastic tonsure before their consecrations.
Many (but not all) Orthodox seminaries are attached to monasteries, combining academic preparation for ordination with participation in the community's life of prayer. Monks who have been ordained to the priesthood are called hieromonk (priest-monk); monks who have been ordained to the diaconate are called hierodeacon (deacon-monk). Not all monks live in monasteries, some hieromonks serve as priests in parish churches thus practising "monasticism in the world".
Cultural practices differ slightly, but in general Father is the correct form of address for monks who have been tonsured, while Novices are addressed as Brother. Similarly, Mother is the correct form of address for nuns who have been tonsured, while Novices are addressed as Sister. Nuns live identical ascetic lives to their male counterparts and are therefore also called monachoi (monastics) or the feminine plural form in Greek, monachai, and their common living space is called a monastery.
Icons and symbols
Everything in the Eastern Orthodox Church has a purpose and a meaning revealing God's revelation to man. At the front, or eastern end of the church, is a raised dais with an icon-covered screen or wall (iconostasis or templon) separating the nave from the sanctuary. In the center of this wall is the entrance to the altar known as the "Royal Doors" through which only the clergy may pass.
There is a right and left side door on the front of the iconostasis, one depicting the archangel, Michael and the other Gabriel. The priest and altar boys enter and exit through these doors during appropriate parts of the Divine Liturgy. Immediately to the right of the main gate you will always find an icon of Jesus Christ, on the left, an icon of the Theotokos (Mother of God). Other icons depicted on the iconostasis are Saint John the Forerunner and the Saint after which the church is named.
In front of the iconostasis is the bishop's chair, a place of honor where a visiting bishop or metropolitan will often sit when visiting the church. An Orthodox priest, when standing at the altar during the Divine Liturgy, faces toward the altar (typically facing east) and properly leads his congregation while together they perform the mystical sacrifice and pray to God.
The sanctuary contains the Holy Altar, representing the place where Orthodox Christians believe that Christ was born of the virgin Mary, crucified under Pontius Pilate, laid in the tomb, descended into hell, rose from the dead on the third day, ascended into heaven, and will return again at his second coming. A free-standing cross, bearing the body of Christ, may stand behind the altar. On the altar are a cloth covering, a large book containing the gospel readings performed during services, an ark containing presanctified divine gifts (bread and wine) distributed by the deacon or priest to those who cannot come to the church to receive them, and several white beeswax candles.
Icons
The term 'icon' comes from the Greek word eikon, which simply means image. The Eastern Orthodox believe that the first icons of Christ and the Virgin Mary were painted by Luke the Evangelist. Icons are filled with symbolism designed to convey information about the person or event depicted. For this reason, icons tend to be formulaic, following a prescribed methodology for how a particular person should be depicted, including hair style, body position, clothing, and background details.
Icon painting, in general, is not an opportunity for artistic expression, though each iconographer brings a vision to the piece. It is far more common for an icon to be copied from an older model, though with the recognition of a new saint in the church, a new icon must be created and approved. The personal and creative traditions of Catholic religious art were largely lacking in Orthodox icon painting before the 17th century, when Russian icons began to be strongly influenced by religious paintings and engravings from both Protestant and Catholic Europe. Greek icons also began to take on a strong western influence for a period and the difference between some Orthodox icons and western religious art began to vanish. More recently there has been a trend of returning to the more traditional and symbolic representations.
Aspects of the iconography borrow from the pre-Christian Roman and Hellenistic art. Henry Chadwick wrote, "In this instinct there was a measure of truth. The representations of Christ as the Almighty Lord on his judgment throne owed something to pictures of Zeus. Portraits of the Mother of God were not wholly independent of a pagan past of venerated mother-goddesses. In the popular mind the saints had come to fill a role that had been played by heroes and deities."[155]
Large free-standing statues (three-dimensional depictions) are almost non-existent in the Eastern Orthodox Church. This is partly because cult images of the Greek gods were a focus of the ancient Greek religion and its Roman equivalent, and much criticised by Early Christian writers, and partly because icons are meant to show the spiritual nature of man, not the sensual earthly body. Reliefs, however, were used in Byzantine art.
Icons are not considered by the Eastern Orthodox to be idols or objects of worship. The parameters of their usage were clearly spelled out by the 7th ecumenical council. Justification for their usage utilises the following logic: before God took human form in Christ, no material depiction was possible and therefore blasphemous even to contemplate. Once God became incarnate, depiction was possible.
As Christ is believed to be God, it is justified to hold in one's mind the image of God-incarnate. Likewise, when one venerates an icon, it is not the wood or paint that are venerated but rather the individual shown, just as it is not the paper one loves when one might kiss the photograph of a loved one. As Saint Basil famously proclaimed, honour or veneration of the icon always passes to its archetype. Following this reasoning, the veneration of the glorified human saint made in God's image, is always a veneration of the divine image, and hence God as foundational archetype.
Icons can be found adorning the walls of churches and often cover the inside structure completely.[156] Most Orthodox homes have an area set aside for family prayer, usually an eastern facing wall, where are hung many icons. Icons have been part of Orthodox Christianity since the beginning of the church.[157]
Icons are often illuminated by a candle or oil lamp (beeswax for candles and olive oil for lamps are preferred because they are natural and burn cleanly). Besides the practical purpose of making icons visible in an otherwise dark church, both candles and oil lamps symbolise the Light of the World, who is Christ.
Tales of miraculous icons are not uncommon, though it has always been considered that the message of such an event was for the immediate faithful involved and therefore does not usually attract crowds. Some miraculous icons whose reputations span long periods of time nevertheless become objects of pilgrimage along with the places where they are kept. As several Orthodox theologians and saints have explored in the past, the icon's miraculous nature is found not in the material, but in the glory of the saint who is depicted. The icon is a window, in the words of Paul Florensky, that actually participates in the glory of what it represents.
Iconostasis
An iconostasis, also called the templon, is a wall of icons and religious paintings, separating the nave from the sanctuary in a church. Iconostasis also refers to a portable icon stand that can be placed anywhere within a church. The modern iconostasis evolved from the Byzantine templon in the 11th century. The evolution of the iconostasis probably owes a great deal to 14th-century Hesychast mysticism and the wood-carving genius of the Russian Orthodox Church.
The first ceiling-high, five-leveled Russian iconostasis was designed by Andrey Rublyov in the cathedral of the Dormition in Vladimir in 1408. The separation between sanctuary and nave accomplished by the iconostasis is not mandatory, though it is common practice. Depending on circumstance, the role of the iconostasis can be played by masonry, carved panels, screens, curtains, railings, a cord or rope, plain icons on stands, steps, or nothing at all.
Cross
Depictions of the cross within the Eastern Orthodox Church are numerous and often highly ornamented, but its use does not extend to all Orthodox traditions.[citation needed] Some carry special significance.[citation needed] The Tri-Bar Cross, popular in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus, but common throughout the Eastern Orthodox world, seen to the right, has three bars. Its origins are in the early Byzantine Church of the 4th century AD.[citation needed]
The small top crossbar represents the sign that Pontius Pilate nailed above Christ's head. It often is inscribed with an acronym, "INRI", Latin, meaning "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews" or "INBI", Greek Ἰησοῦς ὁ Ναζωραῖος ὁ βασιλεύς τῶν Ἰουδαίων for "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews"; however, it is often replaced or amplified by the phrase "The King of Glory" in order to answer Pilate's statement with Christ's affirmation, "My Kingdom is not of this world".[158]
There is also a bottom slanting bar which has several explanations. Claims of evidence indicate that there was a small wooden platform for the crucified to stand on in order to support his weight; in Jesus' case his feet were nailed side by side to this platform with one nail each in order to prolong the torture of the cross.
Implied evidence for this comes mainly from two sources, namely, the Bible (in order to cause the victim to die faster, his legs were broken so they could not support his weight and he would suffocate)[citation needed] and iconography (all early depictions of the crucifixion show this arrangement, not the later with feet on top with single nail).[citation needed] It has also been pointed out by some experts that the nailed hands of a body crucified in the manner often shown in modern secular art would not support the weight of the body and would tear through. A platform for the feet would relieve this problem.[citation needed]
That the bottom bar is slanted has two explanations, to represent the very real agony which Christ experienced on the cross (a refutation of Docetism)[citation needed] and to signify that the thief on Christ's right chose the right path while the thief on the left did not.[citation needed]
Other crosses associated with the Eastern Orthodox Church are the more traditional single-bar crosses, budded designs, the Greek cross, the Latin cross, the Jerusalem cross (cross pattée), Celtic crosses, and others.[159] A common symbolism of the slanted foot stool is The foot-rest points up, toward Heaven, on Christ's right hand-side, and downward, to Hades, on Christ's left. "Between two thieves Thy Cross did prove to be a balance of righteousness: wherefore one of them was dragged down to Hades by the weight of his blasphemy [the balance points downward], whereas the other was lightened of his transgressions unto the comprehension of theology [the balance points upward]. O Christ God, glory to Thee."[160] Another Orthodox cross which is worn in gold is an outer budded cross with an inner Three Bar Cross. The inscription Jesus Christ in Greek: IC (Iesous) on the left side bar and XC (Xhristos) on the right side bar, with a sun on the top of the cross. There is also typically an inscription on the back in Church Slavonic: "спаси и сохрани", "Spasi i Sokhrani", "Save and Protect". This cross is known as the Saint Olga Cross.[161]
Art and architecture
The church building has many symbolic meanings; perhaps the oldest and most prominent is the concept that the church is the Ark (as in Noah's) in which the world is saved from the flood of temptations; therefore, most Orthodox churches are rectangular in design. Another popular configuration, especially for churches with large choirs is cruciform or cross-shaped or what is called the "Greek-cross."
Architectural patterns vary in shape and complexity, with chapels sometimes added around the main church, or triple altars; but in general, the symbolic layout of the church remains the same. Each church is created with specified qualifications based on what the apostles said in the Bible.[citation needed] These qualifications include how big the temple should be.[citation needed]
The church building is divided into three main parts: the narthex (vestibule), the nave and the sanctuary (also called the altar or holy place). The narthex is where catechumens and non-Orthodox visitors were traditionally asked to stand during services. It is separated from the nave by "The Royal Gate". On each side of this gate are candle stands (menalia) representing the pillars of fire that went before the Hebrew people escaping from Egypt.
The nave is where most of the congregation stand during services. Traditionally, men stand on the right and women on the left. This is for a number of reasons: (1) Considering the family unit of past centuries the husband was dominant; thus, standing the same distance from the altar, equality is emphasised. (2) The idea of separating the sexes was inherited from the Jewish tradition of doing so within synagogues (3) Separation of sexes also followed the practice of choirs in which different levels of voice are placed in groups to facilitate harmony.
In general, men and women dress respectfully, typically wearing their "Sunday best" to enter the church. Often, women cover their heads as prescribed by Paul (1 Cor. 11:13). Children are considered full members of the church and stand attentively and quietly during services. There is often a choir area at the side or in a loft in back. In addition to the choir, a chanter is always present at the front of the church to chant responses and hymns that are part of the Divine Liturgy offered by the priest. There is usually a dome in the ceiling with an icon of Christ depicted as Ruler of the Universe (Pantocrator).
The Archdiocesan Cathedral of the Holy Trinity on New York City's Upper East Side is the largest Orthodox Christian church in the Western Hemisphere.[162]
Apart from the icons, the Eastern Orthodox churches and monasteries are often decorated with frescos and mosaics.
Local customs
The Eastern Orthodox Church also has many associated traditions (sometimes referred to simply as customs), compatible with its life and function, but not necessarily tied so closely to the faith itself. These are not generally regarded as a part of holy tradition, though no strict dividing line is drawn. As long as compatibility is maintained, general practice often tends to the permissive rather than the restrictive, with the local priest or bishop resolving questions.
Many of these customs are local or cultural, and some are not even especially religious, but form a part of the church's relationship with the people in the time and place where it exists. Where outside customs affect church practices such as worship, a closer watch is kept for guarding the integrity of worship, but suitable local differences are welcomed and celebrated joyfully. The local church customs, especially liturgical ones, are referred to as differences in typica (Style).
Locality is also expressed in regional terms of churchly jurisdiction, which is often also drawn along national lines. Many Orthodox churches adopt a national title (e.g. Albanian Orthodox, Bulgarian Orthodox, Antiochian Orthodox, Georgian Orthodox, Greek Orthodox, Montenegrin Orthodox, Romanian Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, Serbian Orthodox, Ukrainian Orthodox, etc.) and this title can identify which language is used in services, which bishops preside, and which of the typica is followed by specific congregations. In the Middle East, Orthodox Christians are usually referred to as Rum ("Roman") Orthodox, because of their historical connection with the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire.[163]
Differences in praxis ("practice") tend to be slight, involving things such as the order in which a particular set of hymns are sung or what time a particular service is celebrated. But observances of the saints' days of local saints are more often celebrated in special services within a locality, as are certain national holidays, like Greek Independence Day. In North America, observances of Thanksgiving Day are increasing.
Members of the church are fully united in faith and the sacred mysteries with all Orthodox congregations, regardless of nationality or location. In general, Orthodox Christians could travel the globe and feel familiar with the services even if they did not know the language being used.
In the Levant, Christian Orthodox services and identity often combine both the Byzantine Greek and indigenous (Arabic and Aramaic) traditions. Other Orthodox communities can identify with two Eastern Orthodox churches simultaneously, for example Caucasus Greeks and Pontic Greeks in Russia often identify with both the Greek Orthodox Church and Russian Orthodox Church, as a result of centuries of assimilation and intermarriage with ethnic Russians and other Christian Orthodox communities in mainly southern Russia.
Святые таинства (таинства)
According to Orthodox theology, the purpose of the Christian life is to attain theosis, the mystical union of mankind with God. This union is understood as both collective and individual. St. Athanasius of Alexandria wrote concerning the Incarnation that, "He (Jesus) was made man that we might be made god (θεοποιηθῶμεν)."[164][165] The entire life of the church is oriented towards making this possible and facilitating it.
In the Eastern Orthodox Church the terms "mystery" or "the mysteries" refer to the process of theosis. While it is understood that God theoretically can do anything instantly and invisibly, it is also understood that he generally chooses to use material substance as a medium in order to reach people. The limitations are those of mankind, not God. Matter is not considered to be evil by the Eastern Orthodox. Water, oil, bread, wine, etc., all are means by which God reaches out to allow people to draw closer to him. How this process works is a "mystery" and cannot be defined in human terms. These mysteries are surrounded by prayer and symbolism so that their true meaning will not be forgotten.
Those things which in the West are often termed sacraments or sacramentals are known among the Eastern Orthodox as the "sacred mysteries". While the Roman Catholic Church numbers seven sacraments, and many Protestant groups list two (baptism and the Eucharist) or even none, the Eastern Orthodox do not limit the number. However, for the sake of convenience, catechisms will often speak of the seven great mysteries. Among these are Holy Communion (the most direct connection), baptism, Chrismation, confession, unction, matrimony, and ordination. But the term also properly applies to other sacred actions such as monastic tonsure or the blessing of holy water, and involves fasting, almsgiving, or an act as simple as lighting a candle, burning incense, praying or asking God's blessing on food.[166]
Baptism
Baptism is the mystery which transforms the old and sinful person into a new and pure one; the old life, the sins, any mistakes made are gone and a clean slate is given. Through baptism a person is united to the Body of Christ by becoming a member of the Orthodox Church. During the service, water is blessed. The catechumen is fully immersed in the water three times in the name of the Trinity. This is considered to be a death of the "old man" by participation in the crucifixion and burial of Christ, and a rebirth into new life in Christ by participation in his resurrection.[167] Properly a new name is given, which becomes the person's name.
Children of Orthodox families are normally baptised shortly after birth. Converts to Orthodoxy are usually formally baptised into the Orthodox Church, though exceptions are sometimes made. Those who have left Orthodoxy and adopted a new religion, if they return to their Orthodox roots, are usually received back into the church through the mystery of Chrismation.
Properly, the mystery of baptism is administered by bishops and priests; however, in emergencies any Orthodox Christian can baptise.[168] In such cases, should the person survive the emergency, it is likely that the person will be properly baptised by a priest at some later date. This is not considered to be a second baptism, nor is it imagined that the person is not already Orthodox, but rather it is a fulfillment of the proper form.
The service of Baptism used in Orthodox churches has remained largely unchanged for over 1500 years. This fact is witnessed to by St. Cyril of Jerusalem (d. 386), who, in his Discourse on the Sacrament of Baptism, describes the service in much the same way as is currently in use.
Chrismation
Chrismation (sometimes called confirmation) is the mystery by which a baptised person is granted the gift of the Holy Spirit through anointing with Holy Chrism.[169][170] It is normally given immediately after baptism as part of the same service, but is also used to receive lapsed members of the Orthodox Church.[171] As baptism is a person's participation in the death and resurrection of Christ, so Chrismation is a person's participation in the coming of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost.[172]
A baptised and chrismated Orthodox Christian is a full member of the church and may receive the Eucharist regardless of age.[172]
The creation of Chrism may be accomplished by any bishop at any time, but usually is done only once a year, often when a synod of bishops convenes for its annual meeting. (Some autocephalous churches get their chrism from others.) Anointing with it substitutes for the laying-on of hands described in the New Testament, even when an instrument such as a brush is used.[173]
Holy Communion (Eucharist)
The Eucharist is at the center of Orthodox Christianity. In practice, it is the partaking of the body and blood of Jesus Christ in the midst of the Divine Liturgy with the rest of the church. The bread and wine are believed to become the genuine body and blood of the Christ Jesus through the operation of the Holy Spirit. The Orthodox Church has never described exactly how this occurs, or gone into the detail that the Catholic Church has in the West.
Communion is given only to baptised and chrismated Orthodox Christians who have prepared by fasting, prayer and confession. The priest will administer the gifts with a spoon, called a "cochlear", directly into the recipient's mouth from the chalice.[174] From baptism young infants and children are carried to the chalice to receive holy communion.[172]
Because of the Orthodox understanding of mankind's fallen nature in general those who wish to commune prepare themselves in a way that reflects mankind in paradise. First, they prepare by having their confession heard and the prayer of repentance read over them by a priest. They will increase their prayer rule, adding the prescribed prayers in preparation for communing. Finally, they will fast completely from food and drink from the evening of the previous day (usually sunset on Saturday if communing on Sunday).
Repentance (Confession)
Orthodox Christians who have committed sins but repent of them, and who wish to reconcile themselves to God and renew the purity of their original baptisms, confess their sins to God before a spiritual guide who offers advice and direction to assist the individual in overcoming their sin. Parish priests commonly function as spiritual guides, but such guides can be any person, male or female (not commonly a layperson but in these cases monks or nuns), who has been given a blessing to hear confessions. Spiritual guides are chosen very carefully as this is a mandate that once chosen must be obeyed. Having confessed, the penitent then has his or her parish priest read the prayer of absolution over them.
Sin is not viewed by the Orthodox as a stain on the soul that needs to be wiped out, or a legal transgression that must be set right by a punitive sentence, but rather as a mistake made by the individual with the opportunity for spiritual growth and development. An act of penance (epitemia), if the spiritual guide requires it, is never formulaic, but rather is directed toward the individual and their particular problem, as a means of establishing a deeper understanding of the mistake made, and how to effect its cure. Because full participatory membership is granted to infants, it is not unusual for even small children to confess; though the scope of their culpability is far less than an older child, still their opportunity for spiritual growth remains the same.
Marriage
From the Orthodox perspective, marriage is one of the holy mysteries or sacraments. As well as in many other Christian traditions, for example in Catholicism, it serves to unite a woman and a man in eternal union and love before God, with the purpose of following Christ and his Gospel and raising up a faithful, holy family through their holy union.[175][176] The church understands marriage to be the union of one man and one woman, and certain Orthodox leaders have spoken out strongly in opposition to the civil institution of same-sex marriage.[177][178]
Jesus said that "when they rise from the dead, they neither marry nor are given in marriage, but are like angels in heaven" (Mk 12:25). For the Orthodox Christian this passage should not be understood to imply that Christian marriage will not remain a reality in the Kingdom, but points to the fact that relations will not be "fleshy", but "spiritual".[179] Love between wife and husband, as an icon of relationship between Christ and Church, is eternal.[179]
The church does recognise that there are rare occasions when it is better that couples do separate, but there is no official recognition of civil divorces. For the Orthodox, to say that marriage is indissoluble means that it should not be broken, the violation of such a union, perceived as holy, being an offense resulting from either adultery or the prolonged absence of one of the partners. Thus, permitting remarriage is an act of compassion of the church towards sinful man.[180] Ecclesiastically divorced Orthodox (not civilly divorced only) are usually allowed to remarry in the Orthodox Church, though there is usually imposed on them a fairly severe penance by their bishop and the services for a second marriage in this case are more penitential than joyful. Widows are permitted to remarry without repercussion and their second marriage is considered just as valid as the first. One exception to this rule is the clergy and their wives. Should a married priest die, it is normal that his wife will retire to a monastery once their children are out of the house. Widowed priests are not allowed to remarry (no priest may be married after his ordination) and also frequently end up in monasteries.
The service of marriage in the Orthodox Church has two distinct parts: the betrothal (engagement) and the crowning. There is no exchange of vows. There is a set expectation of the obligations incumbent on a married couple, and whatever promises they may have privately to each other are their responsibility to keep.
Holy orders
Since its founding, the church spread to different places and its leaders in each region came to be known as episkopoi ("overseers", plural of episkopos, overseer—Gr. ἐπίσκοπος), which became "bishop" in English. The other ordained roles are presbyter (Gr. πρεσβύτερος, elder), which became "prester" and then "priest" in English, and diakonos (Gr. διάκονος, servant), which became "deacon" in English (see also subdeacon). There are numerous administrative positions among the clergy that carry additional titles.
In the Greek tradition, bishops who occupy an ancient see are called metropolitans, while the lead bishop in Greece is the archbishop. (In the Russian tradition, however, the usage of the terms "metropolitan" and "archbishop" is reversed.) Priests can be archpriests, archimandrites or protopresbyters. Deacons can also be archdeacons or protodeacons. The position of deacon is often occupied for life. The deacon also acts as an assistant to a bishop.
With the exception of bishops, who remain celibate, the Orthodox Church has always allowed priests and deacons to be married, provided the marriage takes place before ordination. In general it is considered preferable for parish priests to be married as they often act as counsel to married couples and thus can draw on their own experience. Unmarried priests are usually monks and live in monasteries, though there are occasions when, because of a lack of married priests, a monk-priest is temporarily assigned to a parish.
Widowed priests and deacons may not remarry and it is common for such members of the clergy to retire to a monastery (see clerical celibacy). This is also true of widowed wives of clergy, who do not remarry and become nuns when their children are grown. Only men are allowed to receive holy orders, although deaconesses had both liturgical and pastoral functions within the church.[181] However, it has fallen out of practice (the last deaconess was ordained in the 19th century).
In 2017, Patriarch Theodoros II and the Holy Synod of the Patriarchate of Alexandria decided to reinstate the order of deaconesses in the Greek Orthodox Church. In February, he appointed six nuns to be subdeacons within the church.[citation needed]
Unction
Anointing with oil, often called "unction", is one of the mysteries administered by the Orthodox Church and is not reserved only for the dying or terminally ill, but for all in need of spiritual or bodily healing. In Greece, during the Ottoman occupation, it became the custom to administer this mystery annually on Great Wednesday to all believers; in recent decades, this custom has spread to many other locations. It is often distributed on major feast days, or any time the clergy believe it necessary for the spiritual welfare of its congregation.
According to Orthodox teaching unction is based on the Epistle of James:
Is anyone among you sick? Let him call for the elders of the church, and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord. And the prayer of faith will save the sick, and the Lord will raise him up. And if he has committed sins, he will be forgiven.—James 5:14-15[182]
История
Early Church
Paul and the Apostles traveled extensively throughout the Roman Empire, including Asia Minor, establishing Churches in major communities, with the first churches appearing in Jerusalem and the Holy Land, then in Antioch, Ethiopia, Egypt, Rome, Alexandria, Athens, Thessalonica, Illyricum, and Byzantium, which centuries later would become prominent as the New Rome.[183] Christianity encountered considerable resistance in the Roman Empire, because its adherents refused to comply with the demands of the Roman state (even when their lives were threatened) by offering sacrifices to the pagan gods. Despite persecution, the Christian Church spread. The persecution dissipated upon the conversion of Emperor Constantine I in 312 AD.[183]
By the 4th century Christianity had spread to numerous regions. A number of influential schools of thought had arisen, particularly the Alexandrian and Antiochian philosophical approaches. Other groups, such as the Arians, had also managed to gain influence. However, their positions caused theological conflicts within the Church, thus prompting the Emperor Constantine to call for a great ecumenical synod in order to define the Church's position against the growing, often widely diverging, philosophical and theological interpretations of Christianity. He made it possible for this council to meet not only by providing a location, but by offering to pay for the transportation of all the existing bishops of the Church. Most modern Christian Churches regard this synod, commonly called the First Council of Nicaea or more generally the First Ecumenical Council,[183][184] as of major importance.
Ecumenical councils
Several doctrinal disputes from the 4th century onwards led to the calling of ecumenical councils. In the Orthodox Church, an ecumenical council is the supreme authority that can be invoked to resolve contested issues of the faith. As such, these councils have been held to resolve the most important theological matters that came to be disputed within the Christian Church. Many lesser disagreements were resolved through local councils in the areas where they arose, before they grew significant enough to require an ecumenical council.
There are seven councils authoritatively recognised as ecumenical:
- The First Ecumenical Council was convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine at Nicaea in 325 and presided over by the Patriarch Alexander of Alexandria, with over 300 bishops condemning the view of Arius that the Son is a created being inferior to the Father.[185]
- The Second Ecumenical Council was held at Constantinople in 381, presided over by the Patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch, with 150 bishops, defining the nature of the Holy Spirit against those asserting His inequality with the other persons of the Trinity.[186]
- The Third Ecumenical Council is that of Ephesus in 431, presided over by the Patriarch of Alexandria, with 250 bishops, which affirmed that Mary is truly "Birthgiver" or "Mother" of God (Theotokos), contrary to the teachings of Nestorius.[187]
- The Fourth Ecumenical Council is that of Chalcedon in 451, Patriarch of Constantinople presiding, 500 bishops, affirmed that Jesus is truly God and truly man, without mixture of the two natures, contrary to Monophysite teaching.[188]
- The Fifth Ecumenical Council is the second of Constantinople in 553, interpreting the decrees of Chalcedon and further explaining the relationship of the two natures of Jesus; it also condemned the alleged teachings of Origen on the pre-existence of the soul, etc.[189]
- The Sixth Ecumenical Council is the third of Constantinople in 681; it declared that Christ has two wills of his two natures, human and divine, contrary to the teachings of the Monothelites.[190]
- The Seventh Ecumenical Council was called under the Empress Regent Irene of Athens in 787, known as the second of Nicaea. It supports the veneration of icons while forbidding their worship. It is often referred to as "The Triumph of Orthodoxy".[191]
There are also two other councils which are considered ecumenical by some Orthodox. All Orthodox agree that the decisions of these further councils are valid; the disagreement is only whether they carry sufficient importance to be considered truly ecumenical:
- 8. The Fourth Council of Constantinople was called in 879. It restored St. Photius to his See in Constantinople and condemned any alteration of the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed of 381.
- 9. The Fifth Council of Constantinople was actually a series of councils held between 1341 and 1351. It affirmed the hesychastic theology of St. Gregory Palamas and condemned the philosopher Barlaam of Calabria.
In addition to these councils there have been a number of other significant councils meant to further define the Orthodox position. They are the Synods of Constantinople, in 1484, 1583, 1755, 1819, and 1872, the Synod of Iași in 1642, and the Pan-Orthodox Synod of Jerusalem in 1672. Another council convened in June 2016 to discuss many modern phenomena including Modernism, other Christian confessions, Orthodoxy's relation with other religions and fasting disciplines.[192]
Roman/Byzantine Empire
Eastern Christian culture reached its golden age during the high point of the Byzantine Empire and continued to flourish in Ukraine and Russia, after the fall of Constantinople. Numerous autocephalous churches were established in Europe: Greece, Georgia, Ukraine, as well as in Russia and Asia.
In the 530s the Church of the Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia) was built in Constantinople under Emperor Justinian I.[193] Beginning with subsequent Byzantine architecture, Hagia Sophia became the paradigmatic Orthodox church form and its architectural style was emulated by Ottoman mosques a thousand years later.[194] Being the episcopal see of the ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople, it remained the world's largest cathedral for nearly a thousand years, until Seville Cathedral was completed in 1520. Hagia Sophia has been described as "holding a unique position in the Christian world",[194] and architectural and cultural icon of Byzantine and Eastern Orthodox civilization,[195][196] and it is considered the epitome of Byzantine architecture[197] and is said to have "changed the history of architecture".[198]
Early schisms
There are the "Nestorian" churches resulted from the reaction of the Council of Ephesus (431), which are the earliest surviving Eastern Christian churches that keep the faith of only the first two ecumenical councils, i.e., the First Council of Nicaea (325) and the First Council of Constantinople (381) as legitimate. "Nestorian" is an outsider's term for a tradition that predated the influence of Nestorius, the origin of which might lay in certain sections of the School of Antioch or via Nestorius' teachers Theodore of Mopsuestia or Diodore of Tarsus. The modern incarnation of the "Nestorian Church" is commonly referred to as "the Assyrian Church" or fully as the Assyrian Church of the East.
The church in Egypt (Patriarchate of Alexandria) split into two groups following the Council of Chalcedon (451), over a dispute about the relation between the divine and human natures of Jesus. Eventually this led to each group anathematizing the other. Those that remained in communion with the other patriarchs (by accepting the Council of Chalcedon) are known today as the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria, where the adjective "Greek" refers to their ties to the Greek-speaking culture of the Byzantine Empire. However, those who disagreed with the findings of the Council of Chalcedon were the majority in Egypt, and today they are known as the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, having maintained a separate patriarchate. The Coptic Orthodox Church is currently the largest Christian church in Egypt and in the whole Middle East. There was also a similar, albeit smaller scale, split in Syria (Patriarchate of Antioch), which resulted in the separation of the Syriac Orthodox Church from the Byzantine Patriarchate of Antioch.
Those who disagreed with the Council of Chalcedon are sometimes called "Oriental Orthodox" to distinguish them from the "Eastern Orthodox", who accepted the Council of Chalcedon. Oriental Orthodox are also sometimes referred to as "non-Chalcedonians", or "anti-Chalcedonians". The Oriental Orthodox Church denies that it is monophysite and prefers the term "miaphysite", to denote the "united" nature of Jesus (two natures united into one) consistent with St. Cyril's theology: "The term union...signifies the concurrence in one reality of those things which are understood to be united" and "the Word who is ineffably united with it in a manner beyond all description" (St. Cyril of Alexandria, On the Unity of Christ). Both the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches formally believe themselves to be the continuation of the true church, although over the last several decades there has been considerable reconciliation and the prospect of reunification has been discussed.
Conversion of South and East Slavs
In the 9th and 10th centuries, Christianity made great inroads into pagan Europe, including Bulgaria (864) and later Kievan Rus' (988). This work was made possible by saints Cyril and Methodius of Thessaloniki, two brothers chosen by Byzantine emperor Michael III to fulfill the request of Rastislav of Moravia for teachers who could minister to the Moravians in their own language. Cyril and Methodius began translating the divine liturgy, other liturgical texts, and the Gospels along with some other scriputal texts into local languages; with time, as these translations were copied by speakers of other dialects, the hybrid literary language Church Slavonic was created. Originally sent to convert the Slavs of Great Moravia, Cyril and Methodius were forced to compete with Frankish missionaries from the Roman diocese; their disciples were driven out of Great Moravia in AD 886 and emigrated to Bulgaria.[199]
After the Christianisation of Bulgaria in 864, the disciples of saints Cyril and Methodius in Bulgaria, the most important being Saint Clement of Ohrid and Saint Naum of Preslav, were of great importance to the Orthodox faith in the First Bulgarian Empire. In a short time they managed to prepare and instruct the future Bulgarian clergy into the biblical texts and in 870 AD the Fourth Council of Constantinople granted the Bulgarians the oldest organised autocephalous Slavic Orthodox Church, which shortly thereafter became Patriarchate. The success of the conversion of the Bulgarians facilitated the conversion of East Slavic peoples, most notably the Rus', predecessors of Belarusians, Russians, and Ukrainians.[200] A major event in this effort was the development of the Cyrillic script in Bulgaria, at the Preslav Literary School in the 9th century; this script, along with the liturgical Old Church Slavonic, also called Old Bulgarian, were declared official in Bulgaria in 893.[201][202][203]
The work of Cyril and Methodius and their disciples had a major impact on the Serbs as well.[204][205][206][207][208][209][210][211] They accepted Christianity collectively along familial and tribal lines, a gradual process that occurred between the 7th and 9th centuries. In commemoration of their baptisms, each Serbian family or tribe began to celebrate an exclusively Serbian custom called Slava (patron saint) in a special way to honor the Saint on whose day they received the sacrament of Holy Baptism. It is the most solemn day of the year for all Serbs of the Orthodox faith and has played a role of vital importance in the history of the Serbian people. Slava remains a celebration of the conversion of the Serbian people, which the Church blessed and proclaimed a Church institution.[212]
The missionaries to the East and South Slavs had great success in part because they used the people's native language rather than Greek, the predominant language of the Byzantine Empire, or Latin, as the Roman priests did.[204] Perhaps the greatest legacy of their efforts is the Russian Orthodox Church, which is the largest of the Orthodox Churches.[213]
Great Schism (1054)
In the 11th century what was recognised as the Great Schism took place between Rome and Constantinople, which led to separation between the Church of the West, the Catholic Church, and the Eastern Byzantine Churches, now the Orthodox.[214] There were doctrinal issues like the filioque clause and the authority of the Roman Pope involved in the split, but these were greatly exacerbated by political factors of both Church and state, and by cultural and linguistic differences between Latins and Greeks. Regarding papal supremacy, the Eastern half grew disillusioned with the Pope's centralisation of power, as well as his blatant attempts of excluding the Eastern half in regard to papal approvals. It used to be that the emperor would at least have say when a new Pope would be elected, but towards the high Middle Ages, the Christians in Rome were slowly consolidating power and removing Byzantine influence. However, even before this exclusionary tendency from the West, well before 1054, the Eastern and Western halves of the Church were in perpetual conflict, particularly during the periods of Eastern iconoclasm and the Photian schism.[215]
The final breach is often considered to have arisen after the capture and sacking of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204; the final break with Rome occurred circa 1450. The sacking of Church of Holy Wisdom and establishment of the Latin Empire as a seeming attempt to supplant the Orthodox Byzantine Empire in 1204 is viewed with some rancour to the present day. In 2004, Pope John Paul II extended a formal apology for the sacking of Constantinople in 1204, which had also been strongly condemned by the Pope at the time, Innocent III; the apology was formally accepted by Patriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople. However, many items stolen during this time, such as holy relics and riches, are still held in various European cities, particularly Venice.[216][217]
Reunion was attempted twice, at the 1274 Second Council of Lyon and the 1439 Council of Florence. The Council of Florence briefly reestablished communion between East and West, which lasted until after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. In each case, however, the councils were rejected by the Orthodox people as a whole, and the union of Florence also became very politically difficult after Constantinople came under Ottoman rule. However, in the time since, several local Orthodox Christian churches have renewed union with Rome, known as the Eastern Catholic Churches. Recent decades have seen a renewal of ecumenical spirit and dialogue between the Catholic and Orthodox churches.[218]
Greek Church under Ottoman rule
The Byzantine Empire never fully recovered from the sack of Constantinople in 1204. Over the next two centuries, it entered a precipitous decline in both territory and influence. In 1453, a much-diminished Byzantine Empire fell to the Ottoman Empire, ending what was once the most powerful state in the Orthodox Christian world, if not in all Christendom. By this time Egypt, another major center of Eastern Christianity, had been under Muslim control for some seven centuries; most Eastern Orthodox communities across southeastern Europe gradually came under Ottoman rule by the 16th century.
Under the Ottomans, the Greek Orthodox Church acquired substantial power as an autonomous millet. The ecumenical patriarch was the religious and administrative ruler of the Rûm, an Ottoman administrative unit meaning "Roman", which encompassed all Orthodox subjects of the Empire regardless of nationality. While legally subordinate to Muslims and subject to various restrictions, the Orthodox community was generally tolerated and left to govern its own internal affairs, both religiously and legally. Until the empire's dissolution in the early 20th century, Orthodox Christians would remain the largest non-Muslim minority, and at times among the wealthiest and most politically influential.
Russian Orthodox Church in the Russian Empire
By the time most Orthodox communities came under Muslim rule in the mid 15th century, Orthodoxy was very strong in Russia, which had maintained close cultural and political ties with the Byzantine Empire; roughly two decades after the fall of Constantinople, Ivan III of Russia married Sophia Palaiologina, a niece of the last Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI, and styled himself Tsar ("Caesar") or imperator. In 1547, his grandson Ivan IV, a devout Orthodox Christian, cemented the title as "Tsar of All Rus", establishing Russia's first centralised state with divinely appointed rulers. In 1589, the Patriarchate of Constantinople granted autocephalous status to Moscow, the capital of what was now the largest Orthodox Christian polity; the city thereafter referred to itself as the Third Rome—the cultural and religious heir of Constantinople.
Until 1666, when Patriarch Nikon was deposed by the tsar, the Russian Orthodox Church had been independent of the State.[219] In 1721, the first Russian Emperor, Peter I, abolished completely the patriarchate and effectively made the church a department of the government, ruled by a most holy synod composed of senior bishops and lay bureaucrats appointed by the Emperor himself. Over time, Imperial Russia would style itself a protector and patron of all Orthodox Christians, especially those within the Ottoman Empire.[220]
For nearly 200 years, until the Bolsheviks' October Revolution of 1917, the Russian Orthodox Church remained, in effect, a governmental agency and an instrument of tsarist rule. It was used to varying degrees in imperial campaigns of Russification, and was even allowed to levy taxes on peasants. The Church's close ties with the state came to a head under Nicholas I (1825-1855), who explicitly made Orthodoxy a core doctrine of imperial unity and legitimacy. The Orthodox faith became further tied to Russian identity and nationalism, while the Church was further subordinated to the interests of the state. Consequently, Russian Orthodox Church, along with the imperial regime to which it belonged, came to be presented as an enemy of the people by the Bolsheviks and other Russian revolutionaries.[221]
Orthodox churches under Communist rule
After the October revolution of 1917, part of the clergy of the Russian Orthodox Church fled abroad to escape Bolshevik persecutions, founding an independent church in exile, which reunified with its Russian counterpart in 2007.[222] The clergy were seen as sympathetic with the cause of the White Army in the Civil War, and occasionally collaborated with it; Patriarch Tikhon's declared position was vehemently anti-Bolshevik in 1918. This may have further strengthened the Bolshevik animus against the church.[citation needed] The Soviet government confiscated church property, ridiculed religion, harassed believers, and propagated atheism in schools.[citation needed] Actions toward particular religions, however, were determined by state interests, and most organised religions were never outlawed.[citation needed] Some actions against Orthodox priests and believers along with execution included torture, being sent to prison camps, labour camps or mental hospitals.[223][224] In the first five years after the Bolshevik revolution, 28 bishops and 1,200 priests were executed.[225]
After Nazi Germany's attack on the Soviet Union in 1941, Joseph Stalin revived the Russian Orthodox Church to intensify patriotic support for the war effort. By 1957 about 22,000 Russian Orthodox churches had become active. However, in 1959, Nikita Khrushchev initiated his own campaign against the Russian Orthodox Church and forced the closure of about 12,000 churches. It is estimated that 50,000 clergy had been executed between the revolution and the end of the Khrushchev era. Members of the church hierarchy were jailed or forced out, their places taken by docile clergy, many of whom had ties with the KGB. By 1985 fewer than 7,000 churches remained active.[225]
Albania was the only state to have declared itself officially fully atheist.[226] In some other Communist states such as Romania, the Romanian Orthodox Church as an organisation enjoyed relative freedom and even prospered, albeit under strict secret police control. That, however, did not rule out demolishing churches and monasteries as part of broader systematisation (urban planning), and state persecution of individual believers. As an example of the latter, Romania stands out as a country which ran a specialised institution where many Orthodox (along with people of other faiths) were subjected to psychological punishment or torture and mind control experimentation in order to force them give up their religious convictions. However, this was only supported by one faction within the regime, and lasted only three years. The Communist authorities closed down the prison in 1952, and punished many of those responsible for abuses (twenty of them were sentenced to death).[227][228]
Post-communist to 21st century
Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, and the subsequent fall of communist governments across the Orthodox world, there has been marked growth in Christian Orthodoxy, particularly in Russia. According to the Pew Research Religion & Public Life Project, between 1991 and 2008, the share of Russian adults identifying as Orthodox Christian rose from 31 percent to 72 percent, based on analysis of three waves of data (1991, 1998 and 2008) from the International Social Survey Programme (ISSP), a collaborative effort involving social scientists in about 50 countries.[229]
Pew research conducted in 2017 found a doubling in the global Orthodox population since the early 20th century, with the greatest resurgence in Russia.[230] In the former Soviet Union—where the largest Orthodox communities live—self-identified Orthodox Christians generally report low levels of observance and piety: In Russia, only 6% of Orthodox Christian adults reported attending church at least weekly, 15% say religion is "very important" in their lives, and 18% say they pray daily; other former Soviet republics display similarly low levels of religious observance.[231] This is attributed to the legacy of Soviet repression, as well as the general trend of Europeans being less religiously observant generally.
Межконфессиональные отношения
Relations with other Christians
Eastern Orthodoxy represents the majority of Eastern Christianity. The Orthodox trace their bishops back to the apostles through apostolic succession, and continue the ancient Christian practices of veneration of saints, especially Mary as the Theotokos, prayers for the dead, and monasticism. Orthodoxy does not openly promote statuary, although it is not expressly condemned, instead limiting itself primarily to two-dimensional iconography. Western theological concepts of original sin, substitutionary atonement, predestination, purgatory and particular judgment are generally rejected by traditional Orthodox theologians.
The Orthodox believe themselves to be the one, holy, catholic and apostolic, that is, the true Church established by Jesus Christ and placed into the care of the apostles. As almost all other Christian groups are in indirect schism with the Orthodox Church, mostly as a result of the Great Schism with the Catholic Church at the turn of the second Christian millennium (before the schisms of the Protestant Reformation), these other groups are viewed as being Christian, but who, to varying degrees, lack full theological orthodoxy and orthopraxy. As such, all groups outside of the Orthodox Church are not seen as being members of the church proper, but rather separated brethren who have failed to retain the fullness of the Christian faith and theology. These deviations from orthodoxy have traditionally been called heresy, but due to the term's perceived pejorative connotations, some prefer the more technical designation of the term heterodoxy.
In 1920, the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, published an encyclical "addressed 'To all the Churches of Christ, wherever they may be', urging closer co-operation among separated Christians, and suggesting a 'League of Churches', parallel to the newly founded League of Nations".[232] This gesture was instrumental in the foundation of the World Council of Churches (WCC);[233] as such, almost all Eastern Orthodox churches are members of the WCC and "Orthodox ecclesiastics and theologians serve on its committees".[234] Kallistos Ware, a British metropolitan bishop of the Orthodox Church, has stated that ecumenism "is important for Orthodoxy: it has helped to force the various Orthodox churches out of their comparative isolation, making them meet one another and enter into a living contact with non-Orthodox Christians."[235]
Hilarion Alfeyev, Metropolitan of Volokolamsk and head of external relations for the Moscow Patriarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church, stated that Orthodox and Evangelical Protestant Christians share the same positions on "such issues as abortion, the family, and marriage" and desire "vigorous grassroots engagement" between the two Christian communions on such issues.[236] In that regard, the differences between the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox communions have not been improved in any relevant way. Dogmatic and liturgical polarities have been significant, even and especially in recent times. A pertinent point of contention between the monarchically papal, administratively centralised Catholic Church and the decentralised confederation of Orthodox churches is the theological significance of the Virgin Mary.[237] During his visit to Georgia in October 2016, Pope Francis was snubbed by most Orthodox Christians as he led mass before a practically empty Mikheil Meskhi Stadium in Tbilisi.[238]
The Oriental Orthodox churches are not in communion with the Eastern Orthodox Church, despite their similar names. Slow dialogue towards restoring communion between the two churches began in the mid-20th century,[239] and, notably, in the 19th century, when the Greek Patriarch in Egypt had to absent himself from the country for a long period of time; he left his church under the guidance of the Coptic Pope Cyril IV of Alexandria.[240]
In 2019, the Primate of the OCU Metropolitan of Kyiv and All Ukraine Epiphanius stated that "theoretically" the Orthodox Church of Ukraine and the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church could in the future unite into a united church around the Kyiv throne.[241] In 2019, the Primate of the UGCC, Major Archbishop of Kyiv-Galicia Sviatoslav, stated that every effort should be made to restore the original unity of the Kyivan Church in its Orthodox and Catholic branches, saying that the restoration of Eucharistic communion between Rome and Constantinople is not a utopia.[242]
Notwithstanding certain overtures by both Catholic and Orthodox leaders, the majority of Orthodox Christians, as well as Catholics, are not in favor of communion between their churches, with only a median of 35 percent and 38 percent, respectively, claiming support.[243]
Relations with Islam
Historically, the Orthodox Church and the non-Chalcedonians were among the first peoples to have contact with Islam, which conquered Roman/Byzantine Syria-Palestine and Egypt in the 7th century, and fought many battles against Islamic conquests. The Qur'an itself records its concurrent observations regarding the Roman world in Surah al-Rum. The main contact with Islam however, came after the conquest of the Seljuk Turks of Roman/Byzantine Anatolia in the 13th century.
Christians under Islamic rule were denied equality of rights and forced to pay the Jizya poll tax,[244] albeit with monks, elders, and other classes being exempted. Tolerance varied depending on the time period and subject matter; under the Ottomans, Christians were permitted a fair amount of internal autonomy, including over their own legal and civil affairs, but restricted in other respects, such as with public expression of faiths.
In Russia, Metropolitan Alfeyev expressed the possibility of peaceful coexistence between Islam and Christianity, as the two religions have never had religious wars in Russia.[245]
Настоящее время
The various autocephalous and autonomous synods of the Orthodox Church are distinct in terms of administration and local culture, but for the most part exist in full communion with one another. Presently, there are two communions that reject each other and, in addition, some schismatic churches not in any communion, with all three groups identifying as Eastern Orthodox.
The main traditional historical communion is divided into two groups—those who use the Revised Julian calendar for calculating fixed feasts and the Julian calendar for calculating movable feasts, and those who use the Julian calendar for all purposes. This second group may include congregations whose church allows them to choose, with the proviso that the choice remains in effect at least until the end of the church year. Also in communion are the Estonian and Finnish Orthodox churches who have a dispensation to use the Gregorian calendar for all purposes. Another group is referred to as True Orthodoxy (or Old Calendarists); they are those who, without authority from their parent churches, have continued to use the old Julian calendar, claiming that the calendar reform in the 1920s is in contravention of the ecumenical councils. Similarly, another group called the Old Believers, separated in 1666 from the official Russian Orthodox Church as a protest against church rite reforms introduced by Patriarch Nikon of Moscow. As Eastern Orthodox Christianity is both collegial and local in structure, there is no single organisation called the "True Orthodox Church" nor is there official recognition among the "True Orthodox" as to who is properly included among them. While some unions have taken place even up to the present, the majority of True Orthodox are only secondarily concerned with reunion as opposed to preservation of Eastern Orthodox teaching.
The calendar question reflects the dispute between those who wish to use a calendar which is reformed yet not Gregorian (effectively gaining the perceived benefits of the Gregorian calendar without disregarding the three anathemas issued against it in the sixteenth century), something which opponents consider unnecessary and damaging to continuity, and those who wish to maintain the traditional ecclesiastical calendar (which happens to be based on the Julian calendar), arguing that such a modern change goes against 1900 years of church tradition and was in fact perpetrated without an ecumenical council, which would surely have rejected the idea.
The dispute has led to much acrimony, and sometimes even to violence. Following canonical precepts, some adherents of the old calendar have chosen to abstain from clerical inter-communion with those synods which have embraced the new calendar until the conflict is resolved. The monastic communities on Mount Athos have provided the strongest opposition to the new calendar, and to modernism in general, while still maintaining communion with their mother church.
The Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (ROCOR) has recently united with the Moscow Patriarchate; these two branches of the Russian Orthodox Church had separated from each other in the 1920s due to the subjection of the latter to the hostile Soviet regime (see Act of Canonical Communion).
Main communion
The Orthodox Church is a communion of 14 autocephalous—that is, administratively completely independent—regional churches,[246] plus the Orthodox Church in America and recently the Orthodox Church of Ukraine. The Orthodox Church in America is recognised as autocephalous only by the Russian, Bulgarian, Georgian, Polish and Czech-Slovak churches. In December 2018, representatives of two former non-canonical Ukraine Orthodox churches, along with two metropolitans of the canonical, but not autocephalous Ukraine Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate, proclaimed the formation of the unified Orthodox Church of Ukraine. On 5 January 2019 it received the tomos of autocephaly (decree which defines the conditions of a church's independence) from the Ecumenical Patriarchate and thus received the place in the diptych.
Each church has defined geographical boundaries of its jurisdiction and is ruled by its council of bishops or synod presided by a senior bishop–its primate (or first hierarch). The primate may carry the honorary title of patriarch, metropolitan (in the Slavic tradition) or archbishop (in the Greek tradition).
Each regional church consists of constituent eparchies (or, dioceses) ruled by a bishop. Some churches have given an eparchy or group of eparchies varying degrees of autonomy (self-government). Such autonomous churches maintain varying levels of dependence on their mother church, usually defined in a tomos or other document of autonomy.
Below is a list of the 14 autocephalous Orthodox churches forming the main body of Orthodox Christianity, all of which are titled equal to each other, but the Ecumenical Patriarchate is titled the first among equals. Based on the definitions, the list is in the order of precedence and alphabetical order where necessary, with some of their constituent autonomous churches and exarchates listed as well. The liturgical title of the primate is in italics.
- Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople (Archbishop of Constantinople-New Rome and First Among Equals Patriarch)
- Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Italy (His Eminence Orthodox Archbishop of Italy and Malta)
- Autonomous Orthodox Church of Finland (Archbishop of Helsinki and All Finland, formerly Archbishop of Karelia and All Finland)
- Self-governing Orthodox Church of Crete (Archbishop of Crete)
- Self-governing Monastic Community of Mount Athos
- Self-governing Orthodox Church of Korea (Metropolitan of Seoul and All Korea)
- Eparchy of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of Canada
- Eparchy of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the USA
- Eparchy of the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America
- Eparchy of the Exarchate of the Philippines
- Eparchy of the American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Diocese
- Patriarchate of Alexandria (His Most Divine Beatitude the Pope and Patriarch of the Great City of Alexandria, Libya, Pentapolis, Ethiopia, all the land of Egypt, and all Africa, Father of Fathers, Shepherd of Shepherds, Prelate of Prelates, Thirteenth of the Apostles, and Judge of the Œcumene)
- Patriarchate of Antioch (Patriarch of Antioch and all the East)
- Self-governing Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America (Archbishop of New York and Metropolitan of All North America)
- Self-governing Antiochian Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia, New Zealand, and All Oceania (Metropolitan Archbishop of Australia, New Zealand and the Philippines)
- Patriarchate of Jerusalem (Patriarch of the Holy City of Jerusalem and all Holy Land, Syria, Arabia, beyond the Jordan River, Cana of Galilee, and Sacred Zion)
- Autonomous Church of Mount Sinai (Archbishop of Choreb, Sinai, and Raitha)
- Russian Orthodox Church (Patriarch of Moscow and all Russia)
- Autonomous Orthodox Church in Japan (Archbishop of Tokyo and Metropolitan of All Japan)
- Exarchate of Belarus (Metropolitan of Minsk and Slutsk, Patriarchal Exarch of All Belarus)
- Self-governing Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (Metropolitan of Eastern America and New York, First Hierarch of the Russian church abroad)
- Self-governing Orthodox Church of Moldova (Metropolitan of Chişinău and all Moldova)
- Self-governing Orthodox Church of Latvia (Metropolitan of Riga and all Latvia)
- Serbian Orthodox Church (Archbishop of Peć, Metropolitan of Belgrade and Karlovci, and Serbian Patriarch)
- Autonomous Orthodox Ohrid Archbishopric (Archbishop of Ohrid and Metropolitan of Skopje)
- Bulgarian Orthodox Church (Metropolitan of Sofia and Patriarch of All Bulgaria)
- Romanian Orthodox Church (Archbishop of Bucharest, Metropolitan of Muntenia and Dobrudja, Locum Tenens of the Throne of Caesarea of Cappadocia, and Patriarch of Romania)
- Georgian Orthodox Church (Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia, the Archbishop of Mtskheta-Tbilisi and Metropolitan bishop of Abkhazia and Pitsunda)
- Church of Cyprus (Archbishop of New Justiniana and all Cyprus)
- Church of Greece (Archbishop of Athens and all Greece)
- Orthodox Church of Albania (Archbishop of Tirana, Durres and all Albania)
- Polish Orthodox Church (Metropolitan of Warsaw and all Poland or Archbishop of Warsaw and Metropolitan of All Poland)[f]
- Orthodox Church of the Czech Lands and Slovakia (Archbishop of Prague, the Metropolitan of Czech lands and Slovakia or the Archbishop of Presov, the Metropolitan of Czech lands and Slovakia)
Within the main body of Eastern Orthodoxy there are unresolved internal issues as to the autonomous or autocephalous status or legitimacy of the following Orthodox churches, particularly between those stemming from the Russian Orthodox or Constantinopolitan churches:
- Orthodox Church in America (Archbishop of Washington, Metropolitan of All America and Canada) – Not recognised by the Ecumenical Patriarchate.
- Self-governing Metropolis of Bessarabia of the Romanian Orthodox Church – Territory is claimed by the Russian Orthodox Church.
- Self-governing Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church (Metropolitan of Tallinn and all Estonia) – Recognised only by the Ecumenical Patriarchate, opposed only by the Russian Orthodox Church.
- Self-governing Estonian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate (Metropolitan of Tallinn and all Estonia) – Not recognised by the Ecumenical Patriarchate.
- Self-governing Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate) (Metropolitan of Kyiv and all Ukraine) – Not recognised by the Ecumenical Patriarchate, Church of Greece, Church of Cyprus, and Patriarchate of Alexandria, as of October 2020.[248][249][250]
- Orthodox Church of Ukraine (Metropolitan of Kyiv and All Ukraine) – Recognised by the Ecumenical Patriarchate, Church of Greece, Church of Cyprus, and Patriarchate of Alexandria[248][251][249][250][252][253] as of October 2020, opposed by the Russian, Antiochian, Czech and Slovak, Serbian and Polish Orthodox Churches, and the Orthodox Church in America.[254][255][256]
Traditionalist groups
True Orthodox
True Orthodoxy has been separated from the mainstream communion over issues of ecumenism and calendar reform since the 1920s.[257] The movement rejects the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, the Moscow Patriarchate, and those churches which are in communion with them, accusing them of heresy and placing themselves under bishops who do the same thing. They adhere to the use of the old Julian calendar since antiquity, claiming that the calendar reform in the 1920s is in contravention of the ecumenical councils. True Orthodox writers have argued that in missionary areas such as the United States, Orthodox (SCOBA) membership numbers may be overstated, with the comparative number of True Orthodox as up to 15% of the Orthodox population, in Russia, it has been claimed by some clergy that up to a million Russians may be True Orthodox of different jurisdictions, though the total number is often cited at 1.7–2 million together.
There is no official communion of traditionalists. They often are local groups and are limited to a specific bishop or locality. The following is a list of the most prominent True Orthodox churches:
- Churches descending from the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia
- Greek Old Calendarists
- Old Calendar Bulgarian Orthodox Church
- Old Calendar Romanian Orthodox Church
- Russian Orthodox Autonomous Church
- Russian True Orthodox Church (Catacomb Church)
- Russian True Orthodox Church (Lazaran RTOC)
- Serbian True Orthodox Church
Old Believers
Old Believers are groups which do not accept the liturgical reforms which were carried out within the Russian Orthodox Church by Patriarch Nikon of Moscow in the 17th century. Although all of the groups of Old Believers emerged as a result of opposition to the Nikonian reforms, they do not constitute a single monolithic body. Despite their emphasis on invariable adherence to the pre-Nikonian traditions, the Old Believers feature a great diversity of groups which profess different interpretations of church tradition and they are often not in communion with each other (some groups even practise re-baptism before admitting a member of another group into their midst).
- Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church (Belokrinitskaya Hierarchy)
- Lipovan Orthodox Old-Rite Church (Belokrinitskaya Hierarchy)
- Russian Old-Orthodox Church (Novozybkovskaya Hierarchy)
- Pomorian Old-Orthodox Church (Pomortsy)
- Fedoseevtsy
Churches not in communion with other churches
Churches with irregular or unresolved canonical status are entities that have carried out episcopal consecrations outside of the norms of canon law or whose bishops have been excommunicated by one of the 14 autocephalous churches. These include nationalist and other schismatic bodies such as the Abkhazian Orthodox Church or the Evangelical Orthodox Church.
- Abkhazian Orthodox Church
- American Orthodox Catholic Church
- Belarusian Autocephalous Orthodox Church
- Communion of the Western Orthodox Churches
- Evangelical Orthodox Church
- Holy Orthodox Church in North America, in communion with Greek Old Calendarists
- Lusitanian Orthodox Church
- Macedonian Orthodox Church
- Montenegrin Orthodox Church
- Orthodox Church of France
- Turkish Orthodox Church
- Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church Canonical
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- Interparliamentary Assembly on Orthodoxy
- List of Orthodox Churches
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- Theological differences between the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church
- Timeline of Orthodoxy in Greece (33–717)
Заметки
- ^ Protestantism, as a whole, is not formally a church
- ^ According to Roman Lunkin in an interview about the 2012 survey published by Среда (Sreda), about 40% of the Russian Federation population is Orthodox. However, only 5% belong to a parish or regularly attend Divine Liturgy. Lunkin said that this was long known by experts but a myth persists that 80–90% of the population is Orthodox.[86] According to The World Factbook 2006 estimate, 15–20% are practicing Russian Orthodox but there is a large populations of non-practicing believers.[87]
- ^ Data is estimated, there are no census figures available, Greece is said to be 98% Orthodox by CIA, but additional studies found only 60–80% believe in God, if true, then no more than 80% may be Orthodox.
- ^ According to Alexei Krindatch, "the total number of Orthodox parishes" increased by 16% from 2000 to 2010 in the United States, from this, he wrote that Orthodox Churches are growing.[100](p2) Krindatch did not provide figures about any change in the membership over that same period in his 2010 highlight.
- ^ According to Oliver Herbel, in Turning to Tradition, the 2008 US Religious Landscape Survey "suggests that if there is growth, it is statistically insignificant."[101](p9) The 2014 US Religious Landscape Survey also shows, within the survey's ±9.2% margin of sampling error corresponding to the sample size of the Orthodox Christian category being 186 people, a statistically insignificant decline within the category "Orthodox Christians" as the percentage of population from 2007 to 2014.[102](pp4, 21, 36, 93) But only 53% of people who were Orthodox Christian as children still self identify as Orthodox Christian in 2014.[102](p39) The Orthodox Christian category "is most heavily made up of immigrants and the children of immigrants."[102](p53)
- ^ The primate of the Polish Orthodox Church is referred to as Archbishop of Warsaw and Metropolitan of All Poland, but the Polish Orthodox Church is officially a Metropolis[247]
Рекомендации
Citations
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- ^ "Eastern Orthodoxy – Worship and sacraments". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-04-13.
- ^ Fiske, Edward B. (1970-07-03). "Greek Orthodox Vote to Use Vernacular in Liturgy". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2020-04-13.
- ^ "Liturgy and archaic language | David T. Koyzis". First Things. Retrieved 2020-04-13.
- ^ Eastern Churches Journal: A Journal of Eastern Christendom. Society of Saint John Chrysostom. 2004. p. 181.
His All Holiness Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew is the 270th successor to the Apostle Andrew and spiritual leader of 300 million Orthodox Christians worldwide.
- ^ a b c Brien, Joanne O.; Palmer, Martin (2007). The Atlas of Religion. University of California Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-520-24917-2.
There are over 220 million Orthodox Christians worldwide.
- ^ a b "Eastern Orthodoxy". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Eastern Orthodoxy, official name, used in British English as well, is Orthodox Catholic Church, one of the three major doctrinal and jurisdictional groups of Christianity.
- ^ a b Ellwood, Robert S.; Alles, Gregory D. (2007). Ellwood Encyclopedia of World Religions. p. 128. ISBN 978-1-4381-1038-7.
The Eastern Orthodox Churches are properly known as the "Orthodox Catholic Church
- ^ a b Tsichlis, Fr. Steven. "Frequently Asked Questions About the Orthodox Church". St. Paul's Greek Orthodox Church, Irvine, CA. Archived from the original on 10 December 2013. Retrieved 4 May 2014.
The full title of our Church is "The Orthodox Catholic Church."
- ^ a b Richard R. Losch (1 May 2002). The Many Faces of Faith: A Guide to World Religions and Christian Traditions. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-8028-0521-8.
The official name of the body is the Orthodox Catholic Church.
- ^ Johnson, Todd M. "Status of Global Christianity, 2019, in the Context of 1900–2050" (PDF). Center for the Study of Global Christianity.
- ^ Fairchild, Mary (17 March 2017). "Eastern Orthodox Denomination". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 19 October 2018.
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The Moscow-based Russian Orthodox Church has at least 150 million followers – more than half the total of Orthodox Christians....But Mr Shterin, who lectures on trends in ex-Soviet republics, says some Moscow-linked parishes will probably switch to a new Kiev-led church, because many congregations "don't vary a lot in their political preferences."
- ^ "Orthodox Christianity's geographic center remains in Central and Eastern Europe". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 2017-11-08. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
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- ^ a b "The Orthodox Faith – Volume I – Doctrine and Scripture – The Symbol of Faith – Church". www.oca.org. Retrieved 2020-07-27.
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- ^ Harriet Sherwood (13 January 2016). "Christians flee growing persecution in Africa and Middle East". The Guardian.
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- ^ "About Orthodox". Saint Mary Antiochian Orthodox Church, Pawtucket, RI. Retrieved 4 May 2014.
The official designation of the Orthodox Church is the "Eastern Orthodox Catholic and Apostolic Church."
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The official designation of the church in its liturgical and canonical texts is "the Orthodox Catholic Church"
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- ^ Greek Orthodox Church 1875.
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The Church is Catholic, for her flock has one heart and one soul (Acts 4:32) and her catholicity is dominant.
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- ^ Fitzgerald 1998, p. 8.
- ^ De Vie 1945.
- ^ Nielsen, Johnson & Ellis 2001, p. 248 "In the Eastern Orthodox Catholic Church, authority ...".
- ^ Fortescue 1908, p. 255 "... it is all gathered together and still lives in the Holy Apostolic Orthodox Catholic Church of the Seven Councils.".
- ^ Schadé Encyclopedia of World Religions 2006.
- ^ Losch 2002, p. 76.
- ^ Merriam-Webster Encyclopedia of World Religions 1999, pp. 309–310.
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Online, "Eastern Orthodoxy" "Because of the use of the name "Greek Catholics" by the Eastern churches of the Catholic Church and the historical links of the Orthodox Catholic church with the Eastern Roman Empire and Byzantium (Constantinople), however, the exonyms in American English usage referred to it as the "Eastern" or "Greek Orthodox" Church. These terms are sometimes misleading, especially when applied to Russian or Slavic churches and to the Orthodox communities in western Europe and America.".
- ^ a b Fitzgerald, Thomas (9 January 1996). "The Orthodox Church: An Introduction". Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America. Archived from the original on 3 June 2016. Retrieved 11 June 2016.
- ^ Thurston, Herbert (1908). "Catholic". In Knight, Kevin (ed.). The Catholic Encyclopedia. 3. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
- ^ Hardon 1981, p. 217.
- ^ δοκέω in Liddell and Scott
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- ^ Hierotheos 1998, pp. 69–72.
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- ^ Ware 1991, p. 282.
- ^ Ware 1991, pp. 180–199.
- ^ Ware 1991, pp. 152–179.
- ^ Ware 1991, pp. 203–204.
- ^ Bible: John 14:17; John 14:26
- ^ Ware 1991, p. 215.
- ^ Evagrius the Solitary (1857–1866) [4th century], "On Prayer, 60", in Migne, J.P. (ed.), Patrologia Graeca, 79, Paris: Imprimerie Catholique, p. 1180B, retrieved 15 May 2014
- ^ St. Maximus (1857–1866) [7th century], "Letter 20", in Migne, J.P. (ed.), Patrologia Graeca, 91, Paris: Imprimerie Catholique, p. 601C, retrieved 15 May 2014
- ^ American Heritage Dict & 5th ed, p. 294 "catholicity".
- ^ Ware 1991, p. 16.
- ^ Encyclopedia of Christianity 2003, p. 867.
- ^ Leith 1982, p. 486.
- ^ a b "Eastern Orthodox Church". BBC. Retrieved 26 July 2015.
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- ^ "Gsell, Most Rev. Francis Xavier (27 Oct. 1872–12 July 1960), RC Bishop of Darwin, 1938–49; Titular Bishop of Paris; assistant at the Pontifical throne, Rome, 1951", Who Was Who, Oxford University Press, 2007-12-01, doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u238027 "Everywhere following the decrees of the Holy Fathers, and aware of the recently recognized Canon of the one hundred and fifty most God-beloved Bishops who convened during the reign of Theodosius the Great of pious memory, who became emperor in the imperial city of Constantinople otherwise known as New Rome; we too decree and vote the same things in regard to the privileges and priorities of the most holy Church of that same Constantinople and New Rome. And this is in keeping with the fact that the Fathers naturally enough granted the priorities to the throne of Old Rome on account of her being the imperial capital. And motivated by the same object and aim the one hundred and fifty most God-beloved Bishops have accorded the like priorities to the most holy throne of New Rome, with good reason deeming that the city which is the seat of an empire, and of a senate, and is equal to old imperial Rome in respect of other privileges and priorities, should be magnified also as she is in respect of ecclesiastical affairs, as coming next after her, or as being second to her."
- ^ Christopher M. Bellitto, The General Councils: A History of the Twenty-one General Councils from Nicaea to Vatican II, Paulist Press, 2002, p. 41.
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- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook document: "Field listing :: Religions". Retrieved 2014-05-22.
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- ^ Lebanon – International Religious Freedom Report 2010 U.S. Department of State. Retrieved on 14 February 2010.
- ^ a b Maria Hämmerli; Jean-François Mayer (28 August 2014). Orthodox Identities in Western Europe: Migration, Settlement and Innovation. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 229. ISBN 978-1-4094-6754-0.
according to the 2011 census, Orthodox Christianity is the fastest growing religious grouping in Ireland, showing...
- ^ Arthur Aughey; John Oakland (17 December 2013). Irish Civilization: An Introduction. Routledge. p. 99. ISBN 978-1-317-67850-2.
However, the fastest-growing church is the Orthodox Church …
- ^ "Number of Orthodox Christians in Ireland doubled over five years". pravoslavie.ru. Moscow: Sretensky Monastery. 2012-11-01. Retrieved 2014-05-23. This tertiary source September 2015 reuses information from other sources without citing them in detail.
- ^ NW, 1615 L. St; Washington, Suite 800; Inquiries, DC 20036 USA202-419-4300 | Main202-419-4349 | Fax202-419-4372 | Media (2017-11-08). "Orthodox Christianity's geographic center remains in Central and Eastern Europe". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. Retrieved 2021-05-24.
- ^ Jones, Whitney (2010-10-06). "Report finds strong growth in U.S. Orthodox Churches". huffingtonpost.com. New York. Religion News Service. Archived from the original on 2010-10-10. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
- ^ Krindatch, Alexei D. (2010). "[Highlights from the] 2010 US Orthodox Christian census" (PDF). hartfordinstitute.org. Hartford, CT: Hartford Institute for Religion Research. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-05-23. Retrieved 2015-09-26. Conducted as part of the Religious Congregations and Membership Study 2010.
- ^ Herbel, Oliver (2014). Turning to tradition: converts and the making of an American Orthodox church. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-932495-8. Retrieved 2016-02-20.
- ^ a b c Pew Research Center (2015-05-12). America's changing religious landscape (PDF). Washington, DC: Pew Research Center. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-09-05. Retrieved 2015-09-26. Based on 2014 Religious Landscape Survey.
- ^ NW, 1615 L. St; Washington, Suite 800; Inquiries, DC 20036 USA202-419-4300 | Main202-419-4349 | Fax202-419-4372 | Media (2017-11-08). "Orthodox Christianity's geographic center remains in Central and Eastern Europe". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. Retrieved 2021-05-24.
- ^ İçduygu, Ahmet; Toktaş, Şule; Soner, B. Ali (1 February 2008). "The politics of population in a nation-building process: emigration of non-Muslims from Turkey". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 31 (2): 358–389. doi:10.1080/01419870701491937. S2CID 143541451.
- ^ "Chapter The refugees question in Greece (1821–1930) in "Θέματα Νεοελληνικής Ιστορίας", ΟΕΔΒ ("Topics from Modern Greek History"). 8th edition" (PDF). Nikolaos Andriotis. 2008.
- ^ "'Editors' Introduction: Why a Special Issue?: Disappearing Christians of the Middle East" (PDF). Editors' Introduction. 2001. Retrieved 11 June 2013.
- ^ Ware 1993, pp. 208–211. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFWare1993 (help)
- ^ Ware 1993, p. 202. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFWare1993 (help)
- ^ Ware 1993, pp. 67–69. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFWare1993 (help)
- ^ Hierotheos 1998, pp. 128–130.
- ^ Matusiak, Fr. John. "Original Sin". Orthodox Church in America. Retrieved 23 May 2014.
- ^ Chrysostom 400, Paschal Homily.
- ^ St. Athanasius 1982, Ch. 2–3, p. 318.
- ^ Hierotheos 1998, pp. 234–237,(241=Glossary).
- ^ George 2006, p. 34.
- ^ Oxford Dict Christian Church & 3rd ed.
- ^ Fitzgerald, Fr. Thomas (2014). "Spirituality". Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America. Retrieved 15 May 2014.
- ^ George 2006, p. 21.
- ^ Hierotheos 1998, pp. 25–30.
- ^ Hierotheos 1998, p. 23.
- ^ Meyendorff, Gregory of Nyssa; transl., introduction and notes by Abraham J. Malherbe and Everett Ferguson; preface by John (1978). The life of Moses. New York: Paulist Press. p. 59. ISBN 978-0-8091-2112-0. Retrieved 4 October 2013.
- ^ Ware 1993, pp. 257–258. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFWare1993 (help)
- ^ Ware 1993, p. 234. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFWare1993 (help)
- ^ The Longer Catechism of The Orthodox, Catholic, Eastern Church, an Orthodox catechism from 1830, by Metropolitan Philaret. Start with item 366 or 372. Archived July 3, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b c Rose, Father Seraphim, The Soul After Death, St. Herman Press, Platina, CA, c. 1980
- ^ The Longer Catechism, Item 377. Archived July 3, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Di Lella, Alexander A. (2002). "The Textual History of Septuagint-Daniel and Theodotion Daniel". In Collins, John Joseph; Flint, Peter W.; VanEpps, Cameron (eds.). The Book of Daniel: Composition and Reception. 2. Brill. p. 586. ISBN 9780391041288.
- ^ Geisler, Norman L.; Nix, William E. (2012). From God to Us: How We Got Our Bible. Moody Publishers. ISBN 9780802428820.
- ^ Ware 1991, p. 209.
- ^ Ware 1991, p. 209 (quoting St. John Chrysostom): "It is impossible for a man to be saved if he does not read the Scriptures.".
- ^ Pomazansky, Michael, Orthodox Dogmatic Theology, pp. 33–34
- ^ including the deuterocanonical books
- ^ S.T. Kimbrough (2005). Orthodox And Wesleyan Scriptual Understanding And Practice. St Vladimir's Seminary Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-88141-301-4. Retrieved 2016-02-20.
- ^ Orthodox Study Bible, St. Athanasius Academy of Theology, 2008, p. 778, commentary
- ^ Bible: Genesis 1:3
- ^ Ware, Bishop Kallistos (Timothy), How to Read the Bible, retrieved 11 June 2013
- ^ Bible: John 16:13
- ^ a b c d e f Ware 1991, pp. 210–215
- ^ Ware 1993, pp. 195–196. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFWare1993 (help)
- ^ Letter of 1718, in George Williams, The Orthodox Church of the East in the 18th Century, p. 17
- ^ Bible: Matthew 16:19
- ^ Vladimir Lossky, "Tradition is the life of the Holy Spirit in the Church."
- ^ Ware 1991, p. 205.
- ^ Ware 1991, p. 213.
- ^ Bible: 1 Cor 1:10
- ^ Bible: Acts 14:23
- ^ Holy Bible: Acts 6:1–6
- ^ Concordia Theological Seminary – Content Not Found Archived April 3, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "The Five Cycles". Orthodox Worship. The Diocese of Eastern Pennsylvania, Orthodox Church in America. Retrieved 24 June 2015.
- ^ Ware 1993, p. 238. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFWare1993 (help)
- ^ Bible: Malachi 1:11
- ^ Bible: Psalm 141:2, Revelation 5:8, Revelation 8:4
- ^ Bible: James 3:5–6
- ^ Bible: 1 Corinthians 7:5
- ^ Henry Chadwick, The Early Church, 283.
- ^ Ware 1993, p. 271. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFWare1993 (help)
- ^ "Icons – Orthodox Christianity – Religion Facts". Archived from the original on March 22, 2015. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
- ^ Binz, Stephen J. (2004). The Names of Jesus. New London: Twenty-Third Publications. pp. 81–82. ISBN 9781585953158.
- ^ A good explanation of the 3-bar cross was written by Orthodox symbologist Dr Alexander Roman and can be found at http://www.ukrainian-orthodoxy.org/questions/2010/threeBarCross.php
- ^ "An Explanation of the Traditional Russian Orthodox Three-bar Cross". www.synaxis.info. Retrieved 2015-10-17.
- ^ "St. Olga Cross (10kt Gold) (Large) (High Quality Gauge)".
- ^ Thomas E. FitzGerald (1998). The Orthodox Church: Student Edition. ISBN 978-0-275-96438-2. Retrieved 5 January 2013.
- ^ Binns 2002, p. 3.
- ^ Athanasius of Alexandria, On the Incarnation of the Word, § 54. Archived April 17, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ see Bible 2 Peter 1:4, John 10:34–36, Psalm 82:6
- ^ Ware 1993, pp. 274–277. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFWare1993 (help)
- ^ Ware 1993, pp. 277–278. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFWare1993 (help)
- ^ Ware 1993, p. 278. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFWare1993 (help)
- ^ Fr. Thomas Hopko (1981). "The Orthodox Faith". St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
- ^ Ware 1993, pp. 278–279. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFWare1993 (help)
- ^ Harakas 1987, pp. 56–57.
- ^ a b c Ware 1993, p. 279 harvnb error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFWare1993 (help)
- ^ Harakas 1987, p. 57.
- ^ Ware 1993, p. 287. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFWare1993 (help)
- ^ Letter to Families by Pope John Paul II Archived April 5, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ John Meyendorff (1975). Marriage: An Orthodox Perspective. St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-913836-05-7. Retrieved 2016-02-20.
- ^ "Statement of Orthodox Christian Bishops" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 June 2011.
- ^ "OCA Reaffirms SCOBA Statement in Wake of Massachusetts Same-Sex Marriage Ruling". Retrieved 4 August 2010.
- ^ a b John Meyendorff (1975). Marriage: An Orthodox Perspective. St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-913836-05-7. Retrieved 2016-02-20.
- ^ Mgr. Athenagoras Peckstadt, Bishop of Sinope (18 May 2005). "Marriage, Divorce and Remarriage in the Orthodox Church: Economia and Pastoral Guidance". The Orthodox research Institute. Retrieved 19 November 2008.
- ^ Karras, Valerie A. (June 2004). "Female Deacons in the Byzantine Church". Church History. 73 (2): 272–316. doi:10.1017/S000964070010928X. ISSN 0009-6407.
- ^ James 5:14–15
- ^ a b c Ware 1993 harvnb error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFWare1993 (help)
- ^ Tomáš Špidlík (1986). The spirituality of the Christian East: a systematic handbook. ISBN 978-0-87907-879-9.
- ^ "The First Ecumenical Council – Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
- ^ "The Second Ecumenical Council – Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
- ^ "The Third Ecumenical Council – Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
- ^ "The Fourth Ecumenical Council – Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
- ^ "The Fifth Ecumenical Council – Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
- ^ "The Sixth Ecumenical Council – Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
- ^ "The Seventh Ecumenical Council – Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
- ^ "Turkey Fanar: Churches reach agreement on pan-Orthodox Holy Synod in 2016".
- ^ "Hagia Sophia". Archnet. Retrieved 12 March 2016.
- ^ a b Heinle & Schlaich 1996
- ^ Cameron 2009 .
- ^ Meyendorff 1982.
- ^ Fazio, Michael; Moffett, Marian; Wodehouse, Lawrence (2009). Buildings Across Time (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 978-0-07-305304-2.
- ^ Simons, Marlise (22 August 1993). "Center of Ottoman Power". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
- ^ A. Avenarius. Christianity in 9th-century Rus. // Beitruge zur byzantinischen Geschichte im 9.-11. Jahrhundert. Prague: V. Vavrinek, 1978. pp. 301–315.
- ^ Aco Lukaroski. "St. Clement of Ohrid Cathedral – About Saint Clement of Ohrid". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
- ^ Dvornik, Francis (1956). The Slavs: Their Early History and Civilization. Boston: American Academy of Arts and Sciences. p. 179.
The Psalter and the Book of Prophets were adapted or "modernised" with special regard to their use in Bulgarian churches, and it was in this school that glagolitic writing was replaced by the so-called Cyrillic writing, which was more akin to the Greek uncial, simplified matters considerably and is still used by the Orthodox Slavs.
- ^ Florin Curta (2006). Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250. Cambridge Medieval Textbooks. Cambridge University Press. pp. 221–222. ISBN 978-0-521-81539-0.
Cyrillic preslav.
- ^ J. M. Hussey, Andrew Louth (2010). "The Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire". Oxford History of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press. p. 100. ISBN 978-0-19-161488-0.
- ^ a b Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001–05, s.v. "Cyril and Methodius, Saints"
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, Warren E. Preece – 1972, p. 846, s.v., "Cyril and Methodius, Saints" and "Orthodoxy, Missions ancient and modern"
- ^ Encyclopedia of World Cultures, David H. Levinson, 1991, p. 239, s.v., "Social Science"
- ^ Eric M. Meyers, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East, p. 151, 1997
- ^ Lunt, Slavic Review, June 1964, p. 216
- ^ Roman Jakobson, "Crucial problems of Cyrillo-Methodian Studies"
- ^ Leonid Ivan Strakhovsky, A Handbook of Slavic Studies, p. 98
- ^ V. Bogdanovich, History of the ancient Serbian literature, Belgrade, 1980, p. 119
- ^ Stephan Thernstrom (1980). Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups. Belknap Press. p. 925. ISBN 978-0-674-37512-3.
- ^ "Harvest of Despair". Ukrainian Canadian Research and Documentation Centre (UCRDC). Retrieved 21 January 2019.
- ^ National Geographic Society (2020-04-06). "Great Schism". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 2020-07-22.
- ^ "East-West Schism 01". Orthodox Church in the Philippines. Archived from the original on 14 January 2012. Retrieved 20 June 2016.
- ^ Pope Innocent III, Letters, 126 (given 12 July 1205, and addressed to the papal legate, who had absolved the crusaders from their pilgrimage vows). Text taken from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook by Paul Halsall. Modified. Original translation by J. Brundage.
- ^ The Horses of San Marco, Venice. Translated by Wilton-Ely, John; Wilton-Ely, Valerie. Thames and Hudson. 1979. p. 191. ISBN 0500233047.
- ^ Articles on moral / morality Orthodox Christian perspective. "Dr. David Carlson – Continuing the Dialogue of Love: Orthodox-Catholic Relations in 2004". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
- ^ "Russian Destinies" Archived 2008-09-28 at the Wayback Machine by Fr. Andrew Phillips, "Orthodox England", 4/17 July 2005
- ^ Peace Treaties and International Law in European History: from the late Middle Ages to World War One, Randall. Lesaffer, 2004, p. 357.
- ^ Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Two Hundred Years Together
- ^ https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-church/russian-orthodox-church-reunites-after-80-year-rift-idUSL1729095720070517
- ^ Alexander (servant of God.) (1998). Father Arseny, 1893–1973: Prisoner, Priest and Spiritual Father. St Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88141-180-5.
- ^ Sullivan, Patricia. Anti-Communist Priest Gheorghe Calciu-Dumitreasa, The Washington Post, 26 November 2006. p. C09. Accessed 9 May 2008.
- ^ a b Ostling, Richard. "Cross meets Kremlin", TIME Magazine, 24 June 2001. Retrieved 7 April 2008. Archived August 13, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Van Christo. Albania and the Albanians". Archived from the original on 8 December 2007. Retrieved 2009-10-26.
- ^ Dumitru Bacu, The Anti-Humans. Student Re-Education in Romanian Prisons Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine, Soldiers of the Cross, Englewood, Colorado, 1971. Originally written in Romanian as Pitești, Centru de Reeducare Studențească, Madrid, 1963
- ^ Adrian Cioroianu, Pe umerii lui Marx. O introducere în istoria comunismului românesc ("On the Shoulders of Marx. An Incursion into the History of Romanian Communism"), Editura Curtea Veche, Bucharest, 2005
- ^ "Russians Return to Religion, But Not to Church". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 10 February 2014. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
- ^ NW, 1615 L. St; Washington, Suite 800; Inquiries, DC 20036 USA202-419-4300 | Main202-419-4349 | Fax202-419-4372 | Media (2017-11-08). "Orthodox Christianity in the 21st Century". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. Retrieved 2021-05-22.
- ^ NW, 1615 L. St; Washington, Suite 800; Inquiries, DC 20036 USA202-419-4300 | Main202-419-4349 | Fax202-419-4372 | Media (2017-11-08). "Orthodox Christianity in the 21st Century". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. Retrieved 2021-05-23.
- ^ Ware, Kallistos (29 April 1993). The Orthodox Church. Penguin Adult. p. 322. ISBN 978-0-14-014656-1.
From the beginning of the twentieth century the Ecumenical Patriarchate has shown a special concern for Christian reconciliation. At his accession in 1902, Patriarch Joachim III sent an encyclical letter to all the autocephalous Orthodox Churches, asking in particular for their opinion on relations with other Christian bodies. In January 1920 the Ecumenical Patriarchate followed this up with a bold and prophetic letter addressed 'To all the Churches of Christ, wherever they may be', urging closer co-operation among separated Christians, and suggesting a 'League of Churches', parallel to the newly founded League of Nations. Many of the ideas in this letter anticipate subsequent developments in the WCC. Constantinople, along with several of the other Orthodox Churches, was represented at the Faith and Order Conferences at Lausanne in 1927 and at Edinburgh in 1937. The Ecumenical Patriarchate also participated in the first Assembly of the WCC at Amsterdam in 1948, and has been a consistent supporter of the work of the WCC ever since.
- ^ Fuchs, Lorelei F. (2008). Koinonia and the Quest for an Ecumenical Ecclesiology. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-8028-4023-3.
Addressed "to all the Churches of Christ, wheresoever they be", the letter of the Ecumenical Patriarchate opens the words anticipating the spirit of the ecclesial bodies which would later form the World Council of Churches.
- ^ Benz, Ernst (31 July 2008). The Eastern Orthodox Church. Transaction Publishers. p. 197. ISBN 978-0-202-36575-6.
A large number of Orthodox Churches are members of the World Council of Churches; Orthodox ecclesiastics and theologians serve on its committees and attend its conferences.
- ^ Ware, Kallistos (28 April 1993). The Orthodox Church. Penguin Adult. p. 322. ISBN 978-0-14-014656-1.
- ^ "From Russia, with Love". Christianity Today. Retrieved 31 December 2007.
Many evangelicals share conservative positions with us on such issues as abortion, the family, and marriage. Do you want vigorous grassroots engagement between Orthodox and evangelicals? Yes, on problems, for example, like the destruction of the family. Many marriages are split. Many families have either one child or no child.
- ^ Orthodox Christian Information Center. An Orthodox View of the Virgin Mary. Retrieved November 10th, 2016.
- ^ Orthodox Church snubs Pope Francis in Georgia. Al Jazeera News. Retrieved November 10th, 2016.
- ^ OONS. "Middle Eastern Oriental Orthodox Common Declaration – March 17, 2001". sor.cua.edu.
- ^ "Saint George Coptic Church". Suscopts.org. Retrieved 2014-04-03.
- ^ https://espreso.tv/article/2019/05/11/epifaniy
- ^ https://synod.ugcc.ua/data/blazhennishyy-svyatoslav-vidnovlennya-vharystiynogo-spilkuvannya-mizh-rymom-i-konstantynopolem-ne-utopiyu-315/
- ^ NW, 1615 L. St; Washington, Suite 800; Inquiries, DC 20036 USA202-419-4300 | Main202-419-4349 | Fax202-419-4372 | Media (2017-11-08). "Orthodox Christianity in the 21st Century". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. Retrieved 2021-05-23.
- ^ Bat Ye'or, The Decline of Eastern Christianity Under Islam
- ^ "From Russia, with Love". Christianity Today. Retrieved 31 December 2007.
If we speak about Islam (and of course if we mean moderate Islam), then I believe there is the possibility of peaceful coexistence between Islam and Christianity. This is what we have had in Russia for centuries, because Russian Islam has a very long tradition. But we never had religious wars. Nowadays we have a good system of collaboration between Christian denominations and Islam.
- ^ "Ecumenical Patriarchate". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
- ^ "Orthodox | Metrolopolia". www.orthodox.pl. Retrieved 2019-01-05.
- ^ a b "Η Εκκλησία της Ελλάδος αναγνώρισε την Αυτοκέφαλη Εκκλησία της Ουκρανίας" [The Church of Greece recognized the Autocephalous Church of Ukraine]. eleftherostypos.gr. Eleutheros Typos. 12 October 2019. Retrieved 12 October 2019.
- ^ a b "It's Official: Church of Greece Recognizes the Autocephaly of the Orthodox Church of Ukraine". The Orthodox World. 12 October 2019. Retrieved 12 October 2019.
- ^ a b "Archbishop of Cyprus commemorates Metropolitan Epifaniy of Kyiv for first time (upd)". Orthodox Times. 2020-10-24. Retrieved 2020-10-24.
- ^ "The Church of Greece has recognized the Autocephalous Church of Ukraine (upd)". Orthodox Times. 2019-10-12. Retrieved 2019-10-12.
- ^ "Кіпрська Церква визнала Православну Церкву України". Релігійно-інформаційна служба України (in Ukrainian). Retrieved 2020-10-24.
- ^ "Archbishop of Cyprus: My decision to commemorate Metropolitan Epifaniy first serves Orthodoxy". Orthodox Times. 2020-10-24. Retrieved 2020-10-24.
- ^ Митрополит Киевский Епифаний заявил, что в ближайшее время еще несколько поместных православных церквей признают ПЦУ. НВ (Новое Время) (in Russian). 5 December 2019.
- ^ https://www.oca.org/holy-synod/statements/holy-synod/archpastoral-letter-on-ukraine
- ^ "Αρχιεπίσκοπος Κύπρου: Η απόφασή μου αυτή υπηρετεί την Ορθοδοξία". ΕΚΚΛΗΣΙΑ ONLINE (in Greek). 2020-10-24. Retrieved 2020-10-24.
- ^ Beoković, Jelena (1 May 2010). "Ko su ziloti, pravoslavni fundamentalisti" [Who are Zealots, Orthodox Fundamentalists]. Politika. Retrieved 5 August 2014.
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дальнейшее чтение
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- Erickson, John H. (1992). "The Local Churches and Catholicity: An Orthodox Perspective". The Jurist. 52: 490–508.
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Внешние ссылки
- An Online Orthodox Catechism published by the Russian Orthodox Church
- OrthodoxWiki
- Orthodox Dictionary at Kursk Root Hermitage of the Birth of the Most Holy Theotokos
- Orthodox books – Lives of Holy People at skete.com
- An Orthodox View of Salvation
- IV Pre-Conciliar Pan-Orthodox Conference
- Orthodox Icons and Paintings
- Prologue from Ohrid – (Saints of the Orthodox Church Calendar)
- A repository with scientific papers on various aspects of the Byzantine Orthodox Church in English and in German
- IOCC: Gaza’s Orthodox Community Struggles to Endure
- "Orthodox Christianity in the 21st Century". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 8 November 2017.
- Relations between the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church
- Pope Benedict XIV, Allatae Sunt (On the observance of Oriental Rites), Encyclical, 1755
- Orientale Lumen – Apostolic Letter of Pope John Paul II on the Eastern Churches, 1995
- Common Declaration of Pope Benedict XVI and the Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I, 2006
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