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Транзиторные ишемические атаки ( ТИА ), обычно известные как мини-инсульт , краткий эпизод неврологической дисфункции , вызванной потерей кровотока ( ишемия ) в головном мозге , спинном мозге , или сетчатках , без смерти ткани ( миокард ). [2] ТИА имеют тот же основной механизм, что и ишемический инсульт . Оба они вызваны нарушением кровотока к мозгу или мозгового кровотока (CBF). Определение ТИА классически основывалось на продолжительности неврологических симптомов.. В настоящее время широко распространенное определение называется «тканевым», потому что оно основано на визуализации, а не на времени. Американская кардиологическая ассоциация и Американская ассоциация инсульта (AHA / ASA) в настоящее время определяют ТИА в качестве краткого эпизода неврологической дисфункции с сосудистой причиной, с клиническими симптомами , как правило , продолжительностью менее одного часа, и без признаков инфаркта на визуализации . [2]

ТИА вызывает те же симптомы, что и при инсульте , например слабость или онемение одной стороны тела. Онемение или слабость обычно возникают на противоположной стороне тела от пораженного полушария мозга. ТИА может вызвать внезапное затемнение или потерю зрения, затруднения в разговоре или понимании языка, невнятную речь и спутанность сознания .

ТИА и ишемический инсульт имеют общую причину. Оба являются результатом нарушения кровотока в центральной нервной системе . При ишемическом инсульте симптомы обычно сохраняются более семи дней. При ТИА симптомы обычно проходят в течение одного часа. Возникновение ТИА является фактором риска развития инсульта. [2] [3] Оба связаны с повышенным риском смерти или инвалидности . Признание того, что произошла ТИА, - это возможность начать лечение, включая прием лекарств и изменение образа жизни, для предотвращения инсульта.

Хотя ТИА по определению должна быть связана с симптомами, инсульт может быть симптоматическим или бессимптомным. При « тихом» инсульте , также известном как «тихий церебральный инфаркт» (ТСМ), на изображениях присутствует необратимый инфаркт, но немедленно наблюдаемые симптомы отсутствуют. ТСМ часто возникает до или после ТИА или серьезного инсульта. [4]

Признаки и симптомы [ править ]

Признаки и симптомы ТИА широко варьируются и могут имитировать другие неврологические состояния, поэтому клинический контекст и физическое обследование имеют решающее значение для постановки диагноза или от него. Наиболее частыми симптомами ТИА являются очаговые неврологические нарушения, которые могут включать, но не ограничиваются: [5]

  • Amaurosis fugax (безболезненная, временная потеря зрения)
  • Одностороннее опущение лица
  • Односторонняя двигательная слабость
  • Диплопия (двоение в глазах)
  • Проблемы с равновесием и пространственной ориентацией или головокружение
  • Нарушения поля зрения, такие как гомонимная гемианопсия или монокулярная слепота [6]
  • Сенсорный дефицит одной или нескольких конечностей и лица [6]
  • Утрата способности понимать или выражать речь ( афазия ) [6]
  • Затруднение с артикуляцией речи ( дизартрия ) [6]
  • Неустойчивая походка [6]
  • Проблемы с глотанием ( дисфагия ) [6]

Подробное неврологическое обследование, включая тщательное обследование черепных нервов, важно для выявления этих результатов и дифференциации их от имитаторов ТИА. Такие симптомы, как односторонняя слабость, фугакс амавроза и двоение в глазах, имеют более высокие шансы на ТИА по сравнению с потерей памяти, головной болью и нечеткостью зрения. [7] Ниже представлена ​​таблица симптомов при предъявлении диагноза с указанием того, какой процент времени они наблюдаются при ТИА по сравнению с состояниями, имитирующими ТИА. В целом, фокальные дефициты повышают вероятность ТИА, но отсутствие фокальных результатов не исключает диагноза, и может потребоваться дальнейшая оценка, если клиническое подозрение на ТИА велико (см. Раздел «Диагностика» ниже). [8]

TIA против имитации [ править ]

Неочаговые симптомы, такие как амнезия, спутанность сознания, нарушение координации движений конечностей, необычные корковые визуальные симптомы (такие как изолированная двусторонняя слепота или двусторонние позитивные визуальные явления), головные боли и временная потеря сознания обычно не связаны с ТИА, [6] однако оценка пациента все еще нужен. Осведомленность общества о необходимости обращения за медицинской помощью по поводу этих нефокальных симптомов также низка, что может привести к тому, что пациенты откладывают обращение за лечением [9].

Симптомы ТИА могут длиться от нескольких минут до одного-двух часов, но иногда могут длиться и дольше. [10] [2] ТИА раньше определялись как ишемические события в головном мозге, которые длятся менее 24 часов, но, учитывая вариацию продолжительности симптомов, это определение имеет меньшее значение. [2] Объединенное исследование 808 пациентов с ТИА из 10 больниц показало, что 60% длились менее одного часа, 71% длились менее двух часов и 14% продолжались более шести часов. [11] Важно отметить, что пациенты с симптомами, которые длятся более одного часа, с большей вероятностью будут иметь стойкое неврологическое повреждение, поэтому своевременная диагностика и лечение важны для максимального выздоровления. [2]

Причина [ править ]

Наиболее распространенной основной патологией, приводящей к ТИА и инсульту, является сердечное заболевание, называемое фибрилляцией предсердий , при котором плохая координация сокращения приводит к образованию сгустка в предсердной камере, который может смещаться и перемещаться в мозговую артерию . [12] [13] В отличие от инсульта , кровоток может восстановиться до инфаркта, что приводит к исчезновению неврологических симптомов. [5] [12] Другой частый виновник ТИА - атеросклеротическая бляшка, расположенная в общей сонной артерии.обычно из-за бифуркации между внутренней и внешней сонными артериями, это становится эмболией сосудистой сети головного мозга, подобной тромбу в предыдущем примере. [12] [13] Часть бляшки может оторваться и привести к эмболической патологии сосудов головного мозга. [12]

Тромбоз in-situ , обструкция, которая формируется непосредственно в сосудистой сети головного мозга, в отличие от ранее упомянутой удаленной эмболии, является еще одним сосудистым заболеванием, которое может проявляться как ТИА. [12] Кроме того, стеноз сонной артерии, вторичный по отношению к атеросклерозу, сужающий диаметр просвета и, таким образом, ограничивающий кровоток, является еще одной частой причиной ТИА. [12] У лиц со стенозом сонной артерии могут наблюдаться симптомы ТИА, которые называются симптоматическими, в то время как другие могут не испытывать симптомов и протекать бессимптомно. [5] [12] [13]

Факторы риска [ править ]

Факторы риска, связанные с ТИА, подразделяются на изменяемые и немодифицируемые. Немодифицируемые факторы риска включают возраст старше 55 лет, пол, семейный анамнез, генетику и расу / этническую принадлежность. [12] [14] Изменяемые факторы риска включают курение сигарет , гипертонию (повышенное кровяное давление), диабет , гиперлипидемию , уровень стеноза сонной артерии (бессимптомный или симптоматический) и уровень активности. [12] [13] [14] Модифицируемые факторы риска обычно используются в вариантах лечения, чтобы попытаться минимизировать риск ТИА и инсульта. [2] [12] [13]

Патогенез [ править ]

Существует три основных механизма ишемии в головном мозге: эмболия, перемещающаяся в мозг, тромботическая окклюзия in situ во внутричерепных сосудах, снабжающих паренхиму головного мозга, и стеноз сосудов, приводящий к плохой перфузии, вторичной по отношению к диаметру, ограничивающему поток. [12] [13] В глобальном масштабе наиболее часто поражаемым сосудом является средняя мозговая артерия . [12] Эмболия может происходить из разных частей тела.

Общие механизмы инсульта и ТИА: [12]

Диагноз [ править ]

Первоначальная клиническая оценка подозрения на ТИА включает сбор анамнеза и физический осмотр (включая неврологический осмотр). [6] Сбор анамнеза включает определение симптомов и поиск имитирующих симптомов, как описано выше. Наблюдатели могут быть очень полезны при описании симптомов и подробном описании того, когда они начались и как долго продолжались. Временной ход (начало, продолжительность и разрешение), провоцирующие события и факторы риска особенно важны.

Laboratory workup[edit]

Laboratory tests should focus on ruling out metabolic conditions that may mimic TIA (e.g. hypoglycemia causing altered mental status), in addition to further evaluating a patient's risk factors for ischemic events. All patients should receive a complete blood count with platelet count, blood glucose, basic metabolic panel, prothrombin time/international normalized ratio, and activated partial thromboplastin time as part of their initial workup.[15] These tests help with screening for bleeding or hypercoagulable conditions. Other lab tests, such as a full hypercoagulable state workup or serum drug screening, should be considered based on the clinical situation and factors, such as age of the patient and family history.[8] A fasting lipid panel is also appropriate to thoroughly evaluate the patient's risk for atherosclerotic disease and ischemic events in the future.[8] Other lab tests may be indicated based on the history and presentation; such as obtaining inflammatory markers (erythrocyte sedimentation rate and C-reactive protein) to evaluate for giant cell arteritis (which can mimic a TIA) in those presenting with headaches and monocular blindness.[6]

Cardiac rhythm monitoring[edit]

An electrocardiogram is necessary to rule out abnormal heart rhythms, such as atrial fibrillation, that can predispose patients to clot formation and embolic events.[15] Hospitalized patients should be placed on heart rhythm telemetry, which is a continuous form of monitoring that can detect abnormal heart rhythms.[6] Prolonged heart rhythm monitoring (such as with a Holter monitor or implantable heart monitoring) can be considered to rule out arrhythmias like paroxysmal atrial fibrillation that may lead to clot formation and TIAs, however this should be considered if other causes of TIA have not been found.[8][2]

Imaging[edit]

According to guidelines from the American Heart Association and American Stroke Association Stroke Council, patients with TIA should have head imaging "within 24 hours of symptom onset, preferably with magnetic resonance imaging, including diffusion sequences".[2] MRI is a better imaging modality for TIA than computed tomography (CT), as it is better able to pick up both new and old ischemic lesions than CT. CT, however, is more widely available and can be used particularly to rule out intracranial hemorrhage.[8] Diffusion sequences can help further localize the area of ischemia and can serve as prognostic indicators.[15] Presence of ischemic lesions on diffusion weighted imaging has been correlated with a higher risk of stroke after a TIA.[16]

Vessels in the head and neck may also be evaluated to look for atherosclerotic lesions that may benefit from interventions, such as carotid endarterectomy. The vasculature can be evaluated through the following imaging modalities: magnetic resonance angiography (MRA), CT angiography (CTA), and carotid ultrasonography/transcranial doppler ultrasonography.[2] Carotid ultrasonography is often used to screen for carotid artery stenosis, as it is more readily available, is noninvasive, and does not expose the person being evaluated to radiation. However, all of the above imaging methods have variable sensitivities and specificities, making it important to supplement one of the imaging methods with another to help confirm the diagnosis (for example: screen for the disease with ultrasonography, and confirm with CTA).[17] Confirming a diagnosis of carotid artery stenosis is important because the treatment for this condition, carotid endarterectomy, can pose significant risk to the patient, including heart attacks and strokes after the procedure.[17] For this reason, the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) "recommends against screening for asymptomatic carotid artery stenosis in the general adult population".[17] This recommendation is for asymptomatic patients, so it does not necessarily apply to patients with TIAs as these may in fact be a symptom of underlying carotid artery disease (see "Causes and Pathogenesis" above). Therefore, patients who have had a TIA may opt to have a discussion with their clinician about the risks and benefits of screening for carotid artery stenosis, including the risks of surgical treatment of this condition.

Cardiac imaging can be performed if head and neck imaging do not reveal a vascular cause for the patient's TIA (such as atherosclerosis of the carotid artery or other major vessels of the head and neck). Echocardiography can be performed to identify patent foramen ovale (PFO), valvular stenosis, and atherosclerosis of the aortic arch that could be sources of clots causing TIAs, with transesophageal echocardiography being more sensitive than transthoracic echocardiography in identifying these lesions.[2]

Differential diagnosis[edit]

Prevention[edit]

Although there is a lack of robust studies demonstrating the efficacy of lifestyle changes in preventing TIA, many medical professionals recommend them.[18] These include:

  • Avoiding smoking
  • Cutting down on fats to help reduce the amount of plaque buildup
  • Eating a healthy diet including plenty of fruits and vegetables
  • Limiting sodium in the diet, thereby reducing blood pressure
  • Exercising regularly
  • Moderating intake of alcohol, stimulants, sympathomimetics, etc.
  • Maintaining a healthy weight

In addition, it is important to control any underlying medical conditions that may increase the risk of stroke or TIA, including:[18]

  • Hypertension
  • High cholesterol
  • Diabetes mellitus
  • Atrial fibrillation

Treatment[edit]

By definition, TIAs are transient, self-resolving, and do not cause permanent impairment. However, they are associated with an increased risk of subsequent ischemic strokes, which can be permanently disabling.[19] Therefore, management centers on the prevention of future ischemic strokes and addressing any modifiable risk factors. The optimal regimen depends on the underlying cause of the TIA.

Lifestyle modification[edit]

Lifestyle changes have not been shown to reduce the risk of stroke after TIA.[20] While no studies have looked at the optimal diet for secondary prevention of stroke, some observational studies have shown that a Mediterranean diet can reduce stroke risk in patients without cerebrovascular disease.[21] A Mediterranean diet is rich in fruits, vegetables and whole grains, and limited in red meats and sweets. Vitamin supplementation has not been found to be useful in secondary stroke prevention.[21]

Antiplatelet medications[edit]

The antiplatelet medications, aspirin and clopidogrel, are both recommended for secondary prevention of stroke after high-risk TIAs.[21][22] The clopidogrel can generally be stopped after 10 to 21 days.[22] An exception is TIAs due to blood clots originating from the heart, in which case anticoagulants are generally recommended.[21] After TIA or minor stroke, aspirin therapy has been shown to reduce the short-term risk of recurrent stroke by 60–70%, and the long-term risk of stroke by 13%.[23]

The typical therapy may include aspirin alone, a combination of aspirin plus extended-release dipyridamole, or clopidogrel alone.[21] Clopidogrel and aspirin have similar efficacies and side effect profiles. Clopidogrel is more expensive and has a slightly decreased risk of GI bleed.[21] Another antiplatelet, ticlopidine, is rarely used due to increased side effects.[21]

Anticoagulant medications[edit]

Anticoagulants may be started if the TIA is thought to be attributable to atrial fibrillation. Atrial fibrillation is an abnormal heart rhythm that may cause the formation of blood clots that can travel to the brain, resulting in TIAs or ischemic strokes. Atrial fibrillation increases stroke risk by five times, and is thought to cause 10-12% of all ischemic strokes in the US.[21][24] Anticoagulant therapy can decrease the relative risk of ischemic stroke in those with atrial fibrillation by 67%[25] Warfarin is a common anticoagulant used, but direct acting oral anticoagulants (DOACs), such as apixaban, have been shown to be equally effective while also conferring a lower risk of bleeding.[24][26] Generally, anticoagulants and antiplatelets are not used in combination, as they result in increased bleeding risk without a decrease in stroke risk.[21] However, combined antiplatelet and anticoagulant therapy may be warranted if the patient has symptomatic coronary artery disease in addition to atrial fibrillation.

Sometimes, myocardial infarction ("heart attack") may lead to the formation of a blood clot in one of the chambers of the heart. If this is thought to be the cause of the TIA, people may be temporarily treated with warfarin or other anticoagulant to decrease the risk of future stroke.[21]

Blood pressure control[edit]

Blood pressure control may be indicated after TIA to reduce the risk of ischemic stroke. About 70% of patients with recent ischemic stroke are found to have hypertension, defined as systolic blood pressure (SBP) > 140 mmHg, or diastolic blood pressure (DBP) > 90 mmHg.[21] Until the first half of the 2010s, blood pressure goals have generally been SBP < 140 mmHg and DBP < 90 mmHg.[21] However, newer studies suggest that a goal of SBP <130 mmHg may confer even greater benefit.[27][28] Blood pressure control is often achieved using diuretics or a combination of diuretics and angiotensin converter enzyme inhibitors, although the optimal treatment regimen depends on the individual.[21]

Cholesterol control[edit]

There is inconsistent evidence regarding the effect of LDL-cholesterol levels on stroke risk after TIA. Elevated cholesterol may increase ischemic stroke risk while decreasing the risk of hemorrhagic stroke.[29][30][31] While its role in stroke prevention is currently unclear, statin therapy has been shown to reduce all-cause mortality and may be recommended after TIA.[21]

Diabetes control[edit]

Diabetes mellitus increases the risk of ischemic stroke by 1.5-3.7 times, and may account for at least 8% of first ischemic strokes.[21] While intensive glucose control can prevent certain complications of diabetes such as kidney damage and retinal damage, there has previously been little evidence that it decreases the risk of stroke or death.[32] However, data from 2017 suggests that metformin, pioglitazone and semaglutide may reduce stroke risk.[32]

Surgery[edit]

If the TIA affects an area that is supplied by the carotid arteries, a carotid ultrasound scan may demonstrate stenosis, or narrowing, of the carotid artery. For people with extra-cranial carotid stenosis, if 70-99% of the carotid artery is clogged, carotid endarterectomy can decrease the five-year risk of ischemic stroke by approximately half.[33] For those with extra-cranial stenosis between 50-69%, carotid endarterectomy decreases the 5-year risk of ischemic stroke by about 16%.[33] For those with extra-cranial stenosis less than 50%, carotid endarterectomy does not reduce stroke risk and may, in some cases, increase it.[33] The efficacy of carotid endarterectomy or carotid artery stenting in reducing stroke risk in patients with intra-cranial carotid artery stenosis is currently unknown.[21]

In carotid endarterectomy, a surgeon makes an incision in the neck, opens up the carotid artery, and removes the plaque occluding the blood vessel. The artery may then be repaired by adding a graft from another vessel in the body, or a woven patch. In patients who undergo carotid endarterectomy after a TIA or minor stroke, the 30-day risk of death or stroke is 7%.[33]

Carotid artery stenting is a less invasive alternative to carotid endarterectomy for patients with extra-cranial carotid artery stenosis. In this procedure, the surgeon makes a small cut in the groin and threads a small flexible tube, called a catheter, into the patient's carotid artery. A balloon is inflated at the site of stenosis, opening up the clogged artery to allow for increased blood flow to the brain. To keep the vessel open, a small wire mesh coil, called a stent, may be inflated along with the balloon. The stent remains in place, and the balloon is removed.

In patients over the age of 70, carotid endarterectomy is associated with fewer postoperative deaths or strokes than carotid artery stenting.[34] In younger patients, there is no significant difference in outcomes between carotid endarterectomy and carotid artery stenting.[34] People who undergo carotid endarterectomy or carotid artery stenting for stroke prevention are medically managed with antiplatelets, statins, and other interventions as well.[21]

Prognosis[edit]

Without treatment, the risk of an ischemic stroke in the three months after a TIA is about 20% with the greatest risk occurring within two days of the TIA.[6] Other sources cite that 10% of TIAs will develop into a stroke within 90 days, half of which will occur in the first two days following the TIA.[35] Treatment and preventative measures after a TIA (for example treating elevated blood pressure) can reduce the subsequent risk of an ischemic stroke by about 80%.[6] The risk of a stroke occurring after a TIA can be predicted using the ABCD² score. One limitation of the ABCD² score is that it does not reliably predict the level of carotid artery stenosis, which is a major cause of stroke in TIA patients. The patient's age is the most reliable risk factor in predicting any level of carotid stenosis in transient ischemic attack.[36] The ABCD2 score is no longer recommended for triage (to decide between outpatient management versus hospital admission) of those with a suspected TIA due to these limitations.[6]

Epidemiology[edit]

With the difficulty in diagnosing a TIA due to its nonspecific symptoms of neurologic dysfunction at presentation and a differential including many mimics, the exact incidence of the disease is unclear. It is currently estimated to have an incidence of approximately 200,000 to 500,000 cases per year in the US according to the American Heart Association.[2] TIA incidence trends similarly to stroke, such that incidence varies with age, gender, and different race/ethnicity populations.[2][37][5] Associated risk factors include age greater than or equal to 60, blood pressure greater than or equal to 140 systolic or 90 diastolic, and comorbid diseases, such as diabetes, hypertension, atherosclerosis, and atrial fibrillation. It is thought that approximately 15 to 30 percent of strokes have a preceding TIA episode associated.[5][8][38]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Gattellari, Melina; Goumas, Chris; Biost, Frances Garden M.; Worthington, John M. (January 2012). "Relative Survival After Transient Ischaemic Attack: Results From the Program of Research Informing Stroke Management (PRISM) Study". Stroke. 43 (1): 79–85. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.111.636233. PMID 22076008. S2CID 16722015. Lay summary.
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