Координаты :3 ° ю. Ш. 24 ° в. / 3 ° ю. Ш. 24 ° в.
Демократическая Республика Конго ( ДРК ) ( произношение ( помощь · информация ) Французская : Демократическая Республика Конго (RDC) [kɔ̃ɡo] ), также известный как Конго-Киншаса , ДР Конго ( французский : RD Congo ), DROC , [8] DRC , или просто Конго или Конго , а исторически Заир - это страна в Центральной Африке . По площади это самая большая страна в Африке к югу от Сахары , вторая по величине во всей Африке (после Алжира ) и 11-я по величине в мире . Демократическая Республика Конго с населением около 105 миллионов человек является официально самой густонаселенной франкоязычной страной.в мире, а также 4-я по численности населения страна в Африке (после Нигерии , Эфиопии и Египта ) и 15-я по численности населения страна в мире. Он является членом Организации Объединенных Наций , Движения неприсоединения , Африканского союза и КОМЕСА . С 2015 года Восточная ДР Конго была местом продолжающегося военного конфликта в Киву .
Демократическая Республика Конго Демократическая Республика Конго ( французское ) Repubilika я Kongo я Dimokalasi ( Китуб ) Republíki я Kongo Demokratíki ( Lingala ) Jamhuri я Kidemokrasia я конго ( суахили ) Ditunga ди Конг в Mungalaata ( Luba-лулуо ) | |
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Девиз: «Правосудие - Paix - Travail» (фр.) «Правосудие - мир - Работа». | |
Столица и самый большой город | Киншаса 4 ° 19' ю.ш. 15 ° 19'E / 4,317 ° ю.ш. 15,317 ° в. |
Официальные языки | Французский |
Признанные национальные языки | |
Религия (2015) [1] |
|
Демоним (ы) | Конголезский |
Правительство | Унитарная полупрезидентская конституционная республика |
• Президент | Феликс Тшисекеди |
• Премьер-министр | Жан-Мишель Сама Луконд [2] |
• Председатель Сената | Modeste Bahati Lukwebo |
• Председатель Национального собрания | Кристоф Мбосо Н'Кодиа Пванга |
• Председатель Конституционного суда | Дьедонне Калуба Дибва |
Законодательная власть | Парламент |
• Верхняя палата | Сенат |
• Нижняя палата | национальное собрание |
Формирование | |
• Колонизированный | 17 ноября 1879 г. |
• Свободное государство Конго | 1 июля 1885 г. |
• Бельгийское Конго | 15 ноября 1908 г. |
• Независимость от Бельгии | 30 июня 1960 г. [3] |
• Принят в ООН | 20 сентября 1960 г. |
• Переименована в Демократическую Республику Конго. | 1 августа 1964 г. |
• Республика Заир | 29 октября 1971 г. |
• Первая война в Конго | 17 мая 1997 года |
• Действующая конституция | 18 февраля 2006 г. |
Область | |
• Общее | 2345409 км 2 (905567 квадратных миль) ( 11-е ) |
• Воды (%) | 3,32 |
Население | |
• Оценка на 2021 год | 105 044 646 [4] ( 15 место ) |
• Плотность | 39,4 / км 2 (102,0 / кв. Мили) |
ВВП ( ППС ) | Оценка на 2019 год |
• Общее | 77,486 миллиарда долларов [5] |
• На душу населения | 843 долл. США [5] |
ВВП (номинальный) | Оценка на 2019 год |
• Общее | 46,117 миллиарда долларов [5] |
• На душу населения | 501 доллар США [5] |
Джини (2006) | 44,4 [6] средний |
ИЧР (2019) | 0,480 [7] низкий · 175-й |
Валюта | Конголезский франк ( CDF ) |
Часовой пояс | UTC от +1 до +2 ( WAT и CAT ) |
Формат даты | дд / мм / гггг |
Сторона вождения | верно |
Телефонный код | +243 |
Код ISO 3166 | CD |
Интернет-домен | .CD |
Территория Демократической Республики Конго , сосредоточенная в бассейне Конго , была впервые заселена собирателями из Центральной Африки около 90 000 лет назад и была достигнута экспансией банту около 3 000 лет назад. [9] На западе Королевство Конго правило вокруг устья реки Конго с 14 по 19 века. На северо-востоке, в центре и на востоке королевства Азанде , Люба и Лунда правили с 16-го и 17-го веков до 19-го века.
В 1870-х годах, незадолго до начала схватки за Африку , европейцы провели исследование бассейна Конго под руководством Генри Мортона Стэнли при спонсорской поддержке Леопольда II из Бельгии . Леопольд официально приобрел права на территорию Конго на Берлинской конференции 1885 года и объявил землю своей частной собственностью, назвав ее Свободным государством Конго . Во время свободного государства, его колониальная военная единица, группа Publique , вынудила местное население , чтобы произвести резину . С 1885 по 1908 годы миллионы конголезцев умерли в результате болезней и эксплуатации . В 1908 году Леопольд, несмотря на свое первоначальное сопротивление, уступил так называемое Свободное государство Бельгии , в результате чего оно стало известно как Бельгийское Конго .
Конго добилось независимости от Бельгии 30 июня 1960 года под названием Республика Конго . Конголезский националист Патрис Лумумба был избран первым премьер-министром , а Джозеф Каса-Вубу стал первым президентом . Возник конфликт из-за управления территорией, который стал известен как кризис Конго . В провинции на Катанг , под Чомбой и Южная Касаи попыталась отделиться. После того, как ООН и западные правительства отказались от его просьбы о помощи и Лумумбе заявили , что он был открыт для любой страны, в том числе Советского Союза , для помощи в условиях кризиса, США и Бельгия стали опасаться и курировали его отрешение от должности по Kasa-Vubu на 5 сентября и окончательная казнь катангскими войсками под бельгийским командованием 17 января 1961 года.
25 ноября 1965 года начальник штаба армии Жозеф-Дезире Мобуту, который позже переименовал себя в Мобуту Сесе Секо , официально пришел к власти в результате государственного переворота . В 1971 году он переименовал страну в Заир . Страна управлялась как диктаторское однопартийное государство , а его Народное движение революции было единственной легальной партией. Правительство Мобуту получило значительную поддержку со стороны США из-за своей антикоммунистической позиции во время холодной войны . К началу 1990-х правительство Мобуту начало ослабевать. Дестабилизация на востоке в результате в 1994 году геноцида в Руанде и бесправия среди восточного баньямуленга (конголезское Rwandans из племени тутси) населения привело к 1996 вторжению во главе с тутси РСПОМ -ruled Руанды, которая началась в Первой войне в Конго . [3]
17 мая 1997 года Лоран-Дезире Кабила , лидер сил тутси из провинции Южное Киву , стал президентом после того, как Мобуту бежал в Марокко , вернув название страны Демократической Республике Конго. Напряженность между президентом Кабилой и присутствием руандийцев и тутси в стране привела ко Второй войне в Конго с 1998 по 2003 год. В конечном итоге девять африканских стран и около двадцати вооруженных группировок были вовлечены в войну [10], в результате чего погибло 5,4 человека. миллион человек. [11] [12] [13] [14] Две войны опустошили страну. Президент Кабила был убит одним из своих телохранителей 16 января 2001 года , и его сменил восемь дней спустя его сын Джозеф , [15] , под которым права человека в стране оставались бедными и включали в себя регулярные нарушения, как насильственные исчезновения , пытки, произвольное заключение и ограничение гражданских свобод по мнению НПО. [16] После всеобщих выборов 2018 года , в ходе первой мирной передачи власти в стране после обретения независимости, Кабилу сменил на посту президента Феликс Чисекеди , который с тех пор занимает пост президента. [17]
Демократическая Республика Конго чрезвычайно богата природными ресурсами, но страдала от политической нестабильности , отсутствия инфраструктуры, коррупции и столетий коммерческой и колониальной добычи и эксплуатации с незначительным повсеместным развитием. Помимо столицы Киншасы , два следующих по величине города, Лубумбаши и Мбужи-Майи, являются общинами горняков. Крупнейшим экспортным товаром ДРК является минеральное сырье, при этом Китай принял более 50% его экспорта в 2012 году. В 2019 году ДР Конго по уровню человеческого развития заняла 175-е место из 189 стран по Индексу человеческого развития . [7] По состоянию на 2018 год [Обновить]около 600 000 конголезцев бежали в соседние страны из-за конфликтов в центре и на востоке ДРК. [18] Два миллиона детей рискуют умереть от голода, а в результате боевых действий было перемещено 4,5 миллиона человек. [19]
Этимология
Демократическая Республика Конго названа в честь реки Конго , протекающей по всей стране. Река Конго - самая глубокая река в мире и вторая по величине река в мире по разгрузке . Comité д'этюд дю хауты Конго ( «Комитет по изучению Верхнего Конго»), учрежденной королем Леопольдом II Бельгии в 1876 году, и Международной ассоциации Конго , созданной им в 1879 году, также были названы в честь река. [20]
Сама река Конго была названа ранними европейскими моряками в честь Королевства Конго и его жителей банту , народа Конго , когда они столкнулись с ними в 16 веке. [21] [22] Слово конго происходит из языка конго (также называемого киконго ). По словам американского писателя Сэмюэля Генри Нельсона: «Вероятно, что само слово« Конго »подразумевает публичное собрание и что оно основано на корне konga ,« собирать »(транс [тивно])». [23] Современное название народа конго, баконго, было введено в начале 20 века.
Демократическая Республика Конго была известна в прошлом как в хронологическом порядке, Свободное государство Конго , Бельгийское Конго , то Республика Конго-Леопольдвиле , Демократическая Республика Конго и Республике Заира , прежде чем вернуться к его нынешнее название Демократическая Республика Конго. [3]
Во время обретения независимости страна была названа Республика Конго-Леопольдвиль, чтобы отличать ее от соседней Республики Конго-Браззавиль . С принятием конституции Лулуабурга 1 августа 1964 года страна стала ДРК, но 27 октября 1971 года президентом Мобуту Сесе Секо в рамках его инициативы Authenticité переименовал ее в Заир (прежнее название реки Конго) . [24]
Слово Заир происходит от португальской адаптации слова киконго nzadi («река»), сокращенного от nzadi o nzere («река, поглощающая реки»). [25] [26] [27] Река была известна как Заир в 16-17 веках; Конго, похоже, постепенно вытеснило Заир в английском языке в течение 18 века, и Конго является предпочтительным английским названием в литературе 19 века, хотя ссылки на Заир как на имя, используемое туземцами (т. Е. Производное от португальского использования), оставались обычными. [28]
В 1992 году Суверенная национальная конференция проголосовала за изменение названия страны на «Демократическая Республика Конго», но это изменение не произошло. [29] Название страны было позже восстановлено президентом Лораном-Дезире Кабилой, когда он сверг Мобуту в 1997 году. [30] Чтобы отличить страну от соседней Республики Конго, ее иногда называют Конго (Киншаса) или Конго-Киншаса. .
История
Ранняя история
Географическая область, ныне известная как Демократическая Республика Конго, была заселена еще 90000 лет назад, о чем свидетельствует открытие в 1988 году гарпуна Семлики в Катанде , одного из старейших из когда-либо найденных гарпунов с зазубринами, которые, как полагают, использовались для ловли гигантский речной сом . [31] [32]
Народ банту достиг Центральной Африки в какой-то момент в течение первого тысячелетия до нашей эры, затем постепенно начал расширяться на юг. Их распространение ускорилось принятием скотоводства и техник железного века . Люди, живущие на юге и юго-западе, были группами собирателей пищи , чьи технологии предполагали минимальное использование металлических технологий. Развитие металлических инструментов в этот период произвело революцию в сельском хозяйстве. Это привело к перемещению групп охотников-собирателей на восток и юго-восток. Последняя волна экспансии банту завершилась к 10 веку, после чего были созданы королевства банту, рост населения которых вскоре сделал возможными сложные местные, региональные и зарубежные торговые сети, которые торговали в основном рабами, солью, железом и медью.
Свободное государство Конго (1877–1908)
Бельгийские исследования и управление велись с 1870-х до 1920-х годов. Первым его возглавил сэр Генри Мортон Стэнли , который проводил свои исследования под покровительством короля Бельгии Леопольда II . Восточные регионы доколониального Конго сильно пострадали от постоянных набегов рабов , в основном со стороны арабов-суахили- работорговцев, таких как печально известный Типпу Тип , который был хорошо известен Стэнли. [33]
Леопольд планировал превратить Конго в колонию. [34] В ходе переговоров Леопольд, исповедуя гуманитарные цели в качестве председателя передовой организации Association Internationale Africaine , фактически натравил одного европейского соперника на другого. [ необходима цитата ]
Леопольд официально приобрел права на территорию Конго на Берлинской конференции 1885 года и сделал землю своей частной собственностью. Он назвал его Свободным государством Конго . [34] Режим Леопольда начал различные инфраструктурные проекты, такие как строительство железной дороги, которая шла от побережья до столицы Леопольдвилля (ныне Киншаса), что заняло восемь лет. Почти все подобные инфраструктурные проекты были нацелены на то, чтобы упростить увеличение активов, которые Леопольд и его соратники могли извлечь из колонии. [35]
В Свободном Государстве колонисты вынуждали местное население производить каучук , для чего распространение автомобилей и разработка резиновых шин создали растущий международный рынок. Продажи каучука сделали состояние Леопольда, который построил несколько зданий в Брюсселе и Остенде в честь себя и своей страны. Чтобы обеспечить соблюдение квот на каучук , была вызвана армия Force Publique , которая сделала практику отрезания конечностей туземцам вопросом политики. [36]
В период 1885–1908 годов миллионы конголезцев умерли в результате эксплуатации и болезней. В некоторых районах население резко сократилось - по оценкам, сонная болезнь и оспа убили почти половину населения в районах, прилегающих к низовьям реки Конго. [36]
Начали распространяться новости о злоупотреблениях. В 1904 году британский консул в Боме в Конго Роджер Кейсмент получил от британского правительства указание провести расследование. Его отчет под названием Casement Report подтвердил обвинения в гуманитарных злоупотреблениях. Бельгийский парламент вынудил Леопольда II создать независимую комиссию по расследованию. Его результаты подтвердили отчет Casement о злоупотреблениях, сделав вывод о том, что население Конго «сократилось вдвое» за этот период. [35] Точно определить, сколько человек погибло, невозможно, так как точных записей не существует.
Бельгийское Конго (1908–1960)
В 1908 году бельгийский парламент , несмотря на первоначальное сопротивление, уступил международному давлению (особенно со стороны Соединенного Королевства ) и принял Свободное государство от короля Леопольда II . [37]
18 октября 1908 года парламент Бельгии проголосовал за аннексию Конго в качестве бельгийской колонии . Исполнительная власть перешла к бельгийскому министру колониальных дел , которому помогал Колониальный совет (Conseil Colonial) (оба расположены в Брюсселе ). Бельгийский парламент осуществлял законодательную власть над Бельгийским Конго. В 1923 году колониальная столица переместилась из Бомы в Леопольдвиль , примерно на 300 километров выше по течению во внутренние районы. [38]
Переход от Свободного государства Конго к Бельгийскому Конго был прорывом, но он также отличался большой степенью преемственности. Последний генерал-губернатор Свободного государства Конго, барон Теофиль Вахис , оставался на своем посту в Бельгийском Конго и вместе с ним оставалась большая часть администрации Леопольда II. [39] Открытие Конго и его природных и минеральных богатств для бельгийской экономики оставалось основным мотивом колониальной экспансии, однако другие приоритеты, такие как здравоохранение и базовое образование, постепенно становились все более важными.
Колониальные администраторы управляли территорией, и существовала двойная правовая система (система европейских судов и еще одна система судов коренных народов, tribunaux indigènes ). Суды коренных народов обладали лишь ограниченными полномочиями и оставались под твердым контролем колониальной администрации.
Записи показывают, что в 1936 году колонией управляли 728 бельгийских администраторов. [ необходима цитата ] Бельгийские власти не разрешали никакой политической деятельности в Конго [40], а Force Publique , армия, набранная на местах, под бельгийским командованием, подавляла любые попытки восстания.
Бельгийское население колонии увеличилось с 1,928 в 1910 году до почти 89000 в 1959 году [ править ]
Бельгийское Конго принимало непосредственное участие в двух мировых войнах. Во время Первой мировой войны (1914–1918) первоначальное противостояние между Force Publique и немецкой колониальной армией в Германской Восточной Африке ( Танганьика ) превратилось в открытую войну с совместным англо-бельгийско-португальским вторжением на немецкую колониальную территорию в 1916 году. и 1917 г. во время Восточноафриканской кампании . Publique Force получила ощутимую победу , когда он шел в Табор в сентябре 1916 года под командованием генерала Чарльза Томбер после тяжелых боев.
После 1918 года Бельгия была вознаграждена за участие Force Publique в восточноафриканской кампании мандатом Лиги Наций над ранее немецкой колонией Руанда-Урунди . Во время Второй мировой войны Бельгийское Конго было важным источником дохода бельгийского правительства в изгнании в Лондоне, и Force Publique снова участвовала в кампаниях союзников в Африке. Бельгийские конголезские силы под командованием бельгийских офицеров особенно боролись против итальянской колониальной армии в Эфиопии в Asosa , Bortaï [41] и Сайо генерал-майора Огюст Эдуард Gilliaert во второй Восточно - Африканской кампании . [42]
Независимость и политический кризис (1960–1965)
В мае 1960 года на парламентских выборах победило растущее националистическое движение Конголезское национальное движение (ННК), возглавляемое Патрисом Лумумбой . Таким образом , Патрис Лумумба стал первым премьер - министром Демократической Республики Конго , а затем известный как Республика Конго, 24 июня 1960 года парламент избрал Касавубу в качестве президента , в Альянс де баконго (Abako) партии. Другие возникшие партии включали Африканскую солидарную партию (PSA) во главе с Антуаном Гизенгой и Национальную партию народа (PNP) во главе с Альбертом Дельво и Лораном Мбарико . [43]
Бельгийское Конго получило независимость 30 июня 1960 года под названием «République du Congo» («Республика Конго» или «Республика Конго» на английском языке). Поскольку соседняя французская колония Среднее Конго (Мойен Конго) также выбрала название « Республика Конго » после обретения независимости, эти две страны были более известны как «Конго-Леопольдвиль» и «Конго-Браззавиль» по названию их столиц. .
Вскоре после обретения независимости Force Publique подняла мятеж, и 11 июля провинция Катанга (возглавляемая Моисом Чомбе ) и Южный Касаи вступили в сепаратистскую борьбу против нового руководства. [44] [45] Большинство из 100 000 европейцев, оставшихся после обретения независимости, бежали из страны [46], открывая путь конголезцам для замены европейской военной и административной элиты. [47] 5 сентября 1960 года Касавубу освободил Лумумбу от должности. Лумумба объявил действия Касавубу неконституционными, и между двумя лидерами возник кризис . [48]
События, инициированные США и Бельгией 14 сентября, отстранили Лумумбу от должности с силами, верными Джозефу Мобуту . 17 января 1961 года он был передан властям Катангана и казнен катангскими войсками под руководством Бельгии. [49] Расследование, проведенное парламентом Бельгии в 2001 году, признало Бельгию «морально ответственной» за убийство Лумумбы, и с тех пор страна официально извинилась за свою роль в его смерти. [50]
Среди повсеместной неразберихи и хаоса временное правительство возглавили технические специалисты ( Collège des commissaires généraux ). Отделение закончилось в январе 1963 года при поддержке сил ООН . Несколько недолговечных правительств, Джозеф Илео , Сирил Адула и Моис Капенда Чомбе , быстро сменяли друг друга.
Лумумба ранее назначил Джозефа Мобуту начальником штаба новой армии Конго, Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC). [ необходимая цитата ] Воспользовавшись кризисом лидерства между Касавубу и Чомбе, Мобуту получил достаточно поддержки в армии, чтобы начать переворот. При финансовой поддержке США и Бельгии Мобуту платил своим солдатам в частном порядке. [ необходимая цитата ] Отвращение западных держав к коммунизму и левой идеологии повлияло на их решение финансировать поиски Мобуту по нейтрализации Касавубу и Лумумбы в результате государственного переворота по доверенности. [ Править ] А конституционный референдум за год до переворота Мобуту 1965 привела официальное название страны меняется на «Демократической Республики Конго.» [3] В 1971 году Мобуту снова изменил название, на этот раз на «Республика Заир». [51] [24]
Мобуту и Заир (1965–1997)
Новый президент пользовался твердой поддержкой Соединенных Штатов из-за своей оппозиции коммунизму; США считали, что его администрация послужит эффективным противодействием коммунистическим движениям в Африке. [52] Была установлена однопартийная система , и Мобуту объявил себя главой государства . Он периодически проводил выборы, на которых был единственным кандидатом. Хотя относительный мир и стабильность были достигнуты, правительство Мобуту было виновно в серьезных нарушениях прав человека , политических репрессиях , культе личности и коррупции .
К концу 1967 года Мобуту успешно нейтрализовал своих политических оппонентов и соперников, либо вовлекая их в свой режим, арестовывая их, либо делая их политически бессильными. [53] В конце 1960-х годов Мобуту продолжал перетасовывать свои правительства и циклически перемещать чиновников в офис и выходить из него, чтобы сохранить контроль. Смерть Каса-Вубу в апреле 1969 г. гарантировала, что ни один человек с полномочиями Первой республики не сможет оспорить его правление. [54] К началу 1970-х годов Мобуту пытался утверждать, что Заир является ведущей африканской нацией. Он часто путешествовал по континенту, в то время как правительство стало более активно обсуждать африканские проблемы, особенно те, которые касаются южного региона. Заир установил полуклиентелистские отношения с несколькими небольшими африканскими государствами, особенно с Бурунди, Чадом и Того. [55]
Коррупция стала настолько распространенной, что , как сообщается, сам Мобуту придумал термин « le mal Zairois » или «заирская болезнь» [56], означающий грубую коррупцию, воровство и бесхозяйственность. [57] Международная помощь, чаще всего в форме займов, обогатила Мобуту, в то время как он позволил национальной инфраструктуре, такой как дороги, ухудшиться до одной четверти от того, что существовало в 1960 году. Заир стал клептократией, поскольку Мобуту и его соратники присвоили государственные средства.
В кампании , чтобы идентифицировать себя с африканского национализма, начиная с 1 июня 1966, Мобуту переименовал городов страны: Леопольдвиле стал Киншаса (страна в настоящее время Конго-Киншаса), Стэнливиль стал Kisangani , Элизабетвиле стал Lubumbashi и Coquilhatville стал Mbandaka . Эта кампания по переименованию была завершена в 1970-х годах.
В 1971 году Мобуту переименовал страну Республика Заир , [24] его четвёртая смена имени в одиннадцать лет , и его шестой в целом. Река Конго была переименована в реку Заир.
В 1970-х и 1980-х годах его несколько раз приглашали посетить Соединенные Штаты, где он встречался с президентами США Ричардом Никсоном , Рональдом Рейганом и Джорджем Бушем-старшим . [58] После распада Советского Союза отношения США с Мобуту охладились, поскольку он больше не считался нужным союзником по холодной войне . Противники внутри Заира усилили требования реформы. Эта атмосфера способствовала провозглашению Мобуту Третьей республики в 1990 году, конституция которой должна была проложить путь демократическим реформам. Реформы оказались во многом косметическими. Мобуту оставался у власти до тех пор, пока вооруженные силы не вынудили его бежать в 1997 году. «С 1990 по 1993 годы Соединенные Штаты способствовали попыткам Мобуту захватить политические перемены», - написал один академик, а также «помогли восстанию Лорана-Дезире Кабилы, которое свергло власть. Режим Мобуту ". [59]
Континентальные и гражданские войны (1996–2007 гг.)
К 1996 году после гражданской войны и геноцида в Руанде и прихода к власти в Руанде правительства тутси руандийские ополченцы хуту ( интерахамве ) бежали в восточный Заир и использовали лагеря беженцев в качестве базы для вторжений в Руанду. Они объединились с Заирскими вооруженными силами (ВСЗ), чтобы начать кампанию против конголезских этнических тутси в восточной части Заира. [60]
Коалиция руандийской и угандийской армий вторглась в Заир, чтобы свергнуть правительство Мобуту и, в конечном итоге, получить контроль над минеральными ресурсами Заира, [ цитата необходима ], начав Первую войну в Конго . Коалиция, объединившаяся с некоторыми оппозиционными фигурами во главе с Лораном-Дезире Кабилой , стала Альянсом демократических сил за освобождение Конго (AFDL). В 1997 году Мобуту бежал, а Кабила вошел в Киншасу, назвал себя президентом и вернул название страны Демократической Республике Конго.
Позже Кабила потребовал, чтобы иностранные вооруженные силы вернулись в свои страны. У него были опасения, что руандийские офицеры, управляющие его армией, замышляли передать пост президента тутси, который будет подчиняться непосредственно президенту Руанды Полю Кагаме . [ необходима цитата ] Руандийские войска отступили в Гому и начали новое военное движение повстанцев под руководством тутси под названием Конголезское объединение за демократию (КОД) для борьбы с Кабилой, в то время как Уганда спровоцировала создание нового повстанческого движения под названием Движение за освобождение Конго (ДОК) во главе с конголезским военачальником Жан-Пьером Бембой . [ необходима цитата ] Два повстанческих движения вместе с руандийскими и угандийскими войсками начали Вторую войну в Конго , напав на армию ДРК в 1998 году. Ангольские, зимбабвийские и намибийские военные вступили в боевые действия на стороне правительства.
Кабила был убит в 2001 году. Его сын Джозеф Кабила сменил его и призвал к многосторонним мирным переговорам. Миротворцы ООН, МООНДРК , теперь известная как МООНСДРК, прибыли в апреле 2001 года. В 2002 и 2003 годах Бемба вмешался в Центральноафриканскую Республику от имени ее бывшего президента Анж-Феликса Патассе . [61] Переговоры привели к мирному соглашению, по которому Кабила разделит власть с бывшими повстанцами. К июню 2003 года все иностранные армии, кроме армии Руанды, покинули Конго. Переходное правительство не было создано до окончания выборов. Конституция была одобрена избирателями, и 30 июля 2006 г. в ДРК были проведены первые многопартийные выборы . Спор по поводу результатов выборов между Кабилой и Жан-Пьером Бембой превратился в тотальную битву между их сторонниками на улицах Киншасы. МООНДРК взяла город под свой контроль. Новые выборы состоялись в октябре 2006 года, на которых победил Кабила, а в декабре 2006 года он был приведен к присяге в качестве президента.
Продолжающиеся конфликты (2008–2018 гг.)
Киву конфликт
Лоран Нкунда , член КОД-Гома , ответвления КОД, интегрированного в армию, дезертировал вместе с верными ему войсками и сформировал Национальный конгресс защиты народа (НКЗН), который начал вооруженное восстание против правительства, начиная с конфликт в Киву . Им поверили [ кем? ], чтобы снова получить поддержку Руанды как способ борьбы с группировкой хуту , Демократическими силами освобождения Руанды (ДСОР). В марте 2009 года после сделки между ДРК и Руандой руандийские войска вошли в ДРК и арестовали Нкунду, и им было разрешено преследовать боевиков ДСОР. НКЗН подписала с правительством мирный договор, в котором согласилась стать политической партией и интегрировать своих солдат в национальную армию в обмен на освобождение заключенных в тюрьму членов. [62] В 2012 году Боско Нтаганда , лидер НКЗН, и верные ему войска подняли мятеж и сформировали повстанческое военное Движение 23 марта , заявив, что правительство нарушило договор. [63]
В результате мятежа « М23» в ноябре 2012 года «М23» ненадолго захватило столицу провинции Гому . [64] [65] Соседние страны, особенно Руанда, обвиняются в вооружении групп повстанцев и использовании их в качестве доверенных лиц для получения контроля над богатыми ресурсами страна, обвинение они отрицают. [66] [67] В марте 2013 года Совет Безопасности Организации Объединенных Наций уполномочил бригаду оперативного вмешательства Организации Объединенных Наций нейтрализовать вооруженные группы. [68] 5 ноября 2013 года «М23» объявило о прекращении мятежа. [69]
Кроме того, в северной провинции Катанга , то маи-маи , созданный Лораном Кабилой выскользнула из - под контроля Киншасе с Гедеон Кайунг Мутанга «s Mai Mai Kata Катанга кратко вторжение в столицу провинции Лумумбаши в 2013 году и 400000 лиц , перемещенных в провинции в 2013[Обновить]. [70] В конфликте в Итури периодически происходили боевые действия между Фронтом националистов и интеграционистов (ФНИ) и Союзом конголезских патриотов (СКП), которые утверждали, что представляют этнические группы ленду и хема соответственно. На северо - востоке, Джозеф Кони «s LRA переехал из исходных баз в Уганде и Южном Судане в ДР Конго в 2005 году и создали лагеря в Национальном парке Гарамба. [71] [72]
В 2009 году The New York Times сообщила, что люди в Конго продолжали умирать со скоростью примерно 45 000 в месяц [73] - оценка числа погибших в результате длительного конфликта колеблется от 900 000 до 5 400 000 человек. [74] Число погибших связано с широко распространенными болезнями и голодом; отчеты показывают, что почти половина умерших - дети в возрасте до пяти лет. [75] Поступали частые сообщения об убийствах мирных жителей носителями оружия, разрушении имущества, широкомасштабном сексуальном насилии [76], заставлявшем сотни тысяч людей покинуть свои дома, а также о других нарушениях норм гуманитарного права и прав человека. Одно исследование показало, что ежегодно в Демократической Республике Конго насилуют более 400 000 женщин . [77]
Войну в Конго называют самой кровопролитной войной со времен Второй мировой войны. [78] 8 декабря 2017 года четырнадцать солдат ООН и пять конголезских регулярных солдат были убиты в результате нападения повстанцев в Семулики на территории Бени. Считалось, что повстанцами являются союзные демократические силы . [79] Расследование ООН подтвердило, что агрессор совершил декабрьское нападение. [80]
По данным Хьюман Райтс Вотч и Исследовательской группы Конго из Нью-Йоркского университета, с июня 2017 года по июнь 2019 года вооруженные войска в восточном регионе Киву ДРК убили более 1900 мирных жителей и похитили не менее 3300 человек [81].
Срок полномочий Кабилы и многочисленные антиправительственные протесты
В 2015 году по всей стране вспыхнули крупные протесты , и протестующие потребовали, чтобы Джозеф Кабила ушел с поста президента. Протесты начались после принятия закона нижней палатой Конго, который, если он также будет принят верхней палатой Конго, сохранит Кабилу у власти, по крайней мере, до проведения национальной переписи населения (процесс, который, вероятно, займет несколько лет и, следовательно, сохранит он находился у власти после запланированных на 2016 год выборов, в которых ему запрещено участвовать по конституции).
Этот законопроект принят; однако он был исключен из положения, согласно которому Кабила оставалась у власти до проведения переписи населения. Предполагается, что будет проведена перепись, но она больше не привязана к дате проведения выборов. В 2015 году выборы были назначены на конец 2016 года, и в Конго установился хрупкий мир. [82]
27 ноября министр иностранных дел Конго Раймон Чибанда заявил прессе, что в 2016 году выборы не будут проводиться после 20 декабря, когда истекает срок полномочий президента Кабилы. На конференции на Мадагаскаре Чибанда сказал, что правительство Кабилы «проконсультировалось с экспертами по выборам» из Конго, Организации Объединенных Наций и других стран, и что «было решено, что операция по регистрации избирателей закончится 31 июля 2017 года, и что выборы пройдут. состоится в апреле 2018 года ». [83] Протесты вспыхнули в стране 20 декабря, когда закончился срок полномочий Кабилы. По всей стране десятки протестующих были убиты и сотни арестованы.
Возобновление регионального насилия
По словам Яна Эгеланна , в настоящее время генерального секретаря Норвежского совета по делам беженцев , ситуация в ДРК значительно ухудшилась в 2016 и 2017 годах и представляет собой серьезную моральную и гуманитарную проблему, сопоставимую с войнами в Сирии и Йемене, которым уделяется гораздо больше внимания. Женщины и дети подвергаются сексуальному насилию и «насилию всеми возможными способами». Помимо конфликта в Северном Киву , насилие возросло в районе Касаи . Вооруженные группы охотятся за золотом , алмазами , нефтью и кобальтом, чтобы набить карманы богатых людей как в регионе, так и за рубежом. Здесь также проявляется этническое и культурное соперничество, а также религиозные мотивы и политический кризис, связанный с отложенными выборами. Он говорит, что люди считают, что ситуация в ДРК «стабильно плохая», но на самом деле она стала намного, намного хуже. «Большие войны Конго, которые действительно стояли на повестке дня 15 лет назад, вернулись и усугубляются». [84] По оценкам ООН в марте 2018 года, из-за нарушения посадки и сбора урожая, вызванного конфликтом, два миллиона детей рискуют умереть от голода. [85]
В 2017 году Хьюман Райтс Вотч заявила, что Джозеф Кабила нанял бывших бойцов Движения 23 марта, чтобы подавить протесты по всей стране в связи с его отказом уйти с поста в конце срока. «Боевики M23 патрулировали улицы основных городов Конго, стреляя или арестовывая протестующих или кого-либо еще, кого считали угрозой для президента», - заявили они. [86]
В Масиси разгорелись ожесточенные бои между правительственными войсками и могущественным местным военачальником генералом Дельтой. Миссия Организации Объединенных Наций в ДРК - это крупнейшая и самая дорогостоящая операция по поддержанию мира, но в 2017 году она закрыла пять баз ООН возле Масиси после того, как США предприняли попытку сократить расходы. [87]
Этнический конфликт 2018 г.
Межплеменной конфликт вспыхнул 16–17 декабря 2018 года в Юмби в провинции Май-Ндомбе , в 400 км к северу от Киншасы. Около 900 человек бануну из четырех деревень были убиты членами общины Батенде из-за глубоко укоренившегося соперничества за ежемесячные племенные обязанности, землю, поля и водные ресурсы. Около 100 бануну бежали на остров Мониенде на реке Конго, а еще 16 000 - в район Макотимпоко в Республике Конго . В кровопролитии применялась военная тактика, некоторые нападавшие были одеты в армейскую форму. Местные власти и элементы сил безопасности подозревались в оказании им поддержки. [88]
Выборы 2018 г. и новый президент (с 2018 г. по настоящее время)
30 декабря в Демократической Республике Конго прошли всеобщие выборы 2018 года . 10 января 2019 года избирательная комиссия объявила кандидата от оппозиции Феликса Чисекеди победителем президентских выборов. [89] Он был официально приведен к присяге в качестве президента 24 января 2019 года. [90] Однако были широко распространены подозрения, что результаты были сфальсифицированы и что между Чисекеди и Кабилой была заключена сделка. Католическая церковь заявила, что официальные результаты не соответствуют информации, собранной ее наблюдателями за выборами. [91] Правительство также «отложило» голосование до марта в некоторых районах, сославшись на вспышку лихорадки Эбола в Киву, а также на продолжающийся военный конфликт . Это подверглось критике, поскольку эти регионы известны как опорные пункты оппозиции. [92] [93] [94] В августе 2019 года, через шесть месяцев после инаугурации Феликса Чисекеди, было объявлено о создании коалиционного правительства. [95]
Крупная вспышка кори в стране унесла жизни почти 5000 человек в 2019 году. [96] Вспышка лихорадки Эбола в 2018 году закончилась в июне 2020 года, в результате чего за 2 года погибло 2280 человек. [97] Другая, меньшая вспышка Эболы в Экваториальной провинции началась в июне 2020 года, в конечном итоге унесшая жизни 55 человек. [98] [99]
Посол Италии в ДРК Лука Аттанасио и его телохранитель были убиты в Северном Киву 22 февраля 2021 года . [100]
Политические союзники бывшего президента Жозефа Кабилы, ушедшего в отставку в январе 2019 года, сохранили контроль над ключевыми министерствами, законодательными, судебными органами и службами безопасности. Однако президенту Феликсу Чисекеди удалось укрепить свою власть. Путем ряда шагов он привлек к себе больше законодателей, заручившись поддержкой почти 400 из 500 членов Национального собрания. Спикеры обеих палат парламента, поддерживающие Кабилу, были вытеснены. В апреле 2021 года новое правительство было сформировано без сторонников Кабилы. [101]
Кампания вакцинации против COVID-19 началась 19 апреля 2021 года. [102]
22 апреля 2021 года встречи между президентом Кении Ухуру Кениата и президентом ДРК Феликсом Тшисекеди привели к заключению новых соглашений, направленных на расширение международной торговли и безопасности (борьба с терроризмом, иммиграция, кибербезопасность и таможня) между двумя странами. [103]
География
The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is located in central sub-Saharan Africa, bordered to the northwest by the Republic of the Congo, to the north by the Central African Republic, to the northeast by South Sudan, to the east by Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi, and by Tanzania (across Lake Tanganyika), to the south and southeast by Zambia, to the southwest by Angola, and to the west by the South Atlantic Ocean and the Cabinda Province exclave of Angola. The country lies between latitudes 6°N and 14°S, and longitudes 12°E and 32°E. It straddles the Equator, with one-third to the North and two-thirds to the South. The size of Congo, 2,345,408 square kilometres (905,567 sq mi), is slightly greater than the combined areas of Spain, France, Germany, Sweden, and Norway. It is the second-largest country in Africa by area, after Algeria.
As a result of its equatorial location, the DRC experiences high precipitation and has the highest frequency of thunderstorms in the world. The annual rainfall can total upwards of 2,000 millimetres (80 in) in some places, and the area sustains the Congo Rainforest, the second-largest rain forest in the world after the Amazon. This massive expanse of lush jungle covers most of the vast, low-lying central basin of the river, which slopes toward the Atlantic Ocean in the west. This area is surrounded by plateaus merging into savannas in the south and southwest, by mountainous terraces in the west, and dense grasslands extending beyond the Congo River in the north. High, glaciated mountains (Rwenzori Mountains) are found in the extreme eastern region.[citation needed]
The tropical climate also produced the Congo River system which dominates the region topographically along with the rainforest it flows through, though they are not mutually exclusive. The name for the Congo state is derived in part from the river. The river basin (meaning the Congo River and all of its myriad tributaries) occupies nearly the entire country and an area of nearly 1,000,000 km2 (390,000 sq mi). The river and its tributaries form the backbone of Congolese economics and transportation. Major tributaries include the Kasai, Sangha, Ubangi, Ruzizi, Aruwimi, and Lulonga.
The sources of the Congo are in the Albertine Rift Mountains that flank the western branch of the East African Rift, as well as Lake Tanganyika and Lake Mweru. The river flows generally west from Kisangani just below Boyoma Falls, then gradually bends southwest, passing by Mbandaka, joining with the Ubangi River, and running into the Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool). Kinshasa and Brazzaville are on opposite sides of the river at the Pool. Then the river narrows and falls through a number of cataracts in deep canyons, collectively known as the Livingstone Falls, and runs past Boma into the Atlantic Ocean. The river also has the second-largest flow and the second-largest watershed of any river in the world (trailing the Amazon in both respects). The river and a 37 kilometres (23 mi) wide strip of coastline on its north bank provide the country's only outlet to the Atlantic.[citation needed]
The Albertine Rift plays a key role in shaping the Congo's geography. Not only is the northeastern section of the country much more mountainous, but due to the rift's tectonic activity, this area also experiences volcanic activity, occasionally with loss of life. The geologic activity in this area also created the African Great Lakes, four of which lie on the Congo's eastern frontier: Lake Albert (known during the Mobutu era as Lake Mobutu Sese Seko), Lake Kivu (Unknown until late 1712), Lake Edward (known during the Amin era as Lake Idi Amin Dada), and Lake Tanganyika. Lake Edward and Lake Albert are connected by the Semliki River.[citation needed]
The Rift valley has exposed an enormous amount of mineral wealth throughout the south and east of the Congo, making it accessible to mining. Cobalt, copper, cadmium, industrial and gem-quality diamonds, gold, silver, zinc, manganese, tin, germanium, uranium, radium, bauxite, iron ore, and coal are all found in plentiful supply, especially in the Congo's southeastern Katanga region.[104]
On 17 January 2002 Mount Nyiragongo erupted in Congo, with the lava running out at 64 km/h (40 mph) and 46 m (50 yd) wide. One of the three streams of extremely fluid lava flowed through the nearby city of Goma, killing 45 and leaving 120,000 homeless. Four hundred thousand people were evacuated from the city during the eruption. The lava poisoned the water of Lake Kivu, killing fish. Only two planes left the local airport because of the possibility of the explosion of stored petrol. The lava passed the airport but ruined the runway, trapping several airplanes. Six months after the 2002 eruption, nearby Mount Nyamuragira also erupted. Mount Nyamuragira then erupted in 2006 and again in January 2010.[105]
World Wide Fund for Nature ecoregions located in the Congo include:
- Central Congolian lowland forests – home to the rare bonobo primate
- The Eastern Congolian swamp forests along the Congo River
- The Northeastern Congolian lowland forests, with one of the richest concentrations of primates in the world
- Southern Congolian forest-savanna mosaic
- A large section of the Central Zambezian miombo woodlands
- The Albertine Rift montane forests region of high forest runs along the eastern borders of the country.
World Heritage Sites located in Democratic Republic of Congo are: Virunga National Park (1979), Garamba National Park (1980), Kahuzi-Biega National Park (1980), Salonga National Park (1984) and Okapi Wildlife Reserve (1996).
Provinces
The country is currently divided into the city-province of Kinshasa and 25 other provinces.[3] The provinces are subdivided into 145 territories and 32 cities. Before 2015, the country had 11 provinces.[106]
1. Kinshasa | 14. Ituri Province | |
2. Kongo Central | 15. Haut-Uele | |
3. Kwango | 16. Tshopo | |
4. Kwilu Province | 17. Bas-Uele | |
5. Mai-Ndombe Province | 18. Nord-Ubangi | |
6. Kasaï Province | 19. Mongala | |
7. Kasaï-Central | 20. Sud-Ubangi | |
8. Kasaï-Oriental | 21. Équateur | |
9. Lomami Province | 22. Tshuapa | |
10. Sankuru | 23. Tanganyika Province | |
11. Maniema | 24. Haut-Lomami | |
12. South Kivu | 25. Lualaba Province | |
13. North Kivu | 26. Haut-Katanga Province |
Flora and fauna
The rainforests of the Democratic Republic of the Congo contain great biodiversity, including many rare and endemic species, such as the common chimpanzee and the bonobo, the African forest elephant, the mountain gorilla, the okapi and the white rhino. Five of the country's national parks are listed as World Heritage Sites: the Garumba, Kahuzi-Biega, Salonga and Virunga National Parks, and the Okapi Wildlife Reserve. The Democratic Republic of the Congo is one of 17 Megadiverse countries, and is the most biodiverse African country.[107]
The civil war and resulting in poor economic conditions have endangered much of this biodiversity. Many park wardens were either killed or could not afford to continue their work. All five sites are listed by UNESCO as World Heritage in Danger.
Conservationists have particularly worried about primates. The Congo is inhabited by several great ape species: the common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), the bonobo (Pan paniscus), the eastern gorilla (Gorilla beringei), and possibly the western gorilla (Gorilla gorilla).[108] It is the only country in the world in which bonobos are found in the wild. Much concern has been raised about great ape extinction. Because of hunting and habitat destruction, the chimpanzee, the bonobo and the gorilla, each of whose populations once numbered in the millions, have now dwindled down to only about 200,000 gorillas, 100,000 chimpanzees and possibly only about 10,000 bonobos.[109][110] Gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos are all classified as endangered by the World Conservation Union, as well as the okapi, which is also native to the area.
Poaching
Poaching for the exotic animal or ivory trade has been a persistent problem for species loss in the DRC, it has been made a necessity for some trying to escape poverty and a means of continuing the civil war for some rebel groups including the Lords Resistance army (LRA).[111] The forest elephant is particularly at risk due to the high cost of its ivory, especially in the Far East, which led to a 62% decrease in population in 2002–2011[112] The main way this poaching for ivory can be reduced is through the hampering of the international demand for ivory, as this drives the trade.[112]
The introduction of park guards and the implementation of eco-tourism in Virunga National park, a primary habitat for great apes, has allowed the endangered mountain gorilla population to jump over 1000, a 25% rise on 2010 numbers.[113] However, the study indicated that poaching is still an existing problem, with researchers finding 380 snares and park guards continually being ambushed and killed by poachers.[113]
Политика
Government
After a four-year interlude between two constitutions, with new political institutions established at the various levels of government, as well as new administrative divisions for the provinces throughout the country, a new constitution came into effect in 2006 and politics in the Democratic Republic of the Congo finally settled into a stable presidential democratic republic. The 2003 transitional constitution[114] had established a parliament with a bicameral legislature, consisting of a Senate and a National Assembly.
The Senate had, among other things, the charge of drafting the new constitution of the country. The executive branch was vested in a 60-member cabinet, headed by a President and four vice presidents. The President was also the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. The transitional constitution also established a relatively independent judiciary, headed by a Supreme Court with constitutional interpretation powers.[115]
The 2006 constitution, also known as the Constitution of the Third Republic, came into effect in February 2006. It had concurrent authority, however, with the transitional constitution until the inauguration of the elected officials who emerged from the July 2006 elections. Under the new constitution, the legislature remained bicameral; the executive was concomitantly undertaken by a President and the government, led by a Prime Minister, appointed from the party able to secure a majority in the National Assembly.
The government – not the President – is responsible to the Parliament. The new constitution also granted new powers to the provincial governments, creating provincial parliaments which have oversight of the Governor and the head of the provincial government, whom they elect. The new constitution also saw the disappearance of the Supreme Court, which was divided into three new institutions. The constitutional interpretation prerogative of the Supreme Court is now held by the Constitutional Court.[116]
Although located in the Central African UN subregion, the nation is also economically and regionally affiliated with Southern Africa as a member of the Southern African Development Community (SADC).[117]
Foreign relations
The global growth in demand for scarce raw materials and the industrial surges in China, India, Russia, Brazil and other developing countries require that developed countries employ new, integrated and responsive strategies for identifying and ensuring, on a continual basis, an adequate supply of strategic and critical materials required for their security needs.[118] Highlighting the DR Congo's importance to United States national security, the effort to establish an elite Congolese unit is the latest push by the U.S. to professionalize armed forces in this strategically important region.[119]
There are economic and strategic incentives to bring more security to the Congo, which is rich in natural resources such as cobalt, a strategic and critical metal used in many industrial and military applications.[118] The largest use of cobalt is in superalloys, used to make jet engine parts. Cobalt is also used in magnetic alloys and in cutting and wear-resistant materials such as cemented carbides. The chemical industry consumes significant quantities of cobalt in a variety of applications including catalysts for petroleum and chemical processing; drying agents for paints and inks; ground coats for porcelain enamels; decolorant for ceramics and glass; and pigments for ceramics, paints, and plastics. The country possesses 80% of the world's cobalt reserves.[120]
It is thought that due to the importance of cobalt for batteries for electric vehicles and stabilization of electric grids with large proportions of intermittent renewables in the electricity mix, the DRC could become an object of increased geopolitical competition.[118]
In the 21st century, Chinese investment in the DRC and Congolese exports to China have grown rapidly. In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including DRC, have signed a joint letter to the UNHRC defending China's treatment of Uyghurs and other Muslim ethnic minorities.[121]
Military
The Forces Armées de la République Démocratique du Congo (FARDC) consist of about 144,000 personnel, the majority of whom are part of the land forces, also with a small air force and an even smaller navy. The FARDC was established in 2003 after the end of the Second Congo War and integrated many former rebel groups into its ranks. Due to the presence of undisciplined and poorly trained ex-rebels, as well as a lack of funding and having spent years fighting against different militias, the FARDC suffers from rampant corruption and inefficiency. The agreements signed at the end of the Second Congo War called for a new "national, restructured and integrated" army that would be made up of Kabila's government forces (the FAC), the RCD, and the MLC. Also stipulated was that rebels like the RCD-N, RCD-ML, and the Mai-Mai would become part of the new armed forces. It also provided for the creation of a Conseil Superieur de la Defense (Superior Defence Council) which would declare states of siege or war and give advice on security sector reform, disarmament/demobilisation, and national defence policy. The FARDC is organised on the basis of brigades, which are dispersed throughout the provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Congolese troops have been fighting the Kivu conflict in the eastern North Kivu region, the Ituri conflict in the Ituri region, and other rebellions since the Second Congo War. Besides the FARDC, the largest peacekeeping mission of the United Nations, known as MONUSCO, is also present in the country with about 18,000 peacekeepers.
The Democratic Republic of Congo signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.[122]
Corruption
Mobutu Sese Seko ruled the DRC, which he renamed Zaire, from 1965 to 1997. A relative explained how the government illicitly collected revenue: "Mobutu would ask one of us to go to the bank and take out a million. We'd go to an intermediary and tell him to get five million. He would go to the bank with Mobutu's authority and take out ten. Mobutu got one, and we took the other nine."[123] Mobutu institutionalized corruption to prevent political rivals from challenging his control, leading to an economic collapse in 1996.[124]
Mobutu allegedly stole as much as US$4–5 billion while in office.[125] He was not the first corrupt Congolese leader by any means: "Government as a system of organized theft goes back to King Leopold II," noted Adam Hochschild in 2009.[126] In July 2009, a Swiss court determined that the statute of limitations had run out on an international asset recovery case of about $6.7 million of deposits of Mobutu's in a Swiss bank, and therefore the assets should be returned to Mobutu's family.[127]
President Joseph Kabila established the Commission of Repression of Economic Crimes upon his ascension to power in 2001.[128] However, in 2016 the Enough Project issued a report claiming that the Congo is run as a violent kleptocracy.[129]
Human rights
The International Criminal Court investigation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo was initiated by Joseph Kabila in April 2004. The International Criminal Court prosecutor opened the case in June 2004.
Child soldiers have been used on a large scale in DRC, and in 2011 it was estimated that 30,000 children were still operating with armed groups.[130]
Instances of child labor and forced labor have been observed and reported in the U.S. Department of Labor's Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor in the DRC in 2013[131] and six goods produced by the country's mining industry appear on the department's December 2014 List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor.
Violence against women
Violence against women seems to be perceived by large sectors of society to be normal.[132] The 2013–2014 DHS survey (pp. 299) found that 74.8% of women agreed that a husband is justified in beating his wife in certain circumstances.[133]
The United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women in 2006 expressed concern that in the post-war transition period, the promotion of women's human rights and gender equality is not seen as a priority.[134][135] Mass rapes, sexual violence and sexual slavery are used as a weapon of war by the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and armed groups in the eastern part of the country.[136] The eastern part of the country in particular has been described as the "rape capital of the world" and the prevalence of sexual violence there described as the worst in the world.[137][138]
Female genital mutilation (FGM) is also practiced in DRC, although not on a large scale. The prevalence of FGM is estimated at about 5% of women.[139][140] FGM is illegal: the law imposes a penalty of two to five years of prison and a fine of 200,000 Congolese francs on any person who violates the "physical or functional integrity" of the genital organs.[141][142]
In July 2007, the International Committee of the Red Cross expressed concern about the situation in eastern DRC.[143] A phenomenon of "pendulum displacement" has developed, where people hasten at night to safety. According to Yakin Ertürk, the UN Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women who toured eastern Congo in July 2007, violence against women in North and South Kivu included "unimaginable brutality". Ertürk added that "Armed groups attack local communities, loot, rape, kidnap women and children, and make them work as sexual slaves".[144] In December 2008, GuardianFilms of The Guardian released a film documenting the testimony of over 400 women and girls who had been abused by marauding militia.[145]
In June 2010, Oxfam reported a dramatic increase in the number of rapes in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and researchers from Harvard discovered that rapes committed by civilians had increased seventeenfold.[146] In June 2014, Freedom from Torture published reported rape and sexual violence being used routinely by state officials in Congolese prisons as punishment for politically active women.[147] The women included in the report were abused in several locations across the country including the capital Kinshasa and other areas away from the conflict zones.[147]
In 2015, figures both inside and outside of the country, such as Filimbi and Emmanuel Weyi, spoke out about the need to curb violence and instability as the 2016 elections approached.[148][149]
Экономика
The Central Bank of the Congo is responsible for developing and maintaining the Congolese franc, which serves as the primary form of currency in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 2007, The World Bank decided to grant the Democratic Republic of Congo up to $1.3 billion in assistance funds over the following three years.[150] The Congolese government started negotiating membership in the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA), in 2009.[151]
The Democratic Republic of Congo is widely considered one of the world's richest countries in natural resources; its untapped deposits of raw minerals are estimated to be worth in excess of US$24 trillion.[152][153][154] The Congo has 70% of the world's coltan, a third of its cobalt, more than 30% of its diamond reserves, and a tenth of its copper.[155][156]
Despite such vast mineral wealth, the economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo has declined drastically since the mid-1980s. The African country generated up to 70% of its export revenue from minerals in the 1970s and 1980s and was particularly hit when resource prices deteriorated at that time. By 2005, 90% of the DRC's revenues derived from its minerals (Exenberger and Hartmann 2007:10).[157] Congolese citizens are among the poorest people on Earth. DR Congo consistently has the lowest, or nearly the lowest, nominal GDP per capita in the world. The DRC is also one of the twenty lowest-ranked countries on the Corruption Perception Index.
Mining
The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is the world's largest producer of cobalt ore, and a major producer of copper and diamonds.[158] The latter come from Kasai province in the west. By far the largest mines in the DRC are located in southern Katanga province (formerly Shaba), and are highly mechanized, with a capacity of several million tons per year of copper and cobalt ore, and refining capability for metal ore. The DRC is the second-largest diamond-producing nation in the world,[159] and artisanal and small-scale miners account for most of its production.
At independence in 1960, DRC was the second-most industrialized country in Africa after South Africa; it boasted a thriving mining sector and a relatively productive agriculture sector.[160] The First and Second Congo Wars began in 1996. These conflicts have dramatically reduced national output and government revenue, increased external debt, and resulted in deaths of more than five million people from war and associated famine and disease. Malnutrition affects approximately two-thirds of the country's population.[citation needed]
Foreign businesses have curtailed operations due to uncertainty about the outcome of the conflict, lack of infrastructure, and the difficult operating environment. The war intensified the impact of such basic problems as an uncertain legal framework, corruption, inflation, and lack of openness in government economic policy and financial operations.
Conditions improved in late 2002, when a large portion of the invading foreign troops withdrew. A number of International Monetary Fund and World Bank missions met with the government to help it develop a coherent economic plan, and President Joseph Kabila began implementing reforms. Much economic activity still lies outside the GDP data. A United Nations Human Development Index report shows that the human development index of DRC is one of the worst the country has had in decades. Through 2011 the DRC had the lowest Human Development Index of the 187 ranked countries. It ranked lower than Niger, despite a higher margin of improvement than the latter country over 2010's numbers.[citation needed]
The economy of DRC relies heavily on mining. However, the smaller-scale economic activity from artisanal mining occurs in the informal sector and is not reflected in GDP data.[161] A third of the DRC's diamonds are believed to be smuggled out of the country, making it difficult to quantify diamond production levels.[162] In 2002, tin was discovered in the east of the country, but to date has only been mined on a small scale.[163] Smuggling of conflict minerals such as coltan and cassiterite, ores of tantalum and tin, respectively, helped to fuel the war in the Eastern Congo.[164]
In September 2004, state-owned Gécamines signed an agreement with Global Enterprises Corporate (GEC), a company formed by the merger of Dan Gertler International (DGI) with Beny Steinmetz Global, to rehabilitate and operate the Kananga and Tilwezembe copper mines. The deal was ratified by presidential decree. In 2007, a World Bank report reviewed DR Congo's three biggest mining contracts, finding that the 2005 deals, including one with Global Enterprises Company, were approved with "a complete lack of transparency" (Mahtani, 3 January 2007).[165][166][167] Gertler and Steinmetz put GEC's 75% share in Komoto Oliveira Virgule (KOV), the project made of up of Tilwezembe and Kananga, along with the Kolwesi concentrator, into Nikanor plc. Registered in the Isle of Man, it reached a market capitalization of $1.5 billion by 2007.[166] In February 2007, 22% of the Nikanor Mining company was owned by the Gertner Family Trust and 14% by Dan Gertler.[168] In January 2008 Katanga Mining acquired Nikanor for $452 million.[167]
In April 2006, Gertler's DGI took a major stake in DEM Mining, a cobalt-copper mining, and services company based in Katanga.[166] In June 2006, Gertler bought Tremalt from the Zimbabwean businessman John Bredenkamp for about $60 million. Tremalt had a half share in the Mukondo Mine. In 2007, Tremalt was owned by Prairie International Ltd, of which Dan Gertler's family trust was a major shareholder. Tremalt owned 80% of Savannah Mining, which held concessions C17 and C18 in Katanga Province and 50% of the Mukondo project. The other 50% of Mukondo was held by Boss Mining, which in turn was 80% owned by Central African Mining & Exploration Company (CAMEC). Boss Mining had rented and operated Bredenkamp's half of Mukondo. Gertler terminated this arrangement.[166]
Katanga Mining Limited, a Swiss-owned company, owns the Luilu Metallurgical Plant, which has a capacity of 175,000 tonnes of copper and 8,000 tonnes of cobalt per year, making it the largest cobalt refinery in the world. After a major rehabilitation program, the company resumed copper production operations in December 2007 and cobalt production in May 2008.[169]
In April 2013, anti-corruption NGOs revealed that Congolese tax authorities had failed to account for $88 million from the mining sector, despite booming production and positive industrial performance. The missing funds date from 2010 and tax bodies should have paid them into the central bank.[170] Later in 2013, the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative suspended the country's candidacy for membership due to insufficient reporting, monitoring and independent audits, but in July 2013 the country improved its accounting and transparency practices to the point where the EITI gave the country full membership.
In February 2018, global asset management firm AllianceBernstein[171] defined the DRC as economically "the Saudi Arabia of the electric vehicle age," due to its cobalt resources, as essential to the lithium-ion batteries that drive electric vehicles.[172]
Инфраструктура
Transportation
Ground transport in the Democratic Republic of Congo has always been difficult. The terrain and climate of the Congo Basin present serious barriers to road and rail construction, and the distances are enormous across this vast country. The DRC has more navigable rivers and moves more passengers and goods by boat and ferry than any other country in Africa, but air transport remains the only effective means of moving goods and people between many places within the country, especially in rural areas. Chronic economic mismanagement, political corruption and internal conflicts have led to long-term under-investment of infrastructure.
Rail
Rail transportation is provided by the Congo Railroad Company (Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer du Congo) and the Office National des Transports (Congo) (ONATRA) and the Office of the Uele Railways (Office des Chemins de fer des Ueles, CFU). Like much of the infrastructure in the Congo, the railways are poorly maintained, dirty, crowded and dangerous.
Road
The Democratic Republic of the Congo has fewer all-weather paved highways than any country of its population and size in Africa — a total of 2,250 km (1,400 mi), of which only 1,226 km (762 mi) is in good condition (see below). To put this in perspective, the road distance across the country in any direction is more than 2,500 km (1,600 mi) (e.g. Matadi to Lubumbashi, 2,700 km (1,700 mi) by road). The figure of 2,250 km (1,400 mi) converts to 35 km (22 mi) of paved road per 1,000,000 of population. Comparative figures for Zambia and Botswana are 721 km (448 mi) and 3,427 km (2,129 mi) respectively.[173]
Three routes in the Trans-African Highway network pass through DR Congo:
- Tripoli-Cape Town Highway: this route crosses the western extremity of the country on National Road No. 1 between Kinshasa and Matadi, a distance of 285 km (177 mi) on one of the only paved sections in fair condition.
- Lagos-Mombasa Highway: the DR Congo is the main missing link in this east-west highway and requires a new road to be constructed before it can function.
- Beira-Lobito Highway: this east-west highway crosses Katanga and requires re-construction over most of its length, being an earth track between the Angolan border and Kolwezi, a paved road in very poor condition between Kolwezi and Lubumbashi, and a paved road in fair condition over the short distance to the Zambian border.
Water
The Democratic Republic of Congo has thousands of kilometres of navigable waterways. Traditionally water transport has been the dominant means of moving around in approximately two-thirds of the country.
Air
As of June 2016[update], DR Congo had one major national airline (Congo Airways) that offered flights inside DR Congo. Congo Airways was based at Kinshasa's international airport. All air carriers certified by the DRC have been banned from European Union airports by the European Commission, due to inadequate safety standards.[174]
Several international airlines service Kinshasa's international airport and a few also offer international flights to Lubumbashi International Airport.
Energy
In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, there are both coal and crude oil resources that were mainly used domestically in 2008. The Democratic Republic of Congo has the infrastructure for hydro-electricity from the Congo River at the Inga dams.[175] The Democratic Republic of Congo also possesses 50% of Africa's forests and a river system that could provide hydro-electric power to the entire continent, according to a UN report on the country's strategic significance and its potential role as an economic power in central Africa.[176]
The generation and distribution of electricity are controlled by Société nationale d'électricité (SNEL), but only 15% of the country has access to electricity.[177] The DRC is a member of three electrical power pools. These are SAPP (Southern African Power Pool), EAPP (East African Power Pool), CAPP (Central African Power Pool).
Renewable energy
Because of abundant sunlight, the potential for solar development is very high in the DRC. There are already about 836 solar power systems in the DRC, with a total power of 83 kW, located in Équateur (167), Katanga (159), Nord-Kivu (170), the two Kasaï provinces (170), and Bas-Congo (170). Also, the 148 Caritas network system has a total power of 6.31 kW.[178]
Education
In 2014, the literacy rate for the population between the ages of 15 and 49 was estimated to be 75.9% (88.1% male and 63.8% female) according to a DHS nationwide survey.[179] The education system in the Democratic Republic of the Congo is governed by three government ministries: the Ministère de l'Enseignement Primaire, Secondaire et Professionnel (MEPSP), the Ministère de l'Enseignement Supérieur et Universitaire (MESU) and the Ministère des Affaires Sociales (MAS). Primary education in the Democratic Republic of the Congo is not free or compulsory,[citation needed] even though the Congolese constitution says it should be (Article 43 of the 2005 Congolese Constitution).[180]
As a result of the six-year civil war in the late 1990s—early 2000s, over 5.2 million children in the country did not receive any education.[181] Since the end of the civil war, the situation has improved tremendously, with the number of children enrolled in primary schools rising from 5.5 million in 2002 to 16.8 million in 2018, and the number of children enrolled in secondary schools rising from 2.8 million in 2007 to 4.6 million in 2015 according to UNESCO.[182]
Actual school attendance has also improved greatly in recent years, with primary school net attendance estimated to be 82.4% in 2014 (82.4% of children ages 6–11 attended school; 83.4% for boys, 80.6% for girls).[183]
Health
The hospitals in the Democratic Republic of the Congo include the General Hospital of Kinshasa. DRC has the world's second-highest rate of infant mortality (after Chad). In April 2011, through aid from Global Alliance for Vaccines, a new vaccine to prevent pneumococcal disease was introduced around Kinshasa.[184]
In 2012, it was estimated that about 1.1% of adults aged 15–49 were living with HIV/AIDS.[185] Malaria is also a problem.[186][187] Yellow fever also affects DRC.[188]
Maternal health is poor in DRC. According to 2010 estimates, DRC has the 17th highest maternal mortality rate in the world.[189] According to UNICEF, 43.5% of children under five are stunted.[190]
In May 2019, the death toll from the Ebola outbreak in DRC surpassed 1,000.[191]
United Nations emergency food relief agency warned that amid the escalating conflict and worsening situation following COVID-19 in the Democratic Republic of Congo, millions of lives were at risk as they could die of hunger. According to the data of the World Food Programme, four in ten people in Congo lack food security and about 15.6 million have been facing hunger crisis.[192]
Crime and law enforcement
The Congolese National Police (PNC) are the primary police force in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[193]
Демография
Largest cities
Largest cities or towns in the Democratic Republic of the Congo [194] | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | ||||||
Kinshasa Mbuji-Mayi | 1 | Kinshasa | Kinshasa | 14,342,000 | Lubumbashi Kananga | ||||
2 | Mbuji-Mayi | Kasai-Oriental | 2,525,000 | ||||||
3 | Lubumbashi | Katanga | 2,478,000 | ||||||
4 | Kananga | Kasai-Central | 1,458,000 | ||||||
5 | Kisangani | Tshopo | 1,261,000 | ||||||
6 | Goma | North Kivu | 1,000,000 - 2,000,000 | ||||||
7 | Bukavu | South Kivu | 1,078,000 | ||||||
8 | Tshikapa | Kasai Province | 919,192 | ||||||
9 | Kolwezi | Katanga Province | 495,723 | ||||||
10 | Masina | Kinshasa | 485,167 |
Ethnic groups
Year | Million |
---|---|
1950 | 12.2 |
2000 | 47.1 |
2020 | 101.8 |
Over 200 ethnic groups populate the Democratic Republic of the Congo, of which the majority are Bantu peoples. Together, Mongo, Luba, Kongo peoples, Mangbetu and the Azande peoples constitute around 45% of the population. The Kongo people are the largest ethnic group in the Democratic Republic of Congo.[195]
In 2018, the United Nations estimated the country's population to be 84 million people,[196][197] a rapid increase from 39.1 million in 1992 despite the ongoing war.[198] As many as 250 ethnic groups have been identified and named. The most numerous people are the Kongo, Luba, and Mongo. About 600,000 Pygmies are the aboriginal people of the DR Congo.[199] Although several hundred local languages and dialects are spoken, the linguistic variety is bridged both by widespread use of French and the national intermediary languages Kikongo, Tshiluba, Swahili, and Lingala.
Migration
Given the situation in the country and the condition of state structures, it is extremely difficult to obtain reliable migration data. However, evidence suggests that DRC continues to be a destination country for immigrants, in spite of recent declines in their numbers. Immigration is very diverse in nature; refugees and asylum-seekers – products of the numerous and violent conflicts in the Great Lakes Region – constitute an important subset of the population. Additionally, the country's large mine operations attract migrant workers from Africa and beyond. There is also considerable migration for commercial activities from other African countries and the rest of the world, but these movements are not well studied.[200] Transit migration towards South Africa and Europe also plays a role.
Immigration to the DRC has decreased steadily over the past two decades, most likely as a result of the armed violence that the country has experienced. According to the International Organization for Migration, the number of immigrants in the DRC has fallen from just over one million in 1960, to 754,000 in 1990, to 480,000 in 2005, to an estimated 445,000 in 2010. Official figures are unavailable, partly due to the predominance of the informal economy in the DRC. Data are also lacking on irregular immigrants, however given neighbouring countries' ethnic links to DRC nationals, irregular migration is assumed to be a significant phenomenon.[200]
Figures for Congolese nationals abroad vary greatly depending on the source, from three to six million. This discrepancy is due to a lack of official, reliable data. Emigrants from the DRC are above all long-term emigrants, the majority of whom live in Africa and to a lesser extent in Europe; 79.7% and 15.3% respectively, according to estimated 2000 data. New destination countries include South Africa and various points en route to Europe. The DRC has produced a considerable number of refugees and asylum-seekers located in the region and beyond. These numbers peaked in 2004 when, according to UNHCR, there were more than 460,000 refugees from the DRC; in 2008, Congolese refugees numbered 367,995 in total, 68% of whom were living in other African countries.[200]
Since 2003, more than 400,000 Congolese migrants have been expelled from Angola.[201]
Religion
Christianity is the majority religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The most recent survey, conducted by the Demographic and Health Surveys Program in 2013–2014 indicated that Christians constituted 93.7% of the population (with Catholics making up 29.7%, Protestants 26.8%, and other Christians 37.2%). An indigenous Christian religious movement, Kimbanguism, had the adherence of only 2.8%, while Muslims made up 1.2%.[202] Other recent estimates have found Christianity the majority religion, followed by 95.8% of the population according to a 2010 Pew Research Center[203] estimate, while the CIA World Factbook reports this figure to be 95.9%.[204] The proportion of followers of Islam is variously estimated from 1%[205] to 12% [206]
There are about 35 million Catholics in the country[3] with six archdioceses and 41 dioceses.[207] The impact of the Catholic Church in the Democratic Republic of Congo is difficult to overestimate. Schatzberg has called it the country's "only truly national institution apart from the state."[208] Its schools have educated over 60% of the nation's primary school students and more than 40% of its secondary students. The church owns and manages an extensive network of hospitals, schools, and clinics, as well as many diocesan economic enterprises, including farms, ranches, stores, and artisans' shops.[citation needed]
Sixty-two Protestant denominations are federated under the umbrella of the Church of Christ in Congo. It is often simply referred to as the Protestant Church, since it covers most of the DRC Protestants. With more than 25 million members, it constitutes one of the largest Protestant bodies in the world.
Kimbanguism was seen as a threat to the colonial regime and was banned by the Belgians. Kimbanguism, officially "the church of Christ on Earth by the prophet Simon Kimbangu", now has about three million members,[209] primarily among the Bakongo of Bas-Congo and Kinshasa.
Islam has been present in the Democratic Republic of the Congo since the 18th century, when Arab traders from East Africa pushed into the interior for ivory- and slave-trading purposes. Today, Muslims constitute approximately 1% of the Congolese population according to Pew research center. The majority are Sunni Muslims.
The first members of the Baháʼí Faith to live in the country came from Uganda in 1953. Four years later the first local administrative council was elected. In 1970 the National Spiritual Assembly (national administrative council) was first elected. Though the religion was banned in the 1970s and 1980s, due to misrepresentations of foreign governments, the ban was lifted by the end of the 1980s. In 2012 plans were announced to build a national Baháʼí House of Worship in the country.[210]
Traditional religions embody such concepts as monotheism, animism, vitalism, spirit and ancestor worship, witchcraft, and sorcery and vary widely among ethnic groups. The syncretic sects often merge elements of Christianity with traditional beliefs and rituals and are not recognized by mainstream churches as part of Christianity. New variants of ancient beliefs have become widespread, led by US-inspired Pentecostal churches which have been in the forefront of witchcraft accusations, particularly against children and the elderly.[clarification needed][211] Children accused of witchcraft are sent away from homes and family, often to live on the street, which can lead to physical violence against these children.[212][clarification needed][213] There are charities supporting street children such as the Congo Children Trust.[214] The Congo Children Trust's flagship project is Kimbilio,[215] which works to reunite street children in Lubumbashi. The usual term for these children is enfants sorciers (child witches) or enfants dits sorciers (children accused of witchcraft). Non-denominational church organizations have been formed to capitalize on this belief by charging exorbitant fees for exorcisms. Though recently outlawed, children have been subjected in these exorcisms to often-violent abuse at the hands of self-proclaimed prophets and priests.[216]
Source | Christianity (total) | Catholicism | Protestantism | Islam | Other | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
US State Department | 90% | 45% | 40% | 5% | 10%(Including other Christians) | [1] |
Pew Research Center | 96% | 47% | 48% | 1.5% | 2.5% | [2] [3] |
CIA World Factbook | 95.9% | 29.9% | 26.7% | 1.3% | 42.1%(Including other Christians) | [4] |
Association of Religion Data Archives | 93.9% | 55.8% | 39.1% | 2.1% | 5.1% | [5] |
Languages
French is the official language of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is culturally accepted as the lingua franca facilitating communication among the many different ethnic groups of the Congo. According to a 2014 OIF report, 33 million Congolese people (47% of the population) could read and write in French.[217] In the capital city Kinshasa, 67% of the population could read and write French, and 68.5% could speak and understand it.[218]
Approximately 242 languages are spoken in the country, but only four have the status of national languages: Kituba ("Kikongo ya leta"), Lingala, Tshiluba, and Swahili. Although some people speak these regional, or trade languages as first languages, most of the population speak them as a second language after their own ethnic language. Lingala was the official language of the colonial army, the "Force Publique", under Belgian colonial rule, and remains to this day the predominant language in the armed forces. Since the recent rebellions, a good part of the army in the East also uses Swahili where it is prevalent.
When the country was a Belgian colony, the Belgian colonizers instituted teaching and use of the four national languages in primary schools, making it one of the few African nations to have had literacy in local languages during the European colonial period. This trend was reversed after independence, when French became the sole language of education at all levels.[219] Since 1975, the four national languages have been reintroduced in the first two years of primary education, with French becoming the sole language of education from the third year onward, but in practice many primary schools in urban areas solely use French from the first year of school onward.[219] Portuguese is taught in the Congolese schools as a foreign language. The lexical similarity and phonology with French makes Portuguese a relatively easy language for the people to learn. Most of the roughly 175,000 Portuguese speakers in the DRC are Angolan and Mozambican expatriates.
Культура
The culture of the Democratic Republic of the Congo reflects the diversity of its hundreds of ethnic groups and their differing ways of life throughout the country — from the mouth of the River Congo on the coast, upriver through the rainforest and savanna in its centre, to the more densely populated mountains in the far east. Since the late 19th century, traditional ways of life have undergone changes brought about by colonialism, the struggle for independence, the stagnation of the Mobutu era, and most recently, the First and Second Congo Wars. Despite these pressures, the customs and cultures of the Congo have retained much of their individuality. The country's 81 million inhabitants (2016) are mainly rural. The 30% who live in urban areas have been the most open to Western influences.
Music
Another feature in Congo culture is its music. The DRC has its influences on Cuban music rumba, originally kumba from Congo and merengue. And those two later give birth to soukous.[220] Other African nations produce music genres derived from Congolese soukous. Some of the African bands sing in Lingala, one of the main languages in the DRC. The same Congolese soukous, under the guidance of "le sapeur", Papa Wemba, have set the tone for a generation of young men always dressed up in expensive designer clothes. They came to be known as the fourth generation of Congolese music and mostly come from the former well-known band Wenge Musica
.Sports
Many sports are played in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, including football, basketball, and rugby. The sports are played in numerous stadiums throughout the country, including the Stade Frederic Kibassa Maliba.[221] As Zaire they have participated in the World Cup Football (Final stage) in 1974.
Internationally, the country is especially famous for its professional basketball NBA and football players. Dikembe Mutombo is one of the best African basketball players to ever play the game. Mutombo is well known for humanitarian projects in his home country. Bismack Biyombo, Christian Eyenga, and Emmanuel Mudiay are others who gained significant international attention in basketball. Several Congolese players and players of Congolese descent—including strikers Romelu Lukaku, Yannick Bolasie, and Dieumerci Mbokani—have gained prominence in world football. DR Congo has twice won the African Cup of Nations football tournament.
Food
Media
Newspapers of the DRC include L'Avenir, Radion Télévision Mwangaza, La Conscience
, L'Observateur , Le Phare, Le Potentiel, Le Soft and LeCongolais.CD,[222] a web-based daily.[223] Radio Télévision Nationale Congolaise (RTNC) is the national broadcaster of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. RTNC currently broadcasts in Lingala, French, and English.Literature
Congolese authors use literature as a way to develop a sense of national consciousness amongst the Congo people. The tragic history of colonialism and war lead the Congolese people to settle in a place of complacency, accepting the culture that was forced upon them by Belgium.
Modern Congolese literature began to emerge in the late 1950s. There are a few rare pieces of literature dated back to before WWI, but it was not until about 1954 that literature written in French made its appearance in the Congo. After gaining their independence from Belgium in the 1960s, new authors, such as Guy Menga and Jean Pierre Makouta-Mboukou, were inspired by older authors, such as Jean Malonga from Congo-Brazzaville, and used writing to bring attention to new issues affecting the Congo. The rise of female authors began in the 1970s introducing diversity to Congolese literature and support for gender empowerment. Many authors who have contributed to the success of Congolese literature are now living abroad due to economic and political issues.[224]
Frederick Kambemba Yamusangie writes literature for the between generations of those who grew up in the Congo, during the time when they were colonised, fighting for independence and after. Yamusangie in an interview[225] said he felt the distance in literature and wanted to remedy that he wrote the novel, Full Circle, which is a story of a boy named Emanuel who in the beginning of the book feels a difference in culture among the different groups in the Congo and elsewhere.[226]
Rais Neza Boneza, an author from the Katanga province of the Democratic Republic of Congo, wrote novels and poems to promote artistic expressions as a way to address and deal with conflicts.[227]
These authors, along with others, used their platforms to bring awareness to the crises and conflicts that took place in the Congo.
Environmental issues
A dense tropical rainforest in the DRC's central river basin and eastern highlands is bordered on the east by the Albertine Rift (the western branch of Africa's Great Rift System). It includes several of Africa's Great Lakes.
Major environmental issues
DR Congo's major environmental issues include:
- deforestation
- poaching, which threatens wildlife populations
- water pollution
- mining
Displaced refugees cause or are otherwise responsible for significant deforestation, soil erosion and wildlife poaching. Another significant issue is environmental damage from the mining of minerals, especially diamonds, gold, and coltan – a mineral used to manufacture capacitors.
Species and Biodiversity loss
The environmental problems associated with The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) affect its many endemic species of flora and fauna. The DRC has the world's second largest contiguous rain forest after the Amazon as well as other ecosystems including Savanna, swamps and flood plains. According to the World Wildlife Fund, these unique habitats and species make the DRC one of the most valuable yet vulnerable areas in the world for biodiversity, wildlife protection and rainforest sustainability.[229]
Species loss has been cited as a problem in the DRC, brought about or exacerbated by reasons that include deforestation for mining, wood fuel, infrastructure or agriculture, war, illegal poaching and increased consumption of bush meat due to overpopulation and lack of food security.[230] Some attempts to combat species loss in countries such as the DRC are actions such as the UN's Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), specifically SDG 15 Life on Land, the primary goals of which is to increase reforestation and biodiversity and reduce species loss, desertification, and illegal poaching.[231] One of the primary defences for species and habitat protection in the DRC is its system of national parks and reserves, which gives protected status to nearly 12% of the DRC's rainforest.[232] Five of these parks and reserves are UNESCO world heritage sites, including Africa’s first national park Virunga national park. All of these parks have been put on the World Heritage in Danger List.[233] Poor governance and low economic conditions have reduced the effectiveness of these protections, especially during war times.[232] The human cost of protecting these parks has also been high with 200 park ranger deaths in the past 20 years.[234] Virunga national park and Salongo National Park, both of which are UNESCO world heritage sites are currently being looked at for mining and oil exploration. The move would open 21.5% of the Virunga park for exploitation, this is highly criticised by animal rights activists as it would threaten the habitat of mountain gorillas and other endangered species.
Deforestation
Between 2000 and 2014 the DRC lost an average of 570,000 hectares (0.2%) of rainforest to deforestation per year, with the highest amount of deforestation coming between 2011 and 2014.[235] Deforestation is the primary cause of biodiversity reduction and species loss globally, through habitat loss and fragmentation.[236] One of the goals of the SDG 15 is to reduce deforestation and encourage reforestation by 2020. The DRC had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.56/10, ranking it 36th globally out of 172 countries.[237]
The DRC has Africa’s largest rainforest, which is under the threat of deforestation through mining operations, agriculture, infrastructure and wood fuel. In the DRC 94% of wood taken from the rainforest is used for wood fuel, mainly due to poverty, lack of energy infrastructure and the decentralised nature of its population. To mitigate this aid agencies have tried to promote agro-forestry with fast growing trees to avoid over exploitation of the rainforests.[238] Other large drivers of deforestation include mining and conflict, during the Congo conflict deforestation by militia groups was high for wood fuel, small mining operations and illegal logging to fund their operations. However, conversely conflict reduced deforestation for large scale mining due to security instability.[232]
One policy being attempted to reduce the deforestation and increase biodiversity in the DRC is the UN-REDD program, which uses emissions trading system so that developed nations can offset their carbon emissions by paying developing nations with rainforest to manage and conserve their forest.[239]
Bush meat
Bush meat refers to any meat that is procured from the wild. Overpopulation and continual conflicts in the DRC have led to food shortages, which have therefore increased the use of bush meat. Although, data on bush meat use is not extensive, studies estimate 6 million tonnes of animals are taken for bush meat globally each year.[240] What animals are hunted are done so indiscriminately without thought of the importance of certain species that could be ecosystem engineers or keystone species.[240]
Bush meat is an important source of protein for millions in the DRC, especially in rural areas where it makes up 50–70% of meals. For some who cannot afford farmed produce it is a free meal.[241] A recent study in the DRC revealed that almost all of the animals are taken from the Congo each year, at 93% of all live animals there are in the forest are extracted for bush meat, whereas a sustainable rate would be 20%.[242] This is a huge amount compared to the Amazon where bush meat is hunted at only 3% the rate of the Congo.[242] the study reveals the only way to solve this is to find other food sources to feed people in the Congo Basin as bush meat is their only means of eating.[242] Another study showed that the species of bush meat in the meat markets of the DRC's third largest city Kisangani were primarily Artiodactyla at 40.06% of the carcasses sold then primates at 37.79% of carcasses sold.[243]
Recently the prevalence of hunting for bush meat has declined because of the risk to hunters and butchers from the Ebola virus from specifically ape and bat meat.[244] Even though when the meat is cooked smoked or dried it kills the virus, business has dropped significantly with some hunters reporting as much of a reduction in sales of 80%.[244]
Conflicts
There has been a war in the DRC in different levels of intensity since 1994 when the country was called Zaire.[245] Although what was known as Africa's World War had ended in 2003 the eastern part of the country still has ongoing skirmishes between rebel groups and government forces.[245] No other method has reduced species population so dramatically than conflict, when a militia reached the Garamba National Park in 1997, within three months half of the park's elephants, two thirds of the buffalo, and three quarters of its hippos vanished.[246] The reason conflict is so damaging to wildlife is the increased use of bush meat to feed soldiers, the prevalence of weapons, the lucrative industry of selling exotic animals and ivory as well as the general failure of law and order.[246] According to another study which was taken during the time of the civil war in the Okapi Faunal Reserve, there was a 50% reduction in the abundance of elephants and a vast change in the distribution of them to the more secluded areas of the park.[247]
Смотрите также
- Outline of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
- Index of Democratic Republic of the Congo-related articles
- Democratic Republic of the Congo–South Sudan border
Заметки
- ^ "Kikongo" here is actually referring to the Kituba language – which is known as Kikongo ya leta by its speakers – not the Kongo language proper. The confusion arises from the fact that the government of the DRC officially recognizes and refers to the language simply as "Kikongo".
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Aid Applicant: The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DROC)
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Рекомендации
- Young, M. Crawford; Turner, Thomas Edwin (2013). The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State (illustrated, reprint ed.). University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-10113-8.CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
дальнейшее чтение
- Clark, John F., The African Stakes of the Congo War, 2004.
- Callaghy, T., The State-Society Struggle: Zaire in Comparative Perspective. New York: Columbia University Press, 1984, ISBN 0-231-05720-2.
- Devlin, Larry (2007). Chief of Station, Congo: A Memoir of 1960–67. New York: PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-58648-405-7..
- Drummond, Bill and Manning, Mark, The Wild Highway, 2005.
- Edgerton, Robert, The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo. St. Martin's Press, 2002.
- Exenberger, Andreas/Hartmann, Simon. The Dark Side of Globalization. The Vicious Cycle of Exploitation from World Market Integration: Lesson from the Congo, Working Papers in Economics and Statistics 31, University Innsbruck 2007.
- Exenberger, Andreas/Hartmann, Simon. Doomed to Disaster? Long-term Trajectories of Exploitation in the Congo, Paper to be presented at the Workshop "Colonial Extraction in the Netherlands Indies and Belgian Congo: Institutions, Institutional Change and Long Term Consequences", Utrecht 3–4 December 2010.
- Gondola, Ch. Didier, "The History of Congo", Westport: Greenwood Press, 2002.
- Joris, Lieve, translated by Waters, Liz, The Rebels' Hour, Atlantic, 2008.
- Justenhoven, Heinz-Gerhard; Ehrhart, Hans Georg. Intervention im Kongo: eine kritische Analyse der Befriedungspolitik von UN und EU. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer Verlag, 2008. (In German) ISBN 978-3-17-020781-3.
- Kingsolver, Barbara. The Poisonwood Bible HarperCollins, 1998.
- Larémont, Ricardo René, ed. 2005. Borders, nationalism and the African state. Boulder, Colorado and London: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
- Lemarchand, Reni and Hamilton, Lee; Burundi: Ethnic Conflict and Genocide. Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1994.
- Mealer, Bryan: "All Things Must Fight To Live", 2008. ISBN 1-59691-345-2.
- Melvern, Linda, Conspiracy to Murder: The Rwandan Genocide and the International Community. Verso, 2004.
- Miller, Eric: "The Inability of Peacekeeping to Address the Security Dilemma", 2010. ISBN 978-3-8383-4027-2.
- Mwakikagile, Godfrey, Nyerere and Africa: End of an Era, Third Edition, New Africa Press, 2006, "Chapter Six: Congo in The Sixties: The Bleeding Heart of Africa", pp. 147–205, ISBN 978-0-9802534-1-2; Mwakikagile, Godfrey, Africa and America in The Sixties: A Decade That Changed The Nation and The Destiny of A Continent, First Edition, New Africa Press, 2006, ISBN 978-0-9802534-2-9; Congo in The Sixties,ISBN 978-1448665709, 2009; Africa: Dawn of a New Era,ISBN 978-9987160488, 2015.
- Nzongola-Ntalaja, Georges, The Congo from Leopold to Kabila: A People's History, 2002.
- O'Hanlon, Redmond, Congo Journey, 1996.
- O'Hanlon, Redmond, No Mercy: A Journey into the Heart of the Congo, 1998.
- Prunier, Gérard, Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe, 2011 (also published as From Genocide to Continental War: The Congolese Conflict and the Crisis of Contemporary Africa: The Congo Conflict and the Crisis of Contemporary Africa).
- Renton, David; Seddon, David; Zeilig, Leo. The Congo: Plunder and Resistance, 2007. ISBN 978-1-84277-485-4.
- Reyntjens, Filip, The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2006 , 2009.
- Rorison, Sean, Bradt Travel Guide: Congo — Democratic Republic/Republic, 2008.
- Schulz, Manfred. Entwicklungsträger in der DR Kongo: Entwicklungen in Politik, Wirtschaft, Religion, Zivilgesellschaft und Kultur, Berlin: Lit, 2008, (in German) ISBN 978-3-8258-0425-1.
- Stearns, Jason: Dancing in the Glory of Monsters: the Collapse of the Congo and the Great War of Africa, Public Affairs, 2011.
- Tayler, Jeffrey, Facing the Congo, 2001.
- Turner, Thomas, The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality, 2007.
- Van Reybrouck, David, Congo: The Epic History of a People, 2014
- Wrong, Michela, In the Footsteps of Mr. Kurtz: Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu's Congo.
Внешние ссылки
- Country Profile from the BBC News
- Democratic Republic of the Congo. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- Democratic Republic of the Congo from UCB Libraries GovPubs
- Democratic Republic of the Congo at Curlie
- Wikimedia Atlas of Democratic Republic of the Congo
- Geographic data related to Democratic Republic of the Congo at OpenStreetMap
- The Democratic Republic of Congo from Global Issues
- Karen Fung (ed.). "Democratic Republic of the Congo". Africa South of the Sahara: Selected Internet Resources. Stanford University.