Межрасовый брак - это форма брака, в которой участвуют супруги, принадлежащие к разным расам или расовым группам .
В прошлом такие браки были запрещены в США , нацистской Германии и Южной Африке эпохи апартеида как смешанные браки . В 1960 году межрасовые браки были запрещены законом в 31 штате США. Это стало законным на всей территории Соединенных Штатов в 1967 году, после решения Верховного суда Соединенных Штатов под главным судьей Эрла Уоррена в случае Влюбленные против. Вирджиния , который постановил , что гонки на основе ограничения на браки, такие как анти-смешанных браков закон в штате Вирджиния , нарушил положение о равной защите в Конституции Соединенных Штатов . [1] [2]
Законность
Во многих юрисдикциях были правила, запрещающие или ограничивающие не только межрасовые браки, но и межрасовые сексуальные отношения, включая Германию в период нацизма , Южную Африку при апартеиде и многие штаты в Соединенных Штатах до решения Верховного суда 1967 года .
Осложнения
Согласно исследованиям Дженифер Л. Браттер и Розалинд Б. Кинг, опубликованным в Информационном центре образовательных ресурсов , в Соединенных Штатах, союзы между белыми мужчинами и небелыми женщинами (а также между выходцами из Латинской Америки и неиспаноязычными людьми) имеют схожие черты. или более низкий риск развода, чем браки между белыми и белыми, союзы между белым мужчиной и чернокожей женщиной длятся дольше, чем пары бело-белые или пары бело-азиатских. [3] И наоборот, браки между белой женщиной и чернокожим мужчиной и белые женщины с азиатским мужчиной более склонны к разводу, чем браки между белыми и белыми. [3]
Семья, общество и религия
Возможный расизм из внешних источников - обычная область потенциальных конфликтов. [4] Однако, по данным опроса, увеличилось количество людей, считающих межрасовые браки приемлемыми. В 1972 году опрос Gallup показал, что 76% опрошенных афроамериканцев одобряли межрасовые браки, в то время как 30% опрошенных белых одобряли их. Всего несколько лет спустя, в 1977 году, процентная доля афроамериканцев выросла до 83%, а среди белых - 67%. [5] Кроме того, с 1980 по 2015 год количество межрасовых браков увеличилось с 7% до 17%. Ставки для чернокожих и белых выросли более чем вдвое, в то время как ставки для латиноамериканцев и азиатов остались довольно стабильными, оставаясь в районе более высоких 20%. [6] В Америке результаты опросов показали, что около 87% одобряют межрасовые браки, в то время как около 4% - в 1958 году. [7] Однако эти результаты, возможно, следует анализировать с осторожностью, поскольку появляются исследования, что даже когда люди согласны с тем, что они одобряют межрасовые пары, все еще есть свидетельства отвращения или неодобрения, когда они сталкиваются с определенными ситуациями. [8]
Религия была важным историческим фактором принятия межрасовых браков и их осложнений. Исследования показали, что те, кто более религиозен, менее склонны к межрасовым отношениям. В проведенных опросах те, кто заявлял, что религия является важным фактором в том, на кого женился их ребенок, с меньшей вероятностью одобрили брак ребенка не из их расы. [9] Есть также исследования, которые дали аналогичные результаты; В другом опросе те, кто выбрал религию как наиболее важный фактор в самоидентификации, также с меньшей вероятностью находились в межрасовых отношениях по сравнению с теми, кто выбрал другие описывающие или идентифицирующие факторы, такие как раса, социальный класс или возраст. [10]
Расовые конструкции
Есть свидетельства того, что межрасовые браки бросают вызов барьерам расовой идентичности. Это не только часто приводит к тому, что дети смешанной расы преодолевают эти барьеры, но также может заставлять тех, кто участвует, либо бросить вызов, либо признать свою расовую идентичность. Согласно исследованиям и опросам, это может означать разные вещи для разных рас. Например, афроамериканцы будут рассматриваться как нарушающие принципы своей расовой идентичности. Белые, состоящие в межрасовых отношениях, также, как сообщается, чувствуют, что они с большей вероятностью узнают свою расовую идентичность так, как не знали раньше. Это может означать, что межрасовый брак влияет на само расовое построение. [11]
Преимущества
Позитивные межрасовые встречи
Преимущество межрасовых браков в том, что они увеличивают возможности для позитивных межрасовых встреч. Исследования показали снижение предубеждений и дискриминации по отношению к членам чужой группы (тем, кто имеет другую расовую идентичность), когда у вас есть положительные межрасовые контакты. Например, метаанализ, проведенный Петтигрю и Троппом (цитируется у Латсона) [12], обнаружил, что межгрупповая дружба была связана со снижением межгрупповых предрассудков. Это можно объяснить «гипотезой контакта», которая заключается в том, что межгрупповой контакт при соответствующих условиях может эффективно уменьшить предубеждения внутри группы и вне группы. Этот контакт не обязательно должен быть прямым, но он также может быть косвенным. Например, Райт и др. [13] выяснили, что кавказцы, которые сообщают, что знали другого европеоида с другом, принадлежащим к другой расе, менее негативно относятся к некавказцам, независимо от уровня прямого контакта.
Они создали конкуренцию между двумя группами, которые думали, что группы были сформированы на основе сходства. После того, как межгрупповая враждебность была установлена, участники наблюдали, как член внутри группы (соучастник) выполнял задание с человеком вне группы (также соучастником). Участница наблюдала, как сообщница ведет себя по-разному в зависимости от наблюдаемого ею состояния. В положительном состоянии конфедераты обнимались и приветствовали друг друга как уже существующие друзья (положительное состояние). В нейтральном состоянии конфедераты были вежливы друг с другом, но не обязательно дружелюбны. Во враждебных условиях конфедераты действовали так, как будто они были уже существующими врагами. Участники, находившиеся в положительном состоянии, оценили внешнюю группу более положительно как по отрицательным характеристикам, таким как «негибкость», так и по положительным характеристикам, например, «умный». Они пришли к выводу, что простое наблюдение за положительным поведением члена внутри группы по отношению к другому члену группы усиливает положительные чувства по отношению к чужой [14]. Это преимущество межрасовых браков, поскольку они, как правило, вовлекают семьи и друзей межрасовых партнеров. собираться вместе и строить отношения друг с другом. Следовательно, это разнообразие внутри семейной системы может улучшить открытое общение для людей, чтобы они имели более глубокое понимание взглядов разных людей. [ необходима цитата ]
Дети смешанной расы
Потенциальный результат межрасового брака - многорасовые дети. Многонациональность связана как с преимуществами, так и с проблемами. Многонациональные люди считаются более привлекательными, чем их однорасовые сверстники. Например, Rhodes et al. (цитируется у Льюиса) [15] обнаружил, что люди смешанного азиатского и европейского происхождения были оценены как более привлекательные, чем европейцы, азиаты и даже случайные лица, созданные как морфы между этими двумя группами. Другое недавнее исследование Елены Степановой (цитируется у Латсона [12] ) показало, что группа чернокожих, латиноамериканцев, белых и азиатских студентов колледжей считала лица представителей смешанной расы более привлекательными.
Майкл Б. Льюис [15] предполагает, что причина, по которой многорасовые люди считаются более привлекательными, заключается в том, что генетическое разнообразие делает людей более привлекательными в силу их очевидной большей «генетической приспособленности». Другими словами, другие принимают неоднозначные в этническом отношении лица как показатель большего генетического разнообразия, которое является признаком видимого здоровья. Это известно как гетерозис. Исследование 2005 года, проведенное Craig et al. (цитируется у Латсона) [12] подтверждает гетерозис . Исследование было сосредоточено на людях, которые унаследовали разные варианты гена от каждого родителя в участке ДНК, играющем жизненно важную роль в регуляции иммунной системы. Гетерозиготные мужчины - с двумя разными версиями этих генов - были более привлекательными для женщин, чем гомозиготные мужчины (мужчины с одной и той же версией этих генов). Хотя это исследование не проводилось на многорасовых людях, в частности, наличие родителей разных рас повышает вероятность того, что вы будете гетерозиготными. Результатом этого исследования является то, что гетерозис является причиной того, что многорасовые люди считаются более привлекательными. Однако ведутся споры о том, здоровее ли гетерозиготы или все это иллюзия. Было показано, что гетерозиготы действительно более устойчивы к инфекционным заболеваниям, таким как ВИЧ. Однако другим исследователям не удалось найти корреляцию между привлекательностью и реальным здоровьем, хотя это может быть результатом достижений медицины, помогающих менее гетерозиготным людям преодолеть генетическую предрасположенность к болезням.
Однако исследование, проведенное Дженнифер Патрис Симс [16], показало, что в целом люди смешанной расы воспринимались как более привлекательные, но некоторые расы не воспринимались как более привлекательные. Это ставит под сомнение гетерозис как объяснение того, почему люди смешанной расы считаются более привлекательными, поскольку, согласно гетерозису, все расовые смешения должны восприниматься как более привлекательные, чем их монорасовые коллеги. Более того, приписывание привлекательности одной только генетике игнорирует роль, которую должны играть культура и социализация. Симс (цитируется у Латсона [12] ) утверждает, что теория гетерозиса чрезмерна и основана на ложном предположении о биологически различных расах. Она утверждает, что привлекательность - это социальная конструкция, которая со временем меняется. Например, исторический европейский идеал красивой женщины со светлыми волосами, бледной кожей и голубыми глазами отличается от современных идеалов красоты. Например, Рианна считается привлекательной, несмотря на то, что ее черты сильно отличаются от прежнего идеала.
Есть некоторые проблемы, связанные с многорасовой принадлежностью. Например, некоторым многорасовым людям сложно понять, кто они. Недавний опрос показал, что пятая часть респондентов испытывает давление, требуя заявить только одну гонку. [12] Четверть не понимали, что они собой представляют. Сложность, связанная с тем, как они выбирают идентификацию, отличает их от различного рода дискриминации, которую терпят моноральные люди. Сара Гейтер [17] обнаружила, что многорасовые люди страдают от отвержения со стороны нескольких расовых групп. Например, те, у кого есть черный родитель и белый родитель, могут чувствовать, что они недостаточно черные, чтобы идентифицировать себя с преимущественно черной группой в школе, и недостаточно белые, чтобы идентифицировать себя с преимущественно белой группой в школе.
Однако в сложной идентичности многорасового человека, похоже, есть преимущество. Например, многорасовые люди могут переключаться между своей расовой принадлежностью и хорошо ориентироваться в разных социальных группах. Исследование Гейтера показало, что люди, принадлежащие к разным расам, сообщают о более высокой самооценке, повышенном социальном взаимодействии и большем благополучии. Более того, исследование, проведенное в 2015 году [12], показало, что, когда их заставляют задуматься о своей идентичности заранее, многорасовые люди демонстрируют более высокие творческие навыки решения проблем.
Америка
Соединенные Штаты
Межрасовые браки в Соединенных Штатах были полностью законными во всех штатах США после решения Верховного суда 1967 года, которое признало законы штатов, запрещающих смешанные браки, неконституционными, и многие штаты решили легализовать межрасовые браки гораздо раньше. Законы, запрещающие смешанные браки, сыграли большую роль в определении расовой идентичности и обеспечении соблюдения расовой иерархии. В Соединенных Штатах много этнических и расовых групп, и межрасовые браки довольно распространены среди большинства из них. Межрасовые браки увеличились с 2% супружеских пар в 1970 году до 7% в 2005 году [18] [19] и 8,4% в 2010 году [20].
Согласно анализу данных переписи населения, проведенному исследовательским центром Pew в 2013 году, 12% молодоженов вышли замуж за представителя другой расы. (Эта доля не учитывает «межэтнические» браки между выходцами из Латинской Америки и неиспаноязычными гражданами). [21] И большинство американцев говорят, что одобряют расовые или этнические смешанные браки - не только абстрактно, но и в своих собственных семьях. Примерно шесть из десяти говорят, что для них было бы хорошо, если бы член семьи сказал им, что они собираются выйти замуж за кого-то из любой другой расы / этнической группы, кроме их собственной. [22]
Некоторые расовые группы более склонны к смешанным бракам, чем другие. Из 3,6 миллиона взрослых, вступивших в брак в 2013 году, 58% коренных американцев, 28% азиатов, 19% чернокожих американцев и 7% белых имеют супруга, раса которого отличается от их собственной. Общие цифры скрывают значительные гендерные различия в некоторых расовых группах. Среди чернокожих американцев мужчины гораздо чаще, чем женщины, выходят замуж за представителя другой расы. Четверть чернокожих мужчин, поженившихся в 2013 году, вышла замуж за кого-то, кто не был черным. Только 12% чернокожих женщин вышли замуж за не своей расы. Для азиатов гендерная модель идет в противоположном направлении: азиатские женщины гораздо чаще, чем азиатские мужчины, выходят замуж за кого-то другой расы. Среди молодоженов в 2013 году 37% азиатских женщин вышли замуж за кого-то, не являющегося азиатом, в то время как 16% азиатских мужчин вышли замуж за другого человека. Однако азиатские женщины чаще выходят замуж за азиатских мужчин, чем любые другие мужчины другого этнического происхождения. У коренных американцев самый высокий уровень межрасовых браков среди всех групп, состоящих из одной расы. В этой группе женщины несколько чаще выходят замуж, чем мужчины: 61% индейских молодоженов вышли замуж за других представителей своей расы, по сравнению с 54% молодоженов-мужчин из числа коренных американцев. [21]
Хотя законы, запрещающие смешанные браки, были отменены судом Уоррена в 1967 году, социальная стигма, связанная с межрасовыми браками чернокожих, все еще существует в современном обществе, хотя и в гораздо меньшей степени. Исследование Такера и Митчелл-Керман, проведенное в 1990 году, показало, что чернокожие американцы вступают в брак гораздо реже, чем любая другая небелая группа [23], а в 2010 году только 17,1% чернокожих американцев вступали в межрасовые браки, что намного ниже, чем у латиноамериканцев и выходцев из других стран. Азиаты. [20] Черные межрасовые браки, в частности, порождают проблемы, связанные с расистскими взглядами и кажущейся неприемлемостью отношений. [24] Существует также резкий гендерный дисбаланс в межрасовых браках чернокожих: в 2008 году 22% всех чернокожих молодоженов мужского пола вступали в межрасовый брак, в то время как только 9% чернокожих молодоженов выходили замуж за пределами своей расы, что делает их одними из наименее вероятных представителей любой расы. или пол, чтобы жениться вне своей расы и с наименьшей вероятностью вступить в брак. [25]
С середины 19-го до 20-го веков многие чернокожие и этнические мексиканцы вступали в брак друг с другом в Нижней долине Рио-Гранде в Южном Техасе (в основном в округах Кэмерон и Идальга). В округе Кэмерон 38% чернокожих состояли в межрасовом браке (7/18 семей), а в округе Идальго - 72% (18/25 семей). В этих двух округах был самый высокий уровень межрасовых браков с участием хотя бы одного чернокожего супруга в Соединенных Штатах. Подавляющее большинство этих браков заключались в том, чтобы чернокожие мужчины женились на этнических мексиканках или теджанах в первом поколении (женщины мексиканского происхождения из Техаса). Поскольку официальные лица Техаса и правительство США считали этнических мексиканцев белыми, такие браки являлись нарушением законов штата, запрещающих смешанные браки. Тем не менее, нет никаких доказательств того, что кто-либо в Южном Техасе был привлечен к ответственности за нарушение этого закона. Темпы этой динамики межрасовых браков можно проследить до того момента, когда чернокожие мужчины переехали в Нижнюю долину Рио-Гранде после окончания гражданской войны. Они поженились в этнических мексиканских семьях и присоединились к другим чернокожим, которые нашли убежище на границе США и Мексики. [26]
Китайцы, которые мигрировали, были почти полностью кантонского происхождения. Сотни тысяч китайских мужчин в США, в основном кантонского происхождения из Тайшаня, мигрировали в Соединенные Штаты. Законы, запрещающие смешанные браки, во многих штатах запрещают китайским мужчинам жениться на белых женщинах. [27] После провозглашения эмансипации многие смешанные браки в некоторых штатах не регистрировались, и исторически сложилось так, что американские мужчины китайского происхождения женились на афро-американских женщинах в большей пропорции по сравнению с их общим числом браков из-за того, что в Соединенных Штатах было мало американских женщин китайского происхождения. После провозглашения эмансипации многие американцы китайского происхождения иммигрировали в южные штаты, особенно в Арканзас, чтобы работать на плантациях. Например, в 1880 году только в ходе десятой переписи населения Луизианы в США 57% межрасовых браков между этими китайцами были заключены с чернокожими и 43% - с белыми женщинами. [28] Между 20 и 30 процентов китайцев , которые жили в штате Миссисипи вышла замуж черных женщин до 1940 года [29] В генетическом исследовании 199 образцов из афро - американских мужчин нашел принадлежат к гаплогруппе O2A (или 0,5%) [30] It было обнаружено историком Генри Луи Гейтсом-младшим в документальном мини-сериале « Жизни афроамериканцев», что астронавт НАСА Мэй Джемисон имеет значительную (более 10%) генетическую примесь из Восточной Азии . Гейтс предположила, что смешанные браки / отношения между китайскими рабочими-мигрантами в 19 веке и черными или афро-американскими рабами или бывшими рабами могли способствовать ее этническому генетическому составу. В середине 1850-х годов от 70 до 150 китайцев жили в Нью-Йорке, и 11 из них были женаты на ирландках. В 1906 году газета New York Times (6 августа) сообщила, что 300 белых женщин (американки ирландского происхождения) вышли замуж за китайских мужчин в Нью-Йорке, и гораздо больше женщин проживают вместе. В 1900 году, основываясь на исследовании Ляна, из 120 000 мужчин в более чем 20 китайских общинах в Соединенных Штатах, он подсчитал, что один из каждых двадцати китайских мужчин (кантонцев) был женат на белых женщинах. [31] По данным переписи 1960-х годов, 3500 китайских мужчин вышли замуж за белых женщин и 2900 китайских женщин вышли замуж за белых мужчин. Он также показал 300 китайских мужчин, состоящих в браке с чернокожими женщинами, и наоборот 100. [32]
Гавайи
Большинство гавайских китайцев были кантонскими мигрантами из Гуандуна с меньшинством выходцев из провинции Хакка также из Гуандуна. Если включить всех людей китайского происхождения на Гавайях (включая китайцев-гавайцев), то они составляют около 1/3 всего населения Гавайев. Многие тысячи из них были замужем за женщинами гавайского, гавайского / европейского и европейского происхождения. Большой процент китайских мужчин женился на гавайских и гавайских / европейских женщинах, в то время как меньшинство женилось на белых женщинах на Гавайях португальского происхождения. 12 592 азиатских гавайца, перечисленных в 1930 году, были результатом смешанных браков китайских мужчин с гавайцами и частично гавайцами / европейцами. Большинство азиатско-гавайских мужчин также женились на гавайках и европейских женщинах (и наоборот). Согласно переписи, некоторые китайцы с небольшим количеством «местной крови» будут классифицированы как китайцы, а не как азиатско-гавайские жители, из-за «разбавления местной крови». В 1920-е годы количество смешанных браков начало приходить в упадок. [33]
Португальские и другие кавказские женщины вышли замуж за китайцев. [34] [35] Союзы между китайскими мужчинами и португальскими женщинами привели к появлению детей от смешанных китайско-португальских родителей, называемых китайско-португальскими. За два года до 30 июня 1933 года 38 из этих родившихся детей были классифицированы как чистые китайцы, потому что их отцы были китайцами. [36] Между китайцами и португальцами происходило большое количество общения, китайские мужчины женились на португальцах, испанцах, гавайцах, кавказских гавайцах и т. Д. [37] [38] [39] [40] Только один китаец женился на Американская женщина. [41] [42] Китайские мужчины на Гавайях также женились на пуэрториканке, итальянке, японке, гречанке и полу-белых женщинах. [43] [44]
Канада
В Канаде в 2011 году 4,6% всех гражданских союзов являются межрасовыми, что на 18% больше, чем в 2006 году (3,9%), и на 77% больше, чем в 1991 году (2,6%). [45] Ванкувер сообщил о самом высоком уровне межрасовых союзов - 9,6%, а Торонто на втором месте с 8,2%. В крупных мегаполисах, где проводилась перепись, чаще встречались смешанные объединения (6,0%) по сравнению с районами, которые не были классифицированы как таковые (1,0%). Более молодые люди чаще вступали в смешанный союз; самая высокая доля пар в смешанных союзах была среди лиц в возрасте от 25 до 34 лет (7,7%), от 35 до 44 лет (6,8%), от 15 до 24 лет (6,1%), от 45 до 54 лет (4,1%) и от 55 лет и старше (2,7%). %). [45]
Исследование 2006 года сделало интересную находку: люди, родившиеся в Канаде, с большей вероятностью выходили замуж за представителя другой расы, чем те, кто иммигрировал туда; [46] только 12% видимых меньшинств иммигрантов первого поколения состояли в смешанном союзе, этот показатель выше для иммигрантов второго поколения (51%) и иммигрантов из трех или более поколений (69%). Вот несколько примеров:
- 63% чернокожих канадцев (состоящих в парах) состояли в смешанных союзах, в то время как количество чернокожих, родившихся в Карибском бассейне и на Бермудских островах (17%) и в Африке (13%), было намного ниже.
- Для китайцев, родившихся в Канаде, 54% (которые были в парах) были с кем-то некитайским (не указано, относится ли эта цифра к любому, кто не является восточноазиатским (раса) или просто не китайцем (национальность)), по сравнению только 3% рожденных в Китае, иммигрировавших в Канаду.
- 33% южноазиатских канадцев, родившихся в Канаде, были в смешанном союзе, по сравнению только с 3% тех, кто родился в Южной Азии.
Одна из теорий может заключаться в том, что те, кто иммигрирует как взрослые, возможно, уже нашли партнера до иммиграции в Канаду. [46]
Некоторые видимые группы меньшинств чаще состоят в смешанных союзах;
- 78,7% японцев
- 64,9% многорасовых людей
- 48,2% латиноамериканцев
- 40,2% негров
- 29,8% филиппинцев
- 25,4% арабов / жителей Западной Азии
- 22,5% корейцев
- 21,9% выходцев из Юго-Восточной Азии (кроме филиппинцев)
- 19,4% китайцев
- 13,0% выходцев из Южной Азии
- 52,4% других групп;
Статистических данных по белым или аборигенам не существует .
Исследование 2006 года также показало, что однополые пары примерно в 2,5 раза чаще заключают межрасовые браки, чем пары противоположного пола, 9,8% однополых браков являются межрасовыми. [46] Существовали некоторые теории относительно того, почему; однополые браки в Канаде стали законными в 2005 году, тогда как браки противоположного пола всегда были законными, и также упоминается, что однополые пары чаще заключают гражданские браки , а в гражданских браках чаще встречаются смешанные браки. союзы.
Одно исследование, проведенное Регом Бибби, показало, что 92% канадцев допускают межрасовые браки. [47]
Латинская Америка
В Латинской Америке большая часть населения происходит от индейцев , европейцев и африканцев . Они сформировали популяции метисов и мулатов, которые населяют страны Латинской Америки. Смешанные браки и взаимоотношения происходили в большем масштабе, чем в большинстве мест в мире. В некоторых странах азиатские иммигранты также вступали в смешанные браки между группами. Около 300000 кантонских кули и мигрантов (почти все мужчины) из 19-20 веков и мигрантов были отправлены в Латинскую Америку, многие были либо вступили в брак, либо вступили в сексуальные отношения с женщинами разного расового происхождения, такими как африканцы, мулато, европейцы, мезтиза и т. Д. Приблизительно 100 000 китайцев, приехавших в Перу, только 15 были женщинами, а на Кубе, согласно переписи 1872 года, было зарегистрировано только 32 китайских женщины по сравнению с 58 368 китайскими мужчинами. [48] В период с 1847 по 1874 год на Кубу отправилось около 140 000 мужчин-китайцев, и еще около 100 000 отправились в Перу в период с 1849 по 1874 год. [49]
Около 20 000 в основном кантонцев и некоторых кули хакка мигрировали на Ямайку, Гайану, Тринидад. Многие из них вступили в брак с чернокожими женщинами и женщинами из Восточной Индии. В отличие от Тринидада, Тобаго и Гайаны, где преобладали кантонские мужчины, вступавшие в брак с чернокожими женщинами и индийскими женщинами. В Гайане китайцы в основном были кантонскими мужчинами и вступали в брак с местными женщинами. Поскольку почти все китайские иммигранты по контракту были мужчинами, они имели тенденцию вступать в брак как с индейцами, так и с африканцами, и, таким образом, китайцы Гайаны не оставались такими физически отличными от других групп. Брак между представителями разных китайских языковых групп встречается редко; он настолько редок, что любые его случаи можно назвать индивидуально. В то время как смешанные браки между китайцами хакка и индейцами практически не встречаются. [50]
Гайана
Многие португальские мужчины вступали в брак с креольскими женщинами, их дети легко сливались с остальным креольским населением. Многие китайские мужчины также вступили в брак или установили сексуальные отношения с креольскими женщинами. [51] Вначале межрасовые браки с китайскими мужчинами были обычным явлением. В 1870-х годах к нему относились более негативно, чем к браку португальских мужчин с креолками, так что китайское население оставалось в основном чистым в расовом отношении. Межрасовые браки китайских мужчин становились все более распространенными. Значительные изменения в отношении креольских женщин к китайским мужчинам как к желанным партнерам привели к более высокому росту смешанных браков. Из-за нехватки китаянок Кирк в 1897 году заметил, что китайские мужчины в Гайане любят сочетаться с креольскими женщинами или общаться с ними, и использует самых красивых женщин в качестве наложниц. В результате продолжающегося смешения 80% китайцев и гайанцев выглядят пугающе китайцами, имея лишь несколько характерных черт лица китайцев. [52]
В Гайане перспектива сексуальных отношений с индийскими женщинами сначала была непривлекательной для китайских мигрантов- мужчин, в основном мужчин, как на Маврикии, хотя китайских женщин не хватало, но со временем их отношение изменилось, и индийские женщины и китайские мужчины установили сексуальные отношения друг с другом. . [53] Китайские мужчины были вынуждены жениться на женщинах других национальностей из-за отсутствия китайских женщин, мигрирующих в Британскую Гвиану. [54] Креольские сексуальные отношения и браки с китайцами и индейцами были редкостью, [55] однако чаще индийские женщины и китайские мужчины вступали в сексуальные отношения друг с другом, а некоторые китайские мужчины забирали своих индийских жен с собой в Китай. [56] В Гайане, в то время как браки между индийскими женщинами и чернокожими африканскими мужчинами социально постыдны для индийцев, китайско-индийские браки считаются приемлемыми, как сообщил Джозеф Невадомский в 1983 году. [57] «Чини-дугла» - индийский гайанский термин для обозначения. смешанные китайско-индийские дети. [58] У некоторых индийских женщин в Гвиане было несколько партнеров из-за того, что мужчин было больше, чем женщин; в рассказе об эпохе, рассказанной женщинами в Британской Гвиане, есть один китаец, которому она разрешила временно одолжить индусскую женщину. Муж-индеец, который был его другом, поэтому китаец мог родить от нее ребенка, после того как у нее родился сын, китаец оставил мальчика, пока она была возвращена своему индийскому мужу, мальчика назвали Уильямом Адрианом Ли. [59] [60] Индийская женщина по имени Мэри Си вышла замуж за китайца по фамилии Ву из Goedverwagting и основала собственную семью после того, как он научился обрабатывать сахарный тростник. [61]
В Британской Гвиане китайцы не сохранили своих отличительных черт из-за большого количества китайских мужчин, вступающих в брак с людьми другой национальности, такими как индийские женщины. [62] [63] [64] Серьезный дисбаланс, когда количество индийских мужчин превышает численность индийских женщин, заставило некоторых женщин воспользоваться ситуацией, чтобы вымогать у мужчин благосклонность и оставлять своих партнеров для других мужчин, [65] один печально известный пример был красивым, Светлокожая индийская христианка по имени Мэри Иландун, родом из Мадраса , родившаяся в 1846 году, занималась сексом с индийскими, черными и китайскими мужчинами, когда она вышла за них по очереди и сбежала с их деньгами к своему следующему любовнику, делая это от 1868–1884 гг. [66] Индийские мужчины использовали силу, чтобы заставить индийских женщин отказаться от такого поведения. [67] Наиболее острая нехватка женщин среди всех народов Британской Гвианы была у китайцев, и это привело европейцев к мнению, что китайцы не участвовали в убийствах жен, в то время как убийства жен были чем-то врожденным для индийских мужчин, и в отличие от индийских женщин кули, Китайские женщины считались целомудренными. [68] Китайские женщины не заключались по контракту, и, поскольку им не нужно было работать, они избегали потенциальных мужчин, ищущих отношений, в то время как характер индийских женщин осуждался как аморальный, а их предполагаемая сексуальная распущенность была обвинена в их смерти в «убийствах жен». индийскими мужчинами. [69] Соотношение полов среди индийских мужчин и индийских женщин составляло 100: 63, в то время как соотношение полов среди китайских мужчин и китайских женщин составляло 100: 43 в Британской Гвиане в 1891 году. [70]
Со временем, несмотря на то, что было больше креольских браков с китайцами, также наблюдался небольшой рост браков индейцев с китайцами, и сообщалось, что «нередко можно встретить хладнокровную женщину, живущую с китайцем в качестве его жены, и в одном доме. или два случая, когда женщина сопровождала своего предполагаемого мужа в Китай ". доктором Коминсом в 1891 году, при этом шесть индийских женщин вышли замуж за китайцев только в 1892 году, как сообщается в «Отчете об иммиграции за 1892 год». [71] [72]
Тринидад
На Тринидаде некоторые китайские мужчины вступали в сексуальные отношения с индийскими женщинами-кули , производя от них детей, и сообщалось, что «несколько детей будут встречаться с родителями Мадраса и креольскими родителями, а некоторые также из Мадраса и китайскими родителями, причем медресе является родителями. мать », миссионером Джоном Мортоном в 1876 году, Мортон отметил, что это казалось странным, поскольку индийских кули-мужчин было больше, чем индийских кули-женщин, что индийские кули-женщины выходили замуж за китайцев, но утверждал, что это было наиболее вероятно потому, что китайцы могли предоставить удобства для женщины со времен Китая владели магазинами, и они были соблазнены ими. [73] [74] [75] [76] [77] Индийские женщины вышли замуж за китайских мужчин по контракту на Тринидаде. [78] Некоторые китайские женщины мигрировали в Тринидад, в то время как большинство китайских мигрантов были мужчинами. [79] Миграция китайцев на Тринидад привела к смешанным бракам между ними и другими людьми. [80] Китайцы в Тринидаде стали относительно открытыми для супружеских отношений с другими расами, а индийские женщины начали иметь семьи с китайцами в 1890-х годах. [81]
Ситуация в Тринидаде и Британской Гвиане, когда индийских женщин было меньше, чем индийских мужчин, привела к тому, что индийские женщины использовали ситуацию в своих интересах, оставив своих партнеров для других мужчин, что привело к высокому уровню "убийств жен" индийскими мужчинами своих жен. европейские наблюдатели заклеймили индийских женщин и их культуру как «аморальные», индиец по имени Мохаммад Орфи обратился к колониальным властям как представитель «обездоленных индийских мужчин Тринидада», жалуясь на поведение индийских женщин и утверждая, что это так » пронизывающая чума ... высокий процент безнравственных жизней женской части нашего сообщества ... удовлетворение алчности и похоти мужской части совершенно другой расы, нежели их раса ... [индийские женщины] соблазняются, соблазненные и напуганные, превратившиеся в наложниц и любовниц ... [индийские женщины] абсолютно ничего не знают о ценности девственности ... самой бесстыдной и совершенной угрозой для индийской знати ». он называет определенные народы, утверждая, что индийские женщины занимались сексом с китайскими мужчинами, американцами, африканцами и европейцами, [82] [83] [84] [85] [86], говоря, что "африканцы, американцы и китайцы в большом количестве - соблазняя женщин Индии, которые более или менее неуловимы к похотливым ловушкам, вызванным некоторым страхом наказания, если они не будут охотно подчиняться, как их просят ». [87] [88] [89]
Ситуация на Тринидаде обеспечила беспрецедентную автономию в сексуальной активности индийских женщин и свободу. [90] В 1916 году «Пейтион наемных рабочих на Тринидаде» жаловался на то, что: «Разрешено ли мужчине, исповедующему христианскую веру, иметь индусскую или мусульманскую женщину в качестве любовницы или наложницы? Разве это не кощунство и не кощунство. позорный скандал в соответствии с христианской верой с целью побудить индийских женщин вести аморальный образ жизни? " [90] Индийские мужчины использовали насилие в отношении индийских женщин в ответ на сексуальные отношения индийских женщин с несколькими мужчинами из-за их нехватки на Тринидаде. [91] На плантациях белые европейские менеджеры использовали в своих интересах и использовали индийских женщин для секса, [92] кроме того, английские, португальские и китайские мужчины также были в сексуальных отношениях с индийскими женщинами, как отметил генеральный прокурор В. Ф. Хейнс Смит, в то время как Индийские мужчины ненавидели или игнорировали креольских женщин. [93] [94] В Тринидаде и Тобаго постепенно растет одобрение межрасовых браков, и один китаец сообщил, что его индийская жена не встретила никакого отказа со стороны его родителей, когда его спросили в опросе. [95] На Тринидаде европейцы и китайцы рассматриваются индийцами как приемлемые брачные партнеры, в то время как брак с чернокожими мужчинами приведет к тому, что их дочери будут отвергнуты индийскими семьями. [96]
В Британской Гвиане и Тринидаде белые надзиратели и менеджеры использовали индийских кули-женщин в своих интересах и использовали их в сексуальных отношениях. Затем в этих инцидентах обвиняли индийских женщин, которых колониальные власти считали якобы «распущенными» и беспорядочными, а индийские женщины - Индийские мужчины часто «убивали жен», и индийские женщины также были обвинены в этом из-за их «непостоянства» из-за якобы низкой «сексуальной морали». [97] В одном инциденте на Тринидаде семь индийских женщин были оплодотворены одновременно управляющим поместьем в 1854 году. [98] [99] Сексуальные отношения менеджеров с индийскими женщинами вызвали беспорядки, в наиболее значительных из которых, из-за рук. из полиции 59 индейцев были ранены и 5 индейцев были убиты в Нон-Парейле в 1896 году из-за того, что индийская женщина проживала вместе с Герадом Ван Нутеном, исполняющим обязанности управляющего. [100] [101] : 29 [102] : 37 [103] : 52 Низкое соотношение индийских женщин по сравнению с индийскими мужчинами, а также фактор португальцев, белых надзирателей и менеджеров и китайских мужчин, имеющих сексуальные отношения с индийскими женщинами. , обострила проблему соперничества за индийских женщин между индийскими мужчинами и повысила ценность индийских женщин. [104] Случаи, когда надзиратели и менеджеры использовали сексуальное преимущество над работницами, привели к тому, что индийские рабочие вызвали остановки и протесты. [105] В Британской Гвиане надзиратели и менеджеры из-за сексуального насилия над индийскими женщинами вынудили индийских рабочих начать «борьбу» в 1869–1872 годах. [106] Конфликты из-за женщин привели к нападениям на водителей и надсмотрщиков. [107] Негодование рабочих усугублялось использованием женщин в поместьях для сексуальных отношений. [108]
Дефицит индийских женщин по сравнению с мужчинами был вызван соотношением квот приема на работу 100 мужчин к 40 женщинам, большинство женщин были молодыми и одинокими [102] : 16, а нехватка индийских женщин для индийских мужчин усугублялась, когда индийские женщины были захвачены африканцами и европейскими надзирателями, что привело к большому количеству убийств жен индийских женщин индийскими мужчинами и снижению нравственности. [101] : 15 Присвоение индийских женщин европейцами и африканцами усилило негодование, которое способствовало насилию над индийскими женщинами со стороны индийских мужчин. [102] : 22–23 индийские женщины на плантациях участвовали в борьбе против африканцев и европейских властей, которые их сексуально использовали. [102] : 26 [103] : 18 Индийские националисты, стыдящиеся сексуальной репутации индийских женщин-кули, часто нападали на торговлю кули по этой причине, а не по другим причинам, таким как плохие условия труда. [109] Надзиратели и плантаторы на плантациях, моряки и врачи на борту кораблей, перевозящих индийских женщин-кули, пытались добиться секса от индийских женщин. [110] У индийских женщин был козырный козырь, поскольку они могли часто менять любовников из-за того, что индийских женщин было меньше, чем мужчин, The Daily Chronicle описала индийских кули-женщин как «красивых и молодых», работниц приходилось перемещать. управляющих плантациями, чтобы помешать мужчинам убивать своих прелюбодейных жен, а аура, окружающая сексуальность и опасности индийских кули-женщин, усиливалась широко распространенным поклонением ими богине Кали . [111] [112] В бунтах и убийствах обвиняли сексуальные связи между белыми надзирателями, менеджерами и индийскими женщинами-кули в дополнение к их постоянной смене сексуальных партнеров, а сексуальность кули-женщин позорно рассматривалась как отклонение от ожидаемого поведения Индийские женщины. [113] Гайано-индийский журналист Гайутра Бахадур писала об опыте индийских кули-женщин. [114] [115] Секс использовался в качестве мощного инструмента индийскими женщинами-кули, например, когда они получали благосклонность надсмотрщиков, занимаясь с ними сексом, [116] и женщины могли быть либо «подвергнуты опасности», либо «уполномочены» при формировании сексуальные отношения с надзирателями. [117] Индийские женщины-кули обладали сексуальными преимуществами из-за того, что их было меньше, и страдали от сексуальной эксплуатации, в общей сложности около 250 000 индийских женщин мигрировали в качестве кули. [118]
Гайутра Бахадур сказала в интервью, что некоторые гайанцы из ее сообщества были возмущены ее книгой и описанием сексуального опыта индийской женщины кули, причем одна из них сказала: «Кто эта женщина, которая писала, что все наши бабушки и прабабушки были? проститутки? », и еще одна поговорка« Надо быть осторожной ». ей, рассматривая ее книгу как нападение на честь и нравственность индийских женщин, Бахадур утверждал, что она пыталась вернуть «достоинство» женщин и что честь индийских женщин подвергалась таким же нападкам со стороны колониальных властей, которые обвиняли самим женщинам из-за их сексуальных связей, а не из-за недостатков системы плантаций и договоров аренды. [119]
Стереотип неконтролируемого сексуального либидо приписывался индийским женщинам в Карибском бассейне, и из-за этого они были описаны как имеющие «белую печень». [109] [120] [121] Сексуальное насилие, ужасный уровень жизни и тяжелая работа - вот с чем приходилось бороться индийским кули-женщинам. [122] [123] В поисках потенциальных партнеров индийские женщины-кули имеют некоторую свободу выбора из-за их небольшого числа, некоторые из них смогли расторгнуть договор, когда вышли замуж за белых надзирателей. [124] Были случаи сексуального насилия над индийскими женщинами на кораблях, и один мужчина проституировал свою 8-летнюю дочь [125], а в другом случае британский хирург женился на молодой вдове, [126] женщины получили преимущество в сексуальных отношениях из-за того, что они были менее многочисленными, чем мужчины, но это привело к большому количеству убийств, называемых «убийствами жен» женщин мужчинами, которых они отвергали. [127] Открытки были сделаны с изображением индийских женщин и девушек-кули, украшенных украшениями из золота и серебра, такими как браслеты и кольца в носу, которые, казалось, были направлены на то, чтобы показать их богатыми и красивыми. [128] [129] [130] Индийские женщины-кули носили свое богатство в виде украшений [131] [132] [133] [134], таких как браслеты и кольца в носу . [135] [136] [137] [138] [139] [140] В Порт-оф-Спейн на Тринидаде китайские кули ходили почти голыми, в то время как индийские женщины-кули носили «скудную драпировку» и «прикрывали руки и лодыжки. с браслетами ». [141] Одной индийской женщине по пути в Гвиану муж должен был подарить ей украшения, такие как браслеты из серебра и кольца в носу из золота, чтобы она не бросила его. [142]
Перу
Межрасовые браки между кантонско-китайскими мужчинами и перуанками были довольно частыми, что привело к появлению большого количества смешанных детей и людей с некоторым китайским происхождением в Перу. В Перу нет расистского отношения к смешанным бракам между китайцами и некитайцами, поэтому количество межрасовых браков довольно велико. Согласно одному источнику, количество рожденных детей смешанных гонок составило 180 000 человек. Половина из этого числа была только в Лиме, а соотношение между китайскими метисами и чистокровными китайцами составляло 90 000 к 15 000 (6: 1). [143] По оценкам, до 2,5 миллионов (до 8% от населения Перу) граждан имеют смешанное китайско-перуанское происхождение, известное как «тусанцы». [144] По одной оценке, 4,2 миллиона (15%) перуанцев имеют китайское происхождение. [145]
Многие перуанские женщины разного происхождения вышли замуж за этих китайских мигрантов-мужчин. Большинство женщин, вышедших замуж за китайцев, являются коренными индейцами (включая Мезтизу) и чернокожими. Некоторые белые женщины из низшего сословия также вышли замуж за китайцев, но в меньшем количестве. [146] [147] [148] [149] [150] [151] Китайцы контактировали с перуанскими женщинами в городах, там они завязывали отношения и рожали смешанных детей. Эти женщины были выходцами из Анд и прибрежных районов, а не из В городах, в гасиендах на побережье в сельской местности, молодые женщины из индейцев (коренных) и серрана (горные) из гор Анд приходили на работу, эти коренные женщины Анд предпочитали в качестве супружеских партнеров китайские мужчины, а не Африканцы со сватами устраивают совместные браки китайских мужчин с молодыми индейцами и серранами. [152] Перуанцы проявили расистскую реакцию на браки перуанских женщин и китайских мужчин. [153] Когда коренные перуанские женщины (чола и коренные жители Индии, индейцы) и китайские мужчины рожали смешанных детей, детей называли инджерто, и как только эти инджерто появлялись, китайские мужчины затем искали девочек происхождения инджертас в качестве партнеров по браку, детей, рожденных для черных матерей не называли Inertos. [154] Пеурвианцы из низшего сословия установили сексуальные союзы или браки с китайскими мужчинами, а некоторые темнокожие и индийские женщины «скрестились» с китайцами, согласно Альфредо Сачетти, который утверждал, что смешение привело китайцев к «прогрессирующему вырождению» в Каса. Индийские женщины Гранд-Хайленд и китайские мужчины участвовали в коллективных «массовых браках» друг с другом, которые заключались, когда китайская сваха приводила горских женщин после получения первоначального взноса. [155] [156]
Газета New York Times сообщила, что перуанские черные и индийские (коренные) женщины выходили замуж за китайских мужчин в своих интересах и в ущерб мужчинам, поскольку они доминировали и «порабощали» китайских мужчин, несмотря на то, что трудовой договор был аннулирован. браком, меняя роли в браке с перуанской женщиной, обладающей супружеской властью, управляя семьей и делая китайских мужчин рабскими, послушными, «рабскими», «покорными» и «женственными» и командуя ими, сообщая, что «сейчас и затем ... он [китаец] влюбляется в чары мрачного оттенка чола (индейская женщина и женщина-метис) или самба (смешанная чернокожая женщина), обращается и присоединяется к Церкви, чтобы войти в узы брака с темной сеньоритой ". [157] Китайских мужчин искали как мужей и считали «уловкой» «смуглые девицы» (перуанские женщины), потому что они рассматривались как «образцовые мужья, трудолюбивые, ласковые, верные и послушные» и «пригодные для жизни». в доме ", перуанские женщины стали" лучшей половиной "вместо" более слабого сосуда "и будут командовать своими китайскими мужьями" в хорошем стиле "вместо того, чтобы обращаться с ними одинаково, в то время как трудовой контракт китайского кули будет заключаться в аннулированная браком, перуанская жена рассматривала аннулирование просто как предыдущий «хозяин», передавший ей власть над китайцем, поскольку она стала его «любовницей», удерживая его «в рабстве» перед ней, быстро прекращая любые жалобы и предположения китайскими мужчинами, что они будут иметь какую-то власть в браке. [158]
Куба
120 000 кантонских кули (все мужчины) прибыли на Кубу по контракту на 80 лет, большинство из них не женились, но Хун Хуэй (1975) указывает, что между чернокожими женщинами и кантонскими кули часты половые контакты. Согласно Осбергу (1965), свободные китайцы покупали рабынь и специально освобождали их для брака. В девятнадцатом и двадцатом веках китайские мужчины (кантонцы) вступали в половую связь с белыми кубинскими женщинами и черными кубинскими женщинами, и от таких отношений родилось много детей. [159] В 1920-е годы прибыли еще 30 000 кантонцев и небольшие группы японцев; обе иммиграции были исключительно мужчинами, и происходили быстрые смешанные браки с белыми, черными и популяциями мулатов. [160] [161] [162]
При изучении генетического происхождения, примесей и асимметрии в человеческих линиях по материнской и отцовской линии на Кубе. Тридцать пять SNP Y-хромосомы были типированы у 132 мужчин из кубинской выборки. В исследование не включены люди с китайским происхождением. Все образцы были белыми кубинцами и чернокожими кубинцами. 2 из 132 мужских выборок принадлежат к восточноазиатской гаплогруппе O2, которая в значительной степени встречается среди кантонцев и встречается у 1,5% населения Кубы. [163]
Мексика
Китайцы, которые мигрировали в Мексику в 19-20 веках, были почти полностью китайцами. Мужчины составляли большинство исконной китайской общины в Мексике, и они женились на мексиканках. [164] Они женились на мексиканках, что привело к антикитайским предрассудкам; многие были изгнаны, а те, кому было разрешено оставаться в браке с мексиканским населением. По оценкам официальных лиц Мехикали, немногим более 2000 человек являются чистокровными китайцами и около 8000 - китайско-мексиканцами смешанной крови. По другим оценкам, китайского происхождения было на 50 000 жителей больше, чем предполагалось. 10 000 чистокровных китайцев по сравнению с 35 000 в 1920-х годах. [165] Брак этих людей с чистокровными мексиканцами еще больше размывает общину. [165] Китайские мексиканцы в Мехикали считают себя в равной степени «каханильями», термин, используемый для местных жителей, как и любой другой житель города, даже если они говорят на кантонском диалекте в дополнение к испанскому. Настроение против китайских мужчин было вызвано (а почти все китайские иммигранты в Мексике были мужчинами) кражей рабочих мест и мексиканских женщин у мексиканских мужчин, которые ушли воевать во время революции или Первой мировой войны [166].
Коста-Рика
Китайцы произошли от кантонских мужчин-мигрантов. Чистые китайцы составляют лишь 1% населения Коста-Рики, но, по словам Жаклин М. Ньюман , около 10% жителей Коста-Рики - китайцы, если считать китайцев, состоящих в браке с китайцем, или смешанного китайского происхождения. [167] С тех пор большинство китайских иммигрантов были кантонцами, но в последние десятилетия 20-го века некоторые иммигранты прибыли также с Тайваня. Многие мужчины приходили на работу одни, женились на коста-риканских женщинах и говорили на кантонском диалекте. Однако большинство потомков первых китайских иммигрантов больше не говорят на кантонском диалекте и чувствуют себя костариканцами. [168] Они женились на тиканских женщинах (смесь европейцев, казтизо, метисов, индейцев и чернокожих). [169] Тикан также является белым человеком с небольшой долей небелой крови, как Казтизос. Перепись 1989 года показывает, что около 98% костариканцев были белыми, кастисами или метисами, а 80% - белыми или казтизосами.
Венесуэла
В прошлом браки между европейцами, метисами, индейцами и африканцами не были редкостью. В стране проживало несколько тысяч китайцев из Эньпина . Китайцы по-прежнему в значительной степени рассматривались как иностранное население, выходящее замуж за иностранных невест, но редко интегрирующееся в венесуэльское общество. [170]
Ямайка
Когда черные и индийские женщины были дети с китайскими мужчинами на ребенок называли Chaina raial в ямайском английском языке. [171] Китайская община на Ямайке смогла консолидироваться, потому что китайцы были открыты для брака с индийскими женщинами, поскольку китайских женщин не хватало. [172] По словам Верен А. Шеперд, у индейцев на Ямайке деление женщин было менее распространено . [173] Из-за небольшого числа индийских женщин между индийскими мужчинами велись споры, что привело к увеличению количества убийств жен индийскими мужчинами. [174] Индийские женщины составляли 11 процентов от годового количества индийских трудовых мигрантов с 1845 по 1847 год на Ямайке. [175] Тысячи китайских мужчин (в основном хакка) и индийских мужчин женились на местных ямайских женщинах. Исследование «Разнообразие Y-хромосомы на Гаити и Ямайке: контрастирующие уровни потока генов, обусловленных полом» показывает отцовскую китайскую гаплогруппу O-M175 с частотой 3,8% у местных ямайцев (некитайских ямайцев), включая индийского H-M69. (0,6%) и L-M20 (0,6%) у местных ямайцев. [176] Среди самых известных афро-азиатов страны - исполнители регги Шон Пол , Тами Чинн и Дайана Кинг .
Африка и Ближний Восток
Ближний Восток и Северная Африка
Межрасовые браки [ неудавшаяся проверка ] были обычным явлением в арабском мире во время арабской работорговли , которая продолжалась на протяжении всего средневековья и раннего Нового времени . [177] Большинство этих порабощенных народов происходили из таких мест, как Африка к югу от Сахары (в основном Зандж ), Северный Кавказ , [178] Центральная Азия (в основном татары ), а также Западная , Южная и Юго-Восточная Европа (в основном славяне из Сербии - Сакалиба , Испания, Франция, Италия). [179] [180] [181] Барбэри пиратов из Северной Африки захватили и поработили 1,25 миллиона рабов из Западной Европы и Северной Америки , между 16 и 19 веков. [182] [183] За пределами арабского мира арабские завоеватели , торговцы и исследователи также часто вступали в брак с местными женщинами на землях, которые они завоевывали или с которыми вели торговлю, в различных частях Африки, Азии (см. Раздел « Азия ») и Европа (см. Раздел Европа ).
С 839 г. н.э. варяжские наемники- викинги , находившиеся на службе Византийской империи , в частности Харальд Сигурдссон , вели кампании в Северной Африке , Иерусалиме и других местах на Ближнем Востоке во время византийско-арабских войн . Они скрещивались с местным населением в качестве военных трофеев или в результате поселения со многими скандинавскими мужчинами-викингами, взявшими в жены арабских или анатолийских женщин. Есть археологические свидетельства того, что викинги установили контакт с городом Багдад , в то время центром Исламской империи , и были связаны с местным населением. [184] Регулярно курсируя по Волге со своими товарами (меха, бивни, тюленьий жир, тюленьи лодки и особенно рабыни; единственный период в истории работорговли, когда цены на женщин были выше, чем на мужчин), викинги были активны в арабской работорговле в то время. [185] Эти рабы, чаще всего европейцы, были захвачены у берегов Европы или во время войны [186] и проданы арабским торговцам в Аль-Андалусе и Сицилийском эмирате .
Intermarriage was accepted in Arab society, though only if the husband was Muslim. It was a fairly common theme in medieval Arabic literature and Persian literature. For example, the Persian poet Nizami, who married his Central Asian Kipchak slave girl, wrote The Seven Beauties (1196). Its frame story involves a Persian prince marrying seven foreign princesses, who are Byzantine, Chinese, Indian, Khwarezmian, Maghrebian, Slavic and Tartar. Hadith Bayad wa Riyad, a 12th-century Arabic tale from Al-Andalus, was a love story involving an Iberian girl and a Damascene man. The Arabian Nights tale of "The Ebony Horse" involves the Prince of Persia, Qamar al-Aqmar, rescuing his lover, the Princess of Sana'a, from the Byzantine Emperor who also wishes to marry her.[187]
At times, some marriages would have a major impact on the politics of the region. The most notable example was the marriage of As-Salih Ayyub, the Sultan of the Kurdish Ayyubid dynasty, to Shajar al-Durr, a slave of Turkic origin from Central Asia. Following her husband's death, she became the Sultana of Egypt and the first Mamluk ruler. Her reign marked the end of the Ayyubid dynasty and the beginning of the Mameluk era, when a series of former Mamluk slaves would rule over Egypt and occasionally other neighbouring regions.[188][189][190][191]
Elsewhere in Africa
Africa has a long history[citation needed] of interracial mixing with Arabs and later Europeans having sexual relations with black Africans.[citation needed] Arabs played a big role in the African slave trade and unlike the trans-Atlantic trade most of the enslaved Africans in the Arab slave trade were women. Most of them were used as sexual slaves by the Arab men and some were taken as wives.[citation needed]
In the former Lusophone Africa (now known as Angola, Mozambique and Cape Verde) racial mixing between white Portuguese and black Africans was fairly common, especially in Cape Verde, where the majority of the population is of mixed descent.
There have been several cases of Chinese merchants and laborers marrying black African women as many Chinese workers were employed to build railways and other infrastructural projects in Africa. These labour groups were made up completely of men with very few Chinese women coming to Africa. In Réunion and Madagascar, intermarriage between Chinese men of Cantonese origin and African women is not uncommon.[192]
Southern Africa
There is a significant mixed race population, the result of mostly European and African unions, in South Africa, called Coloureds. The term Coloured is also used to describe persons of mixed race in the neighbouring nation of Namibia, to refer to those of part Khoisan, part black and part white descent. The Basters constitute a separate ethnic group that are sometimes considered a sub-group of the Coloured population of the country.
Some of the Xhosa people claim descent from white people. The royal family of the ImiDushane, for example, is descended from Queen Gquma of the Mpondo, a white orphan that was adopted by a Xhosa chief after a shipwreck killed her parents. She later married an Mpondo prince, became his great wife, and served as queen during his reign as king of the Tshomane Mpondo.
Interracial marriage was banned under apartheid. Due to this, there was considerable opposition to the marriage between Sir Seretse Khama, Paramount Chief of the Bamangwato Tswanas, and his eventual wife Ruth Williams Khama, Lady Khama, even though Chief Khama was Motswana and not South African.
Today there are a number of high-profile interracial couples in Southern Africa, such as the unions of Mmusi Maimane (a black opposition politician who served as the Leader of the Opposition of South Africa) and his white wife Natalie Maimane, Siya Kolisi (a black rugby union player and current captain of the South African national team) and his white wife Rachel Kolisi, Nyaniso Dzedze (a black actor) and his German wife Yana Fay Dzedze, Matthew Booth (a white soccer player) and his wife Sonia Bonneventia (a black former Miss South Africa first princess and international model)[193] and Bryan Habana (a coloured South African rugby union player) and his white wife Janine Viljoen.[194]
Mauritius
In the late 19th to early 20th century, Chinese men in Mauritius married Indian women due to both a lack of Chinese women and the higher numbers of Indian women on the island.[195][196] At first the prospect of relations with Indian women was unappealing to the original all male Chinese migrants yet they eventually had to establish sexual unions with Indian women since there were no Chinese women coming.[197]:15 The 1921 census in Mauritius counted that Indian women there had a total of 148 children sired by Chinese men.[198][199][197]:16 These Chinese were mostly traders.[200] Colonialist stereotypes in the sugar colonies of Indians emerged such as "the degraded coolie woman" and the "coolie wife beater", due to Indian women being murdered by their husbands after they ran away to other richer men since the ratio of Indian women to men was low.[201]
Réunion
The Native Kaf population has a diverse range of ancestry stemming from colonial Indian and Chinese peoples. They also descend from African slaves brought from countries like Mozambique, Guinea, Senegal, Madagascar, Tanzania and Zambia to the island.
Most population of Réunion Creoles who are of mixed ancestry and make up the majority of the population. Interracial marriages between European men and Chinese men with African women, Indian women, Chinese women, Madagascar women were also common. In 2005, a genetic study on the racially mixed people of Réunion found the following. For maternal (mitochondrial) DNA, the haplogroups are Indian (44%), East Asian (27%), European/Middle Eastern (19%) or African (10%). The Indian lineages are M2, M6 and U2i, the East Asian ones are E1, D5a, M7c, and F (E1 and M7c also found only in South East Asia and in Madagascar), the European/Middle Eastern ones are U2e, T1, J, H, and I, and the African ones are L1b1, L2a1, L3b, and L3e1.[202]
For paternal (Y-chromosome) DNA, the haplogroups are European/Middle Eastern (85%) or East Asian (15%). The European lineages are R1b and I, the Middle Eastern one E1b1b1c (formerly E3b3) (also found in Northeast Africa), and the East Asian ones are R1a (found in many parts of the world including Europe and Central and Southern Asia but the particular sequence has been found in Asia) and O3.[202]
West Africa
In West Africa, a series of interracial marriages and relationships created a number of mixed race families in the various countries of the region.[citation needed]
In Sierra Leone, marriages between representatives of British trading firms and princesses of the Sherbro people created a number of aristocratic families such as the Sherbro Tuckers and the Sherbro Caulkers. Due to matrilineality, they have maintained their claims to their ancestral thrones.[citation needed]
In Benin, meanwhile, the descendants of the Brazilian slave trader Francisco Felix de Sousa and his harem of black consorts have contributed a number of prominent citizens. Figures such as a president (Paul-Emile de Souza) and a first lady (Chantal de Souza Boni Yayi, President de Souza's niece) are arguably the most notable of them.[citation needed]
In Ghana, a number of founding fathers had relationships with foreigners of other races: Kwame Nkrumah married the Egyptian Copt Fathia Nkrumah and raised a family with her. Their children would go on to become politicians like their father. President Nkrumah's contemporary and sometime friend, Joe Appiah, was himself married to the British debutante Peggy Cripps Appiah. At the start of the 21st century, their descendants were being led by their only son, Kwame Anthony Appiah. In addition to this, Dr. J. B. Danquah had a son with a British woman during his time in Britain. He would go on to become noted actor Paul Danquah.[citation needed]
In Gabon, a woman by the name of Germaine Anina - daughter of a Gabonese tribal chief - married a Chinese trader and politician named Cheng Zhiping. Their son, Jean Ping, went on to serve as a minister in his mother's native country.[citation needed]
In orthodox Serer religion and custom, interfaith and interracial marriages are forbidden. Banishment and disinheritance may be levied against a Serer who fails to follow these customary teachings.[203] The Serer-Noon (a sub-group of the Serer people) strongly adhere to these teachings.[203] It was for this reason that the first Senegalese president Léopold Sédar Senghor did not receive support from the Serer community, especially the ultra—traditional Serer. Although born to an aristocratic Serer family, he did not receive support from the Serer community due to his marriage to his French wife (see below). Instead, he was supported by other ethnic groups such as the Wolof and Fula. In return, Senghor failed to develop Serer villages and towns.[204][205]
Lastly, a number of the first ladies in Francophone West Africa have been French: Collette Hubert Senghor and Viviane Wade of Senegal, and Dominique Ouattara of Ivory Coast.[citation needed]
Австралия
Historical marriages of Australian Aborigine native women with European men and Asian men of various nationality have been recorded in the late 19th and 20th century. During the 20th century began, prevalence of interracial sexual relationships between white men and Aboriginal women in Western Australia were intenfisied by politicians. Chinese immigrant males and other Asian males migrated to Australia and intermarried with Australian Aborigines females. In 1913, anthropologist and temporary Chief Protector Walter Baldwin Spencer opposed Asian males intermarriages and demonstrated clear bias against the mixing of Aboriginal women and Asian men (as opposed to white men), claiming their sexual contact caused 'rapid degeneration of the native'. Full blooded Australian Aborigine mothers have intermixed with Whites, Chinese, a Japanese, a Malay or a Filippino.[206][207]
Most of the early Chinese-Australia population was formed by Cantonese migrants from Guangzhou and Taishan, including some from Fujian, who came during the goldrush period of the 1850s. Marriage records show that between the 1850s and around the start of the 20th century, there were about 2000 legal marriages between white women and migrant Chinese men in Australia's eastern colonies, probably with similar numbers involved in de facto relationships of various kinds (ex: cohabitation, sexual intimacy).[208] The number of intermarriages declined, as stories of viciousness and the seduction of white women grew, mixed with opposition to intermarriage. Rallies against Chinese men taking white women became widespread, as many Australian men saw the Chinese men intermarrying and cohabiting with white women as a threat to the white race. In late 1878 there were 181 marriages between European women and Chinese men, and 171 couples cohabiting without matrimony, resulting in 586 Eurasian children.[209] Such numbers of intermarriage continued until the 1880s and the 1930s.
Today no data about the race of Australians is collected or published, meaning no figures can be produced on interracial marriages.
Азия
Central Asia
Today Central Asians are a mixture of various peoples, such as Mongols, Turks, and Iranians. The Mongol conquest of Central Asia in the 13th century resulted in the mass killings of the Iranian-speaking people and Indo-Europeans population of the region, their culture and languages being superseded by that of the Mongolian-Turkic peoples. The invasions of Bukhara, Samarkand, Urgench and others resulted in mass murders and unprecedented destruction, such as portions of Khwarezmia being completely razed. The remaining surviving population were either displaced or assimilated with intermarriage with invaders.[210][211][212][213] Genetic studies indicates all Central Asian ethnicities share a various genetic mixture of East Eurasian and West Eurasian.[214][215]
Interracial marriage between Turkic, European, Central Asians in Kazakhstan are rare but increasing. The most common marriages are between Kazakh and Volga Tatars. Intermarriage usually involves Kazakh men, due to Muslim tradition favouring male over female. For example, 1% were between Russians, Tatars, and Kazakhs (792 between Russians and Tatars, 561 between Kazakhs and Tatars, and 212 between Kazakhs and Russians). 701 Kazakh men married Russians or Tatars, against only 72 Kazakh women.[216] Among Kirgiz men living in Uzbekistan and married to non-Kirgiz women, 9.6% had married Russians, 25.6% Uzbeks, and 34.3% Tatars. Among Kazakh men in Uzbekistan, the structure of mixed marriages appeared as follows: 4.4% married Russians.[217]
Afghanistan
Genetic analysis of the Hazara people indicates partial Mongolian ancestry.[218] Invading Mongols and Turco-Mongols intermixed with the local Iranian population, forming a distinct group. Mongols settled in what is now Afghanistan and intermarried with native populations who spoke Persian. A second wave of mostly Chagatai Mongols came from Central Asia and were followed by other Mongolic groups, associated with the Ilkhanate and the Timurids, all of whom settled in Hazarajat and mixed with the local, mostly Persian-speaking population, forming a distinct group. One genetic study detected Sub-Saharan African lineages in both the paternal and maternal ancestry of Hazara. Among the Hazaras there are 7.5% of African mtDNA haplogroup L with 5.1% of African Y-DNA B.[219][220] The origin and date of when these admixture occurred are unknown but was believed to have been during the slave trades in Afghanistan.[220]
East Asia
China
Western regions
Intermarriage was initially discouraged by the Tang Dynasty. In 836 Lu Chun was appointed as governor of Canton, and was disgusted to find the Chinese living with foreigners and intermarrying. Lu enforced separation, banned interracial marriages, and made it illegal for foreigners to own property. Lu Chun believed his principles were just and upright.[221] The 836 law specifically banned Chinese from forming relationships with "dark peoples" or "people of colour", which was used to describe foreigners, such as "Iranians, Sogdians, Arabs, Indians, Malays, Sumatrans", among others.[222]
In 779, the Tang dynasty issued an edict which forced Uighurs to wear their ethnic dress, stopped them from marrying Chinese females, and banned them from pretending to be Chinese. The magistrate who issued the orders may have wanted to protect "purity" in Chinese custom.[223] Han men also married Turkic Uyghur women in Xinjiang from 1880 to 1949. Sometimes poverty influenced Uyghur women to marry Han men. These marriages were not recognized by local mullahs since Muslim women were not allowed to marry non-Muslim men under Islamic law. This did not stop the women because they enjoyed advantages: they were not subject to Islamic law and not subjected to certain taxes. Uyghur women married to Han men also did not have to wear a veil, and they received their husband's property upon his death. These women were forbidden from having burial in Muslim graves. The children of Han men and Uyghur women were considered to be Uyghur. Some Han soldiers had Uyghur women as temporary wives, and after their service was up, the wife was left behind or sold. If it was possible, sons were taken, and daughters were sold.[224]
Iranian women dancers were in demand in China during this period. During the Sui dynasty, ten young dancers were sent from Persia to China. During the Tang dynasty, bars were often attended by Iranian or Sogdian waitresses who performed dances for clients.[225][226][227][228][229][230][231][232][233][234][235] During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (Wudai) (907–960), there are examples of Persian women marrying Chinese emperors. Some Chinese officials from the Song Dynasty era also married women from Dashi (Arabia).[236] From the tenth to twelfth century, Persian women were to be found in Guangzhou (Canton), some of them in the tenth century like Mei Zhu in the harem of the Emperor Liu Chang, and in the twelfth century large numbers of Persian women lived there, noted for wearing multiple earrings and "quarrelsome dispositions".[237][238] Some scholars did not differentiate between Persian and Arab, and some say that the Chinese called all women coming from the Persian Gulf "Persian women".[239] Genetic evidence shows Persian women intermarried with the Cantonese men of Guangzhou. Yao Yonggang et al. reported that Kivisild detected one W mtDNA out of 69 Guangzhou Cantonese population, a common Middle Eastern and Iranian marker.[240]
By the 14th century, the total population of Muslims in China had grown to 4 million.[241] After Mongol rule had been overthrown by the Ming Dynasty in 1368, this led to a violent Chinese backlash against West and Central Asians. In order to contain the violence, both Mongol and Central Asian Semu Muslim women and men of both sexes were required by Ming Code to marry Han Chinese after the first Ming Emperor Hongwu passed the law in Article 122.[242][243][244] Han women who married Hui men became Hui, and Han men who married Hui women also became Hui.[245][246][247]
Of the Han Chinese Li family in Quanzhou, Li Nu, the son of Li Lu, visited Hormuz in Persia in 1376, married a Persian or an Arab woman, and brought her back to Quanzhou. He then converted to Islam. Li Nu was the ancestor of the Ming Dynasty reformer Li Chih.[248][249][250]
Manchuria
Ethnic Russians first arrived in large numbers in Manchuria during the 1890s as colonists and marriages between Russian women and Han Chinese men started at the same time as the migration.[251] The descendants of the interracial marriages are concentrated in the towns and villages of the frontier areas along the Ergun River of Inner Mongolia like Shiwei and Enhe.[252][251] Interracial marriages between Chinese women and Russian men were rare, a marriage pattern that does not fit the European colonial convention of Western men marrying native women.[251] Unions between Chinese and Russians were also rare in urban areas like Harbin where there was prejudice against mixed marriages on both sides.[251]
Hong Kong
Many Tanka women bore children with foreign men. Ernest John Eitel mentioned in 1889 how an important change had taken place among Eurasian girls, the offspring of illicit connections: instead of becoming concubines, they were commonly brought up respectably and married to Hong Kong Chinese husbands. Some believed many Hong Kong-born Eurasians were assimilated into the Hong Kong society by intermarriage with the Cantonese population. The world's most influential martial artist icon, Bruce Lee, was also born to parents of Hong Kong heritage to a Cantonese father and a Eurasian mother. Some European women also married with Cantonese such as Hollywood sex symbol Nancy Kwan born to a Cantonese architect,[253] and Marquita Scott, a Caucasian[254] model of English and Scottish ancestry.[255][note 1]
Ernest John Eitel controversially claimed that most "half-caste" people in Hong Kong were descended exclusively from Europeans having relationships with Tanka women. The theory that most of the Eurasian mixed-race Hong Kong people are descended only from Tanka women and European men, and not ordinary Cantonese women, has been backed up by other researchers who pointed out that Tanka women freely consorted with foreigners because they were not bound by the same Confucian traditions as the Cantonese, and having relationships with European men was advantageous for Tanka women, but Lethbridge criticized it as "a 'myth' propagated by xenophobic Cantonese to account for the establishment of the Hong Kong Eurasian community". Carl Smith's study in the late 1960s on the protected women seems, to some degree, to support Eitel's theory. Smith says that the Tankas experienced certain restrictions within the traditional Chinese social structure. Being a group marginal to the traditional Chinese society of the Puntis (Cantonese), they did not have the same social pressure in dealing with Europeans. The ordinary Cantonese women did not sleep with European men; the Eurasian population was formed mostly from Tanka and European admixture.[256][257][258][259]
They invaded Hongkong the moment the settlement was started, living at first on boats in the harbon with their numerons families, and gradually settling on shore. They have maintained ever since almost a monopoly of the supply of pilots and ships' crews, of the fish trade and the cattle trade, but unfortunately also of the trade in girls and women. Strange to say, when the settlement was first started, it was estimated that some 2,000 of these Tan-ka lieople had flocked to Hongkong, but at the present time they are abont the same number, a tendency having set in among them to settle on shore rather than on the water and to disavow their Tan-ka extraction in order to mix on equal terms with the mass of the Chinese community. The half-caste population in Hongkong were, from the earliest days of the settlement of the Colony and down to the present day, almost exclusively the off-spring of these Tan-ka people. But, like the Tan-ka people themselves, they are happily under the influence of a process of continuons re-absorption in the mass of the Chinese residents of the Colony.[260]
Elizabeth Wheeler Andrew (1845–1917) and Katharine Caroline Bushnell (5 February 1856 26 January 1946), who wrote extensively on the position of women in the British Empire, wrote about the Tanka inhabitants of Hong Kong and their position in the prostitution industry, catering to foreign sailors. The Tanka did not marry with the Chinese; being descendants of the natives, they were restricted to the waterways. They supplied their women as prostitutes to British sailors and assisted the British in their military actions around Hong Kong.[261] The Tanka in Hong Kong were considered "outcasts", and categorized as low class.[262] Tanka women were ostracized from the Cantonese community, and were nicknamed "salt water girls" (ham shui mui) for their services as prostitutes to foreigners in Hong Kong.[263][264]
South Asians have been living in Hong Kong throughout the colonial period, before the partition of India into the nations of India and Pakistan. They migrated to Hong Kong and worked as police officers as well as army officers during colonial rule. 25,000 of the Muslims in Hong Kong trace their roots back to Faisalabad in what is now Pakistan; around half of them belong to 'local boy' families, who descended from early Indian-Pakistani immigrants who took local Chinese wives mostly of Tanka origin.[265][266]
Macau
Due to a few Chinese living in Macau, the early Macanese ethnic group was formed from Portuguese men with Malay, Japanese, Indian women.[267] The Portuguese encouraged Chinese migration to Macau, and most Macanese in Macau were formed from intermarriages between Portuguese and Chinese.
Rarely did Chinese women marry Portuguese; initially, mostly Goans, Ceylonese (from today's Sri Lanka), Indochinese, Malay, and Japanese women were the wives of the Portuguese men in Macau.[268][269][270][271][272] Japanese girls would be purchased in Japan by Portuguese men.[273] Many Chinese became Macanese simply by converting to Catholicism, and had no ancestry from Portuguese, having assimilated into the Macanese people.[274] The majority of the early intermarriages of people from China with Portuguese were between Portuguese men and women of Tanka origin, who were considered the lowest class of people in China and had relations with Portuguese settlers and sailors, or low-class Chinese women.[275] Western men were refused by high-class Chinese women, who did not marry foreigners, while a minority were Cantonese men and Portuguese women. Macanese men and women also married with the Portuguese and Chinese, and as a result some Macanese became indistinguishable from the Chinese or Portuguese population. Because the majority of the population who migrated to Macau were Cantonese, Macau became a culturally Cantonese speaking society; other ethnic groups became fluent in Cantonese. Most Macanese had paternal Portuguese heritage until 1974.[citation needed] It was in the 1980s that Macanese and Portuguese women began to marry men who defined themselves ethnically as Chinese.[275]
Literature in Macau was written about love affairs and marriage between the Tanka women and Portuguese men, like "A-Chan, A Tancareira", by Henrique de Senna Fernandes.[275][276][277] After the handover of Macau to China in 1999, many Macanese migrated to other countries. Many of the Portuguese and Macanese women who stayed in Macau married local Cantonese men, and many Macanese also now have Cantonese paternal heritage. There are between 25,000 – 46,000 Macanese, only 5000 – 8000 of whom live in Macau, while most live in America, Latin America, and Portugal. Unlike the Macanese of Macau who are strictly of Chinese and Portuguese heritage, many Macanese living abroad are not entirely of Portuguese and Chinese ancestry. Many Macanese men and women intermarried with the local population of America and Latin America, etc., and have only partial Macanese heritage.
Taiwan
During the Siege of Fort Zeelandia in which Chinese Ming loyalist forces commanded by Koxinga besieged and defeated the Dutch East India Company and conquered Taiwan, the Chinese took Dutch women and children prisoner. Koxinga took Antonius Hambroek's teenage daughter as a concubine,[278][279][280] and Dutch women were sold to Chinese soldiers to become their wives. In 1684 some of these Dutch wives were still captives of the Chinese.[281]
Some Dutch physical features like auburn and red hair among people in regions of south Taiwan are a result of this episode of Dutch women becoming concubines to the Chinese commanders.[282]
Japan
Inter-ethnic marriage in Japan dates back to the 7th century, when Chinese and Korean immigrants began intermarrying with the local population. By the early 9th century, over one-third of all noble families in Japan had ancestors of foreign origin.[283] In the 1590s, over 50,000 Koreans were forcibly brought to Japan, where they intermarried with the local population. In the 16th and 17th centuries, around 58,000 Japanese travelled abroad, many of whom intermarried with the local women in Southeast Asia.[284]
Portuguese traders in Japan also intermarried with the local Christian women in the 16th and 17th centuries.[285]
During the anti-Christian persecutions in 1596, many Japanese Christians fled to Macau and other Portuguese colonies such as Goa, where there was a community of Japanese slaves and traders by the early 17th century.[283] The Japanese slaves were brought or captured by Portuguese traders from Japan.[286] Intermarriage with the local populations in these Portuguese colonies also took place.[283] Marriage and sexual relations between European merchants and Japanese women was usual during this period.[287]
A large-scale slave trade developed in which Portuguese purchased Japanese as slaves in Japan and sold them to various locations overseas, including Portugal itself, throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.[288][289] At least more than several hundreds of Japanese women, were sold sexual purposes.[290] Many documents mention the slave trade along with protests against the enslavement of Japanese. Japanese slaves are believed to be the first of their nation to end up in Europe, and the Portuguese purchased many Japanese slave girls to bring to Portugal for sexual purposes, as noted by the Church in 1555. King Sebastian feared that it was having a negative effect on Catholic proselytization since the slave trade in Japanese was growing in larger proportions, so he commanded that it be banned in 1571.[291][292]
Japanese slave women were occasionally even sold as concubines to Indian and African crewmembers, along with their European counterparts serving on Portuguese ships trading in Japan, mentioned by Luis Cerqueira, a Portuguese Jesuit, in a 1598 document.[293] Japanese slaves were brought by the Portuguese to Macau, where some of them not only ended up being enslaved to the Portuguese, but as slaves to other slaves, with the Portuguese owning Malay and African slaves, who in turn owned Japanese slaves of their own.[294][295]
Historian S. Kuznetsov, dean of the Department of History of the Irkutsk State University, one of the first researchers of the topic, interviewed thousands of former internees and came to the following conclusion: What is more, romantic relations between Japanese internees and Russian women were not uncommon. For example, in the city of Kansk, Krasnoyarsk Krai, about 50 Japanese married locals and stayed. Today many Russian women married Japanese men, often for the benefit of long-term residence and work rights. Some of their mixed offspring stay in Japan while other's to Russia.[296]
In 2003, there were 740,191 marriages in Japan, of which 28,831 involved a non-Japanese bride and 7,208 involved a non-Japanese groom. Non-Japanese women who married a Japanese man were predominantly of Chinese (10,242), Filipino (7,794), Korean (5,318), Thai (1,445) and Brazilian (296) nationality. Non-Japanese men who married a Japanese woman were predominantly of Korean (2,235), United States (1,529), Chinese (890), British (334) and Brazilian (265) nationality.[297]
In 2006 there were 735,132 marriages in Japan, of which 40,154 involved a non-Japanese bride and 8,708 involved a non-Japanese groom. Non-Japanese women who married a Japanese-born man were predominantly of Filipino (12,150), Chinese (12,131), Korean (6,041), Thai (1,676) and Brazilian (285). Non-Japanese men who married a Japanese woman were predominantly of Korean (2,335), United States (1,474), Chinese (1,084), British (386) and Filipino (195) nationality.[298]
Korea
There were 43,121 international marriages between Koreans and non-Koreans in 2005, up 21.6% from a year earlier, according to Korea National Statistics Office[299] data published in the Korea Times newspaper on 30 March 2006. 11% of couples who married in 2007 were international couples. The majority of them involve South Korean males married to foreign females,[300] from China, Japan, Vietnam, the Philippines, United States, Mongolia, Thailand, and Russia. However, majority of these brides are ethnic Koreans from China and Han Chinese.[301][302] The most common explanation for this phenomenon is that there is a lack of South Korean women who are willing to marry men living in rural areas. Since the 1960s, young women had an incentive to move from countryside to the city due to the desire of chasing a better life. Hence, there are only young men remaining in their hometown to look after their farm and keep the agriculture industry going.
In recent times, about one third of South Korean men in rural areas married women from abroad, according to Korea National Statistics Office data published in 2006.[303] Marriages between South Korean men and foreign women are often arranged by marriage brokers or international religious groups. There is mounting evidence to suggest that there is a statistically higher level of poverty, violence and divorce in the Korean men married to foreign women cohort.[304] Most Korean men who marry Southeast Asian women end up with divorces due differences in beliefs[citation needed] Currently divorces between Koreans and foreign spouses make up 10% of the total Korean divorce rate.[citation needed]
Interracial marriage in Korea dates back to at least the Three Kingdoms period. Records about the period, in particular the section in the Samguk Yusa about the Gaya kingdom (it was absorbed by the kingdom of Silla later), indicate that in 48 AD, King Kim Suro of Gaya (the progenitor of the Gimhae Kim clan) took a princess (Heo Hwang-ok) from the "Ayuta nation" as his bride and queen. "Ayuta" is the Korean name for the city of Ayodhya in India.[305] Two major Korean clans today claim descent from this union.[306]
Somewhat later, during the arrival of Muslims in Korea in the Middle Ages, a number of Arab, Persian and Turkic navigators and traders settled in Korea. They took local Korean wives and established several Muslim villages.[307] Some assimilation into Buddhism and Shamanism eventually took place, owing to Korea's geographical isolation from the Muslim world.[308] At least two or three major Korean clans today claim descent from Muslim families.[309][310]
Southeast Asia
Interracial marriage in Southeast Asia dates back to the spread of Indian culture, including Hinduism and Buddhism, to the region. From the 1st century onwards, mostly male traders and merchants from the Indian subcontinent frequently intermarried with the local female populations in Cambodia, Burma, Champa, central Thailand, the Malay Peninsula, the Philippines, and Indonesia. Many Indianized kingdoms rose in Southeast Asia during the Middle Ages.[311]
From the 9th century onwards, some male Arab traders from the Middle East settled in Maritime Southeast Asia and married local Malay, Indonesian and Filipina female populations, which contributed to the spread of Islam in Southeast Asia.[312] From the 14th to the 17th centuries, many Chinese, Indian and Arab traders settled within the kingdoms of Maritime Southeast Asia and married within local female populations. This tradition continued among Spain and Portuguese traders who also married within local populations.[313] In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of Japanese people travelled to Southeast Asia and married with local women there.[284]
Vietnam
Much of the business conducted with foreign men in southeast Asia was done by the local women, who engaged in both sexual and mercantile intercourse with foreign male traders. A Portuguese- and Malay-speaking Vietnamese woman who lived in Macao for an extensive period of time was the person who interpreted for the first diplomatic meeting between Cochin-China and a Dutch delegation. She served as an interpreter for three decades in the Cochin-China court with an old woman who had been married to three husbands, one Vietnamese and two Portuguese.[314][315][316] The cosmopolitan exchange was facilitated by the marriage of Vietnamese women to Portuguese merchants. Those Vietnamese woman were married to Portuguese men and lived in Macao which was how they became fluent in Malay and Portuguese.[317]
Foreigners noted that in southeast Asian countries, foreigners would be offered already married local women for sex. William Dampier wrote, "The offering of Women is a Custom used by several nations in the East-Indies, as at Pegu, Siam, Cochinchina, and Cambodia... It is accounted a piece of Policy to do it; for the chief Factors and Captains of Ships have the great men's Daughters offered them, the Mandarins or Noblemen at Tunquin..."[318][319][320] Dampier's full account said, "They are so free of their women, that they would bring them aboard and offer them to us; and many of our men hired them for a small matter. This is a custom used by several nations in the East Indies, as at Pegu, Siam, Cochin-China, and Cambodia, as I have been told. It is used at Tunquin also to my knowledge; for I did afterwards make a voyage thither, and most of our men had women on board all the time of our abode there. In Africa, also, on the coast of Guinea, our merchants, factors, and seamen that reside there, have their black misses. It is accounted a piece of policy to do it; for the chief factors and captains of ships have the great men's daughters offered them, the mandarins' or noblemen's at Tunquin, and even the King's wives in Guinea; and by this sort of alliance the country people are engaged to a greater friendship; and if there should arise any difference about trade, or any thing else, which might provoke the native to seek some treacherous revenge, to which all these heathen nations are very prone, then these Dalilahs would certainly declare it to their white friends, and so hinder their countrymen's design."[321][322][323][324][325][326]
Alexander Hamilton said, "The Tonquiners used to be very desirous of having a brood of Europeans in their country, for which reason the greatest nobles thought it no shame or disgrace to marry their daughters to English and Dutch seamen, for the time they were to stay in Tonquin, and often presented their sons-in-law pretty handsomely at their departure, especially if they left their wives with child; but adultery was dangerous to the husband, for they are well versed in the art of poisoning."[319][320][327][328][329][330]
Burma
Burmese Muslims are the descendants of Indian Muslims, Arabs, Persians, Turks, Pathans, Chinese Muslims and Malays who settled and intermarried with the local Burmese population and other Burmese ethnic groups such as the Shan, Karen, and Mon.[331][332]
During British Indian rule, millions of Indians, mostly Muslim, migrated there. The small population of mixed descendants of Indian men and local Burmese women are called "Zerbadees", often in a pejorative sense implying mixed race. The Rohingya claim to have descended from Bengalis who intermarried with the local women, but this remains a hotly contested issue. The political situation surrounding the actual history of the Rohingya, the lack of evidence, and the counter-claims, mean that proper ancestry cannot be established. The Panthays, a group of Chinese Muslims descended from West Asians and Central Asians, migrated from China and also intermarried with local Burmese females.[333]
Burma has an estimated 52,000 Anglo-Burmese people, descended from British and Burmese people. Anglo-Burmese people frequently intermarried with Anglo-Indian immigrants, who assimilated into the Anglo-Burmese community.
Malaysia and Singapore
In Malaysia and Singapore, the majority of inter-ethnic marriages are between Chinese and Indians. The offspring of such marriages are informally known as "Chindian". The Malaysian and Singaporean governments, however, only classify them by their father's ethnicity. As the majority of these marriages involve an Indian groom and Chinese bride, the majority of Chindians in Malaysia are usually classified as "Indian" by the Malaysian government. As for the Malays, who are predominantly Muslim, legal restrictions in Malaysia make it less common for them to intermarry with either the Indians, who are predominantly Hindu, or the Chinese, who are predominantly Buddhist and Taoist.[334]
It is common for Arabs in Singapore and Malaysia to take local Malay wives, due to a common Islamic faith.[312] The Chitty people, in Singapore and the Malacca state of Malaysia, are a Tamil people with considerable Malay descent, which was due to thousands of the first Tamil settlers taking local wives, since they did not bring along any of their own women with them. According to government statistics, the population of Singapore as of September 2007 was 4.68 million, of whom multiracial people, including Chindians and Eurasians, formed 2.4%. In 2007, 16.4% of all marriages in Singapore were inter-ethnic.[335] The Peranakans are descendants of Chinese merchants who settled down in Malaysia and Singapore during the colonial era and married Malay women. There is also a significant minority population of Eurasians who are descended from Europeans – Singapore and Malaysia being former British colonies – and local women.
Philippines
Centuries of migration, diaspora, assimilation, and cultural diversity have made most Filipinos open-minded in embracing interracial marriage and multiculturalism. Following independence, the Philippines has seen both small and large-scale immigration into the country, mostly involving Chinese, Americans, Europeans, Japanese, and South Asians. More recent migrations into the country by Koreans, Brazilians and other Southeast Asians have contributed to the enrichment of the country's ethnic landscape.
Thousands of interracial marriages between Americans and Filipinos have taken place since the United States took possession of the Philippines after the Philippine–American War. Due to the strategic location of the Philippines, as many as 21 bases and 100,000 military personnel were stationed there since the U.S. first colonized the islands in 1898. These bases were decommissioned in 1992 after the end of the Cold War, but left behind thousands of Amerasian children. The Pearl S. Buck International Foundation estimates there are 52,000 Amerasians scattered throughout the Philippines.
In the United States intermarriage among Filipinos with other races is common. They have the largest number of interracial marriages among Asian immigrant groups, as documented in California.[336] It is also noted that 21.8% of Filipino Americans are of mixed blood, second among Asian Americans, and is the fastest growing.[337]
Interracial marriages particularly among Southeast Asians are continually increasing. At present, there is an increasing number of Southeast Asian intermarriages, particularly between Filipinos and Malaysians (Dumanig, 2009). Such marriages have created an impact on language, religion and culture. Dumanig argues that Filipino-Malaysian couples no longer prefer their own ethnic languages as the medium of communication at home. The use of English with some switching in Bahasa Malaysia, Chinese, and Filipino is commonly used.[338]
Philippine nationality law is currently based upon the principles of jus sanguinis and therefore descent from a parent who is a citizen/national of the Republic of the Philippines is the primary method of acquiring Philippine citizenship. Birth in the Philippines to foreign parents does not in itself confer Philippine citizenship, although RA9139, the Administrative Naturalization Law of 2000, does provide a path for administrative naturalization of certain aliens born on Philippine soil (Jus soli). Together, some of these recent immigrants have intermarried with the indigenous Filipinos, as well as with the previous immigrant groups, giving rise to Filipinos of mixed racial and/or ethnic origins also known as mestizos.
South Asia
The Indian subcontinent has a long history of inter-ethnic marriage dating back to ancient India. Various groups of people have been intermarrying for millennia in the Indian subcontinent, including speakers of Dravidian, Indo-Aryan (Indic), Iranian, Austroasiatic, and Tibeto-Burman languages. This was particularly common in the northwestern and northeastern parts of the subcontinent where invaders of Central Asian origin often invaded throughout history.
Many Indian traders, merchants, and missionaries travelled to Southeast Asia (where Indianized kingdoms were established) and often took local wives from the region. The Romani people ("Gypsies") who have origins in the Indian subcontinent travelled westwards and also took local wives in Central Asia, the Middle East, and Europe. Genetic studies show that the majority of Romani males carry large frequencies of particular Y chromosomes (inherited paternally) that otherwise exist only in populations from South Asia, in addition to nearly a third of Romani females carrying particular mitochondrial DNA (inherited maternally) that is rare outside South Asia.[339][340] Around 800, a ship carrying Persian Jews crashed in India. They settled in different parts of India and befriended and traded with the local Indian population. Intermarriage occurred, and to this day the Indian Jews physically resemble their surrounding Indian populations due to intermarriage.
There are also cases of Indian princesses marrying kings abroad. For example, the Korean text Samguk Yusa about the Gaya kingdom (it was absorbed by the kingdom of Silla later), indicate that in 48 AD, King Kim Suro of Gaya (the progenitor of the Gimhae Kim clan) took Princess Heo from "Ayuta,” the Korean name for the city of Ayodhya in India, as his bride and queen. According to the Samguk Yusa, the princess' parents had a dream sent by a god who told them about a king from a faraway land. That was King Kim Suro of the Gaya kingdom, in what is now the southeastern tip of South Korea. [check quotation syntax] In Goa during the late 16th and 17th centuries, there was a community of Japanese slaves and traders, who were either Japanese Christians fleeing anti-Christian sentiments in Japan,[283] or Japanese slaves brought or captured by Portuguese traders and their South Asian lascar crewmembers from Japan.[286] In both cases, they often intermarried with the local population in Goa.[283] One offspring of such an intermarriage was Maria Guyomar de Pinha, born in Thailand to a Portuguese-speaking Japanese-Bengali father from Goa and a Japanese mother.[341] In turn, she married the Greek adventurer Constantine Phaulkon.[342]
Inter-ethnic marriages between European men and Indian women were very common during colonial times. According to the historian William Dalrymple, about one in three European men (mostly British, as well as Portuguese, French, Dutch, and to a lesser extent Swedes and Danes) had Indian wives in colonial India. One of the most famous intermarriages was between the Anglo-Indian resident James Achilles Kirkpatrick and the Hyderabadi noblewoman and descendant of prophet Mohammed, Khair-un-Nissa. During the British East India Company's rule in India in the late 18th century and early 19th century, it was initially fairly common for British officers and soldiers to take local Indian wives. The 600,000 strong Anglo-Indian community has descended from such unions. There is also a story of an attractive Gujjar princess falling in love with a handsome English nobleman and the nobleman converted to Islam so as to marry her. The 65,000 strong Burgher community of Sri Lanka was formed by the intermarriages of Dutch and Portuguese men with local Sinhalese and Tamil women. Intermarriage also took place in Britain during the 17th to 19th centuries, when the British East India Company brought over many thousands of Indian scholars, lascars and workers. (mostly Bengali) Most of whom worked on British ships in transient around the world. A small number of which settled down in Britain and took local British wives, as well as a limited number going with their husbands.[343] In the mid-19th century, there were around 40,000 British soldiers but less than 2,000 British officials present in India.[344] The novel "Two Leaves and a Bud" by Ananda depicts Indian laborer women in India being preyed upon and seduced by the British Manager Reggie Hunt after he gives them bangles and nose rings.[345]
In Assam, local Indian women married several waves of Chinese migrants during British colonial times, to the point where it became hard to physically differentiate Chinese in Assam from locals during the time of their internment during the 1962 war, and the majority of these Chinese in Assam were married to Indian women, and some of these Indian women were deported to China with their husbands.[346]
In the 19th century, when the British Straits Settlement shipped Chinese convicts to be jailed in India, the Chinese men then settled in the Nilgiri mountains near Naduvattam after their release and married Tamil Paraiyan women, having mixed Chinese-Tamil children with them. They were documented by Edgar Thurston.[347] Paraiyan is also anglicized as "pariah".
Edgar Thurston described the colony of the Chinese men with their Tamil pariah wives and children: "Halting in the course of a recent anthropological expedition on the western side of the Nilgiri plateau, in the midst of the Government Cinchona plantations, I came across a small settlement of Chinese, who have squatted for some years on the slopes of the hills between Naduvatam and Gudalur, and developed, as the result of ' marriage ' with Tamil pariah women, into a colony, earning an honest livelihood by growing vegetables, cultivating coffee on a small scale, and adding to their income from these sources by the economic products of the cow. An ambassador was sent to this miniature Chinese Court with a suggestion that the men should, in return for monies, present themselves before me with a view to their measurements being recorded. The reply which came back was in its way racially characteristic as between Hindus and Chinese. In the case of the former, permission to make use of their bodies for the purposes of research depends essentially on a pecuniary transaction, on a scale varying from two to eight annas. The Chinese, on the other hand, though poor, sent a courteous message to the effect that they did not require payment in money, but would be perfectly happy if I would give them, as a memento, copies of their photographs."[348][349] Thurston further describe a specific family: "The father was a typical Chinaman, whose only grievance was that, in the process of conversion to Christianity, he had been obliged to 'cut him tail off.' The mother was a typical Tamil Pariah of dusky hue. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the yellowish tint of the father than to the dark tint of the mother; and the semimongol parentage was betrayed in the slant eyes, flat nose, and (in one case) conspicuously prominent cheek-bones."[350] Thurston's description of the Chinese-Tamil families were cited by others, one mentioned "an instance mating between a Chinese male with a Tamil Pariah female".[351][352][353][354][355] A 1959 book described attempts made to find out what happened to the colony of mixed Chinese and Tamils.[356]
Европа
France
According to official records in 1918 of the Vietnamese men and French women marriages, 250 had married officially and 1363 couples were living together without the approval of the French parental consent and without the approval of French authorities.[357][358]
During World War I, there were 135,000 soldiers from British India,[359] a large number of soldiers from French North Africa,[360] and 20,000 labourers from South Africa,[361] who served in France. Much of the French male population had gone to war, leaving behind a surplus of French females,[360] many of whom formed interracial relationships with non-white soldiers, mainly Indian[362][363] and North African.[359] British and French authorities allowed foreign Muslim soldiers to intermarry with local French females on the basis of Islamic law, which allows marriage between Muslim men and Christian women. On the other hand, Hindu soldiers in France were restricted from intermarriage on the basis of the Indian caste system.[363]
According to some historical research, French are less likely to display a conflictive look on interracial marriage compared to their counterparts. One study suggests that a look into their film history is a good indication of this. They display less conflict around the issue of interracial marriage in many of their culturally significant films. However, it is unknown if this is truly evidence of less social stigma around the issue or rather a way to ignore the stigma around the issue altogether.[364][365]
Germany
The administrations of the German colonies in Africa and the South Seas enacted bans on marriages with non-European natives in the early 20th century. When the issue was debated in the Reichstag in 1912, this ban was rejected by a majority and an inclusive marriage law was demanded (see German interracial marriage debate (1912)). However, it never came to pass because of the beginning of World War I a few years later.
Nazi Germany introduced the Nuremberg Laws in 1935, among which was the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour that banned marital as well as extramarital relations between Germans (incl. people deemed to be racially similar, colloquially Aryans) and Jews. Although Slavs could be in theory included as Aryans,[366] Nazi Germany's legal practice consisted in strict segregation of Germans and most subjugated Slavs and harsh punishment for miscegenation, as exemplified by the Polish decrees of 1940.
Iberian Peninsula
In ancient history, the Iberian Peninsula was frequently invaded by foreigners who intermarried with the native population. One of the earliest foreign groups to arrive to the region were the Indo-European Celts who intermarried with the pre-Indo-European Iberians in prehistoric Iberia.[citation needed]
Portuguese colonies
According to Gilberto Freyre, a Brazilian sociologist, miscegenation was commonplace in the Portuguese colonies, and was even supported by the court as a way to boost low populations and guarantee a successful and cohesive settlement. Thus, settlers often released African slaves to become their wives. The children were guaranteed full Portuguese citizenship, provided the parents were married. Some former Portuguese colonies have large mixed-race populations, for instance, Brazil, Cape Verde, Mozambique, Timor Leste, Macau and São Tomé and Príncipe. In the case of Brazil, the influential "Indianist" novels of José de Alencar (O Guarany, Iracema, and Ubirajara) perhaps went farther than in the other colonies, advocating miscegenation in order to create a truly Brazilian race.[367] Mixed marriages between Portuguese and locals in former colonies were very common in all Portuguese colonies. Miscegenation was still common in Africa until the independence of the former Portuguese colonies in the mid-1970s.
Iceland
Most Icelanders are descendants of Norwegian settlers and Celts from Ireland and Scotland, brought over as slaves during the age of settlement. Recent DNA analysis suggests that around 66% of the male settler-era population was of Norse ancestry, whereas the female population was 60% Celtic.[368][369][370][371]
Italian Peninsula
As was the case in other areas occupied by Muslims, it was acceptable in Islamic marital law for a Muslim male to marry Christian and Jewish females in southern Italy when under Islamic rule – namely, the Emirate of Sicily, and, of least importance, the short-lived Emirate of Bari between the 8th and 11th centuries. In this case, most intermarriages were between Arab and Berber males from North Africa and the local Greek, Roman and Italian females. Such intermarriages were particularly common in the Emirate of Sicily, where one writer visiting the place in the 970s expressed shock at how common it was in rural areas.[372] After the Norman conquest of southern Italy, all Muslim citizens (whether foreign, native or mixed) of the Kingdom of Sicily were known as "Moors". After a brief period when the Arab-Norman culture had flourished under the reign of Roger II of Sicily, later the mainlander Italians migrated to Sicily persecuted the Muslims of Sicily and they killed many of them;[373] later the remnants were expelled in 1239 with the persecution of Frederick II, who deported the Muslim survivors in Lucera.
In Malta, Arabs and Italians from neighbouring Sicily and Calabria intermarried with the local inhabitants,[374] who were descended from Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans and Vandals. The Maltese people are descended from such unions, and the Maltese language is descended from Siculo-Arabic.
At times, the Italian city-states also played an active role in the Arab slave trade, where Moorish and Italian traders occasionally exchanged slaves. For example, two researchers suggest that Leonardo da Vinci's mother Caterina may have been a slave from the Middle East.[375]
United Kingdom
Britain has a long history of interethnic marriage among the various European populations that inhabited the island, including the Celtic, Roman, Viking, Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman peoples. In the late 15th century, the Romani people arrived. The arriving Romani nomads took local British wives, forming a distinct community known as the Romnichal. Due to intermarriage, Romnichal today are often indistinguishable from the general white British population.
Inter-ethnic marriage began occurring more often in Britain since the 17th century, when the British East India Company began bringing over many Indian scholars, lascars, servants and workers. Though mixed marriages were not always accepted in British society, there were no legal restrictions against intermarriage at the time.[376][377] By the mid-19th century, there were more than 40,000 Indian seamen, diplomats, scholars, soldiers, officials, tourists, businessmen and students arriving(normally temporarily) to Britain.[344] By the late 19th century and early 20th century, there were around 70,000 South Asians working on British ships,[378] 51,616 of whom were lascar seamen working on British merchant ships for the Royal Navy when World War 1 began.[379][380] Families with South Asian lascar fathers and white mothers established small interracial families in Britain's dock areas.[381] This led to a number of "mixed race" children being born in the country. The small number of ethnic minority women in Britain were often outnumbered by "half-caste Indian" daughters born from white mothers and Indian fathers although mixed race families were still very unusual in Britain at this time.[382] In addition, a number of British officers who had Indian wives and Anglo-Indian children in British India often brought them over to Britain in the 19th century.[383] From the 1890s onwards, small numbers of Chinese began to set up businesses catering to the Chinese sailors working on Holt's lines and others. Some of these men married working class British women, resulting in a number of British-born Eurasian Chinese being born in Liverpool.[384] The first Chinese settlers were mainly Cantonese from south China, with some also from Shanghai. The figures of Chinese for 1921 are 2,157 men and 262 women. Many Chinese men married British women while others remained single, possibly supporting a wife and family back home in China. During the second world war (1939–45) another wave of Chinese seamen from Shanghai and of Cantonese origin married British women. Records show that about some 300 of these men had married British women and supported families.[385]
Following World War I, there were significantly more females than males in Britain,[386] and there were increasing numbers of seamen from the Indian subcontinent, Arab World, Far East and Caribbean. A number of the seamen intermarried and cohabited with local British women, which raised increasing concerns from a minority over miscegenation and led to a handful of race riots in at the time.[387] By World War II, any form of intimate relationship between a white woman and non-white man was considered offensive by a few.[386] In 1932, the Indian National Congress survey of 'all Indians outside India' estimated that there were 7,128 Indians living in the United Kingdom, which included students, professionals such as doctors and Lascars.[388]
A few concerns were voiced regarding white adolescent girls forming relationships with men of colour, including South Asian seamen in the 1920s,[389] Muslim immigrants in the 1920s to 1940s,[386] African American GIs during World War II, Maltese and Cypriot cafe owners in the 1940s to 1950s, Caribbean immigrants in the 1950s to 1960s, and South Asian immigrants in the 1960s although the continuing record of mixed marriages and the later acceptance of successful mixed-race offspring in public and cultural life suggests tolerance at the time was the norm. But a recent ethnographic study[390] argues that there are a number negative impacts despite the veneer of tolerance.
According to the UK 2001 census, black British males were around 50% more likely than black females to marry outside their race. British Chinese women (30%) were twice as likely as their male counterparts (15%) to marry someone from a different ethnic group. In 2001, 2% of all marriages in the United Kingdom were inter-ethnic.[391] In 2011 the Census showed that almost one in 10 people in Britain were either married or living with someone from a different ethnic group, with proportions ranging from 85% of mixed-race people to 4% of white people.[392]
In 1948, an international incident was created when the British government took exception to the "difficult problem"[393] of the marriage of Seretse Khama and Ruth Williams, whom he had met while studying law in London. The interracial marriage sparked a furore among both the tribal elders of the Bamangwato and the apartheid government of South Africa. The latter objected to the idea of an interracial couple ruling just across their northern border, and exerted pressure to have Khama removed from his chieftainship. Britain's Labour government, then heavily in debt from World War II, could not afford to lose cheap South African gold and uranium supplies. They also feared South Africa might take direct action against Bechuanaland, Khama's homeland, through economic sanctions or a military incursion.[394][395] The British government began a parliamentary enquiry into Khama's fitness for the chieftainship. Though the investigation reported that he was eminently fit for the rule of Bechuanaland, "but for his unfortunate marriage",[396] the government ordered the report suppressed. (It would remain so for thirty years.) It exiled Khama and his wife from Bechuanaland in 1951. It was many years before the couple was allowed to live in Africa, and several more years before Khama became president of what is now Botswana. Their son Ian Khama served as the president of that country decades later.
According to the 2011 census, people who were cohabiting were more likely to be in an inter-ethnic relationship, than people who were married or in a civil partnership (12% vs 8%). This was the case for all ethnic groups except Other White, where the proportions were the same (39%). The pattern for inter-ethnic relationships for those married or in a civil partnership and those who were cohabiting was similar to the overall picture of inter-ethnic relationships across the ethnic groups – with the Mixed/Multiple ethnic groups as the most likely and White British the least likely. The largest differences between people who were married and cohabiting were in the Asian ethnic groups. Bangladeshis who were cohabiting were nearly seven times more likely to be in an inter-ethnic relationship than Bangladeshis who were married or in a civil partnership (39% compared with 6%). Indians (56% compared with 10%) and Pakistanis (41% compared with 8%) were around five times more likely. Two thirds (65%) of Other Asians cohabiting were in an inter-ethnic relationship compared with 28% who were married (or in civil partnership). In the Other ethnic groups, nearly three quarters of Arabs (72%) and Any Other ethnic groups (74%) cohabiting were in inter ethnic relationships, compared with almost a third (31%) of Arabs and over a third (37%) of Any Other ethnic group who were married (or in a civil partnership). The proportion of people in inter-ethnic relationships was lower in 2001, compared to 2011. Some 6% of people who were married in 2001 were in an inter-ethnic relationship compared to 10% who were cohabiting.[397]
Смотрите также
- Heterosis
- List of interracial romance films
- Loving Day
- Mixed Race Day
- Race of the future
- Race traitor
- Transnational marriage
Рекомендации
Notes
- ^ Nancy Kwan is "half-Chinese, three-eighths English, one-eighth Scot, blended with a touch of Malayan".[255]
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- ^ Brian L. Moore (1995). Cultural Power, Resistance, and Pluralism: Colonial Guyana, 1838–1900. Mcgill-Queen's Studies in Ethnic History. Volume 22 of McGill-Queen's studies in ethnic history (illustrated ed.). McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. pp. 272–273. ISBN 978-0-7735-1354-9. ISSN 0846-8869. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
|volume=
has extra text (help) - ^ History Gazette, Issues 1-2; Issues 4-27. University of Guyana. History Society. History Society. 1989. ISBN 978-0-7735-1354-9. Retrieved 1 June 2015.CS1 maint: others (link)
- ^ Brian L. Moore (1987). Race, Power, and Social Segmentation in Colonial Society: Guyana After Slavery, 1838–1891. Urban Life in Kingston, Jamaica the Culture and Class Ideology of Two Neighbourhoods. Volume 4 of Caribbean studies (illustrated ed.). Gordon & Breach Science Publishers. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-677-21980-6. ISSN 0275-5793. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
|volume=
has extra text (help) - ^ Brian L. Moore (1987). Race, Power, and Social Segmentation in Colonial Society: Guyana After Slavery, 1838–1891. Urban Life in Kingston, Jamaica the Culture and Class Ideology of Two Neighbourhoods. Volume 4 of Caribbean studies (illustrated ed.). Gordon & Breach Science Publishers. p. 182. ISBN 978-0-677-21980-6. ISSN 0275-5793. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
|volume=
has extra text (help) - ^ Preethy Sarah Samuel (2000). Cultural Continuity Or Assimilation in the Familial Domain of the Indo-Guyanese. Wayne State University. Sociology (illustrated ed.). p. 38. ISBN 978-0-549-38762-6. Retrieved 1 June 2006.
- ^ JCAS Symposium Series, Issue 13. Kokuritsu Minzokugaku Hakubutsukan. Chiiki Kenkyu Kikaku Koryu Senta (illustrated ed.). Japan Center for Area Studies, National Museum of Ethnology. 2002. p. 209. Retrieved 1 June 2006.CS1 maint: others (link) Alt URL
- ^ Gaiutra Bahadur (2013). Coolie Woman: The Odyssey of Indenture. University of Chicago Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-226-04338-8. Retrieved 1 June 2006.
- ^ Margery Kirkpatrick (1993). From the Middle Kingdom to the New World: Aspects of the Chinese Experience in Migration to British Guiana, Volume 1. Volume 1 of From the Middle Kingdom to the New World. M. Kirkpatrick. p. 156. ISBN 978-976-8136-27-5. Retrieved 1 June 2006.
|volume=
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"The half-caste population of Hongkong were ... almost exclusively the offspring of these Tan-ka women." EJ Eitel, Europe in, the History of Hongkong from the Beginning to the Year 1882 (Taipei: Chen-Wen Publishing Co., originally published in Hong Kong by Kelly and Walsh. 1895, 1968), 169.
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The half-caste population in Hong Kong were, from the earliest days of the settlement of the Colony and down to the present day [1895], almost exclusively the off-spring of these Tan-ka people
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Most of the Chinese who came to Hong Kong in the early years were from the lower classes, such as laborers, artisans, Tanka outcasts, prostitutes, wanderers, and smugglers. That these people violated orders from authorities in Canton
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This exceptional class of Chinese residents here in Hong Kong consists principally of the women known in Hong Kong by the popular nickname " ham-shui- mui " (lit. salt water girls), applied to these members of the so-called Tan-ka or boat
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exceptional class of Chinese residents here in Hong Kong consists principally of the women known in Hong Kong by the popular nickname " ham-shui- mui " (lit. salt water girls), applied to these members of the so-called Tan-ka or boat
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To be a Macanese is fundamentally to be from Macao with Portuguese ancestors, but not necessarily to be of Sino-Portuguese descent. The local community was born from Portuguese men. ... but in the beginning the woman was Goanese, Siamese, Indo-Chinese, Malay – they came to Macao in our boats. Sporadically it was a Chinese woman.
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macao Japanese women.
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When we established ourselves here, the Chinese ostracized us. The Portuguese had their wives, then, that came from abroad, but they could have no contact with the Chinese women, except the fishing folk, the tanka women and the female slaves. Only the lowest class of Chinese contacted with the Portuguese in the first centuries. But later the strength of Christianization, of the priests, started to convince the Chinese to become Catholic. ... But, when they started to be Catholics, they adopted Portuguese baptismal names and were ostracized by the Chinese Buddhists. So they joined the Portuguese community and their sons started having Portuguese education without a single drop of Portuguese blood.
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We can trace this fleeting and shallow relationship in Henrique de Senna Fernandes' short story, A-Chan, A Tancareira, (Ah Chan, the Tanka Girl) (1978). Senna Fernandes (1923–), a Macanese, had written a series of novels set against the context of Macau and some of which were made into films.
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It is accounted a piece of Policy to do it; for the chief Factors and Captains of Ships have the great men's Daughters offered them, the Mandarins or Noblemen at Tunquin.
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Siam, Cochinchina, and Cambodia. I did afterwards make a Voyage and most of our Men had Women aboard all the time of our abode there.
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Siam, Cochinchina, and Cambodia. I did afterwards make a Voyage and most of our Men had Women aboard all the time of our abode there.
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During May 1959, while working on the blood groups of the Kotas of the Nilgiri Hills in the village of Kokal in Gudalur, inquiries were made regarding the present position of the Tamil-Chinese cross described by Thurston (1909). It may be recalled here that Thurston reported the above cross resulting from the union of some Chinese convicts, deported from the Straits Settlement, and local Tamil Paraiyan
* Edgar Thurston; K. Rangachari (1909). Castes and tribes of southern India, Volume 2. Government press. p. 99. Retrieved 2 March 2012.99 CHINESE-TAMIL CROSS in the Nilgiri jail. It is recorded that, in 1868, twelve of the Chinamen broke out during a very stormy night, and parties of armed police were sent out to scour the hills for them. They were at last arrested in Malabar a fortnight
Alt URL * Edgar Thurston (2011). The Madras Presidency with Mysore, Coorg and the Associated States (reissue ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 218. ISBN 978-1-107-60068-3. Retrieved 17 May 2014. * Radhakrishnan, D (19 April 2014). "Unravelling Chinese link can boost Nilgiris tourism". The Hindu. Retrieved 13 March 2019. * Raman, A (31 May 2010). "Chinese in Madras". The New Indian Express. Retrieved 17 May 2014. * Raman, A (12 July 2010). "Quinine factory and Malay-Chinese workers". The New Indian Express. Retrieved 17 May 2014. * "Chinese connection to the Nilgiris to help promote tourism potential". travel News Digest. 2013. Retrieved 17 May 2014. * W. Francis (1908). The Nilgiris. Volume 1 of Madras District Gazetteers (reprint ed.). Logos Press. p. 184. ISBN 9780865903777. Retrieved 17 May 2014.|volume=
has extra text (help) Alt URL * Madras (India : State) (1908). Madras District Gazetteers, Volume 1. Superintendent, Government Press. p. 184. Retrieved 17 May 2014. * W. Francis (1908). The Nilgiris. Concept Publishing Company. p. 184. Retrieved 17 May 2014. - ^ Government Museum (Madras, India) (1897). Bulletin …, Volumes 2-3. MADRAS: Printed by the Superintendent, Govt. Press. p. 31. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
ON A CHINESE-TAMIL CKOSS.
Halting in the course of a recent anthropological expedition on the western side of the Nilgiri plateau, in the midst of the Government Cinchona plantations, I came across a small settlement of Chinese, who have squatted for some years on the slopes of the hills between Naduvatam and Gudalur, and developed, as the result of 'marriage' with Tamil pariah women, into a colony, earning an honest livelihood by growing vegetables, cultivating cofl'ce on a small scale, and adding to their income from these sources by the economic products of the cow. An ambassador was sent to this miniature Chinese Court with a suggestion that the men should, in return for monies, present themselves before me with a view to their measurements being recorded. The reply which came back was in its way racially characteristic as between Hindus and Chinese. In the case of the former, permission to make use of their bodies for the purposes of research depends essentially on a pecuniary transaction, on a scale varying from two to eight annas. The Chinese, on the other hand, though poor, sent a courteous message to the effect that they did not require payment in money, but would be perfectly happy if I would give them, as a memento, copies of their photographs.
The measurements of a single family, excepting a widowed daughter whom I was not permitted to see, and an infant in arms, who was pacified with cake while I investigated its mother, are recorded in the following table: - ^ Edgar Thurston (2004). Badagas and Irulas of Nilgiris, Paniyans of Malabar: A Cheruman Skull, Kuruba Or Kurumba – Summary of Results. Volume 2, Issue 1 of Bulletin (Government Museum (Madras, India)). Asian Educational Services. p. 31. ISBN 978-81-206-1857-2. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
|volume=
has extra text (help) - ^ * Government Museum (Madras, India) (1897). Bulletin …, Volumes 2-3. MADRAS: Printed by the Superintendent, Govt. Press. p. 32. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
The father was a typical Chinaman, whose only grievance was that, in the process of conversion to Christianity, he had been obliged to 'cut him tail off.' The mother was a typical Tamil Pariah of dusky hue. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the yellowish tint of the father than to the dark tint of the mother; and the semimongol parentage was betrayed in the slant eyes, flat nose, and (in one case) conspicuously prominent cheek-bones. To have recorded the entire series of measurements of the children would have been useless for the purpose of comparison with those of the parents, and I selected from my repertoire the length and breadth of the head and nose, which plainly indicate the paternal influence on the external anatomy of the offspring. The figures given in the table bring out very clearly the great breadth, as compared with the length of the heads of all the children, and the resultant high cephalic index. In other words, in one case a mesaticephalic (79), and, in the remaining three cases, a sub-brachycephalic head (80"1; 801 ; 82-4) has resulted from the union of a mesaticephalic Chinaman (78-5) with a sub-dolichocephalic Tamil Pariah (76"8). How great is the breadth of the head in the children may be emphasised by noting that the average head-breadth of the adult Tamil Pariah man is only 13"7 cm., whereas that of the three boys, aged ten, nine, and five only, was 14 3, 14, and 13"7 cm. respectively. Quite as strongly marked is the effect of paternal influence on the character of the nose; the nasal index, in the case of each child (68"1 ; 717; 727; 68'3), bearing a much closer relation to that of the long nosed father (71'7) than to the typical Pariah nasal index of the broadnosed mother (78-7). It will be interesting to note, hereafter, what is the future of the younger members of this quaint little colony, and to observe the physical characters, temperament, improvement or deterioration, fecundity, and other points relating to the cross-breed resulting from the union of Chinese and Tamil.
* Edgar Thurston (2004). Badagas and Irulas of Nilgiris, Paniyans of Malabar: A Cheruman Skull, Kuruba Or Kurumba – Summary of Results. Volume 2, Issue 1 of Bulletin (Government Museum (Madras, India)). Asian Educational Services. p. 32. ISBN 978-81-206-1857-2. Retrieved 2 March 2012.|volume=
has extra text (help) * Edgar Thurston; K. Rangachari (1987). Castes and Tribes of Southern India (illustrated ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. 99. ISBN 978-81-206-0288-5. Retrieved 2 March 2012.The father was a typical Chinaman, whose only grievance was that, in the process of conversion to Christianity, he had been obliged to "cut his tail off." The mother was a typical dark-skinned Tamil paraiyan,
* Edgar Thurston; K. Rangachari (1987). Castes and Tribes of Southern India (illustrated ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. 98. ISBN 978-81-206-0288-5. Retrieved 2 March 2012. * Edgar Thurston; K. Rangachari (1987). Castes and Tribes of Southern India (illustrated ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. 99. ISBN 978-81-206-0288-5. Retrieved 2 March 2012. * Government Museum; Edgar Thurston (1897). Note on tours along the Malabar coast. Volumes 2-3 of Bulletin, Government Museum (Madras, India). Superintendent, Government Press. p. 31. Retrieved 17 May 2014.|volume=
has extra text (help) * Government Museum (Madras, India) (1894). Bulletin, Volumes 1-2. Superintendent, Government Press. p. 31. Retrieved 17 May 2014. * Government Museum (Madras, India) (1894). Bulletin. v. 2 1897–99. Madras : Printed by the Superintendent, Govt. Press. p. 31. Retrieved 17 May 2014. * Madras Government Museum Bulletin. Vol II. Madras. 1897. p. 31. Retrieved 17 May 2014.|volume=
has extra text (help) - ^ Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur) (1954). Man in India, Volume 34, Issue 4. A.K. Bose. p. 273. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
Thurston found the Chinese element to be predominant among the offspring as will be evident from his description. 'The mother was a typical dark-skinned Tamil Paraiyan. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the yellowish
- ^ Mahadeb Prasad Basu (1990). An anthropological study of bodily height of Indian population. Punthi Pustak. p. 84. ISBN 9788185094335. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
Sarkar (1959) published a pedigree showing Tamil-Chinese-English crosses in a place located in the Nilgiris. Thurston (1909) mentioned an instance of a mating between a Chinese male with a Tamil Pariah female. Man (Deka 1954) described
- ^ Man in India, Volumes 34-35. A. K. Bose. 1954. p. 272. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
(c) Tamil (female) and African (male) (Thurston 1909). (d) Tamil Pariah (female) and Chinese (male) (Thuston, 1909). (e) Andamanese (female) and UP Brahmin (male ) (Portman 1899). (f) Andamanese (female) and Hindu (male) (Man, 1883).
- ^ Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur) (1954). Man in India, Volume 34, Issue 4. A.K. Bose. p. 272. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
(c) Tamil (female) and African (male) (Thurston 1909). (d) Tamil Pariah (female) and Chinese (male) (Thuston, 1909). (e) Andamanese (female) and UP Brahmin (male ) (Portman 1899). (f) Andamanese (female) and Hindu (male) (Man, 1883).
- ^ Edgar Thurston; K. Rangachari (1987). Castes and Tribes of Southern India (illustrated ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. 100. ISBN 978-81-206-0288-5. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
the remaining three cases, a sub-brachycephalic head (80-1 ; 80-1 ; 82-4) has resulted from the union of a mesaticephalic Chinaman (78•5) with a sub-dolichocephalic Tamil Paraiyan (76-8).
- ^ Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur), ed. (1959). Man in India, Volume 39. A. K. Bose. p. 309. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
d: TAMIL-CHINESE CROSSES IN THE NILGIRIS, MADRAS. S. S. Sarkar* ( Received on 21 September 1959 ) iURING May 1959, while working on the blood groups of the Kotas of the Nilgiri Hills in the village of Kokal in Gudalur, enquiries were made regarding the present position of the Tamil-Chinese cross described by Thurston (1909). It may be recalled here that Thurston reported the above cross resulting from the union of some Chinese convicts, deported from the Straits Settlement, and local Tamil Paraiyan
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The British government knew well enough, throughout the dispute, that the Union [of South Africa]'s Nationalist Government was playing up the theme of the protectorates, and that it was within the Union's power to apply economic sanctions at any time. (The latest available figures show that more than half the cattle exported from Bechuanaland go to the Union ...)
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Внешние ссылки
- A Black Nurse, a German Soldier and an Unlikely WWII Romance, The New York Times
- Cultural Differences, The Yale Review