Изображение - это ссылка, переданная через изображения. В основном картина относится к своему объекту через неязыковую двумерную схему. Картинка - это не письменность и не обозначения. Изобразительная двумерная схема называется картинной плоскостью и может быть построена в соответствии с описательной геометрией, где они обычно делятся между проекциями (ортогональными и различными наклонными углами) и перспективами.(по количеству точек схода). Картины создаются с использованием различных материалов и техник, таких как живопись, рисунок или печать (включая фотографии и фильмы), мозаики, гобелены, витражи и коллажи из необычных и разрозненных элементов. Иногда изображения, похожие на черты, можно распознать в простых чернильных пятнах, случайных пятнах, своеобразных облаках или свете луны, но это особые случаи, и вопрос о том, считаются ли они подлинными экземплярами изображения. [1] Точно так же иногда говорят, что скульптура и театральные представления изображают, но это требует широкого понимания слова «изобразить» как простого обозначения формы представления, которая не является лингвистической или нотационной. Однако основная часть исследований изображения связана только с картинками. Хотя скульптура и перформанс четко представляют или отсылают, они не представляют собой строго свои объекты.
Изображенные объекты могут быть фактическими или вымышленными, буквальными или метафорическими, реалистичными или идеализированными и в различных комбинациях. Идеализированное изображение также называется схематическим или стилизованным и распространяется на значки, диаграммы и карты. Классы или стили изображения могут постепенно абстрагировать свои объекты, и наоборот, устанавливать степени конкретности (обычно называемые, немного сбивая с толку, фигуративными или фигуративными, поскольку «фигуративность» в этом случае часто бывает вполне буквальной). Стилизация может привести к полностью абстрактному изображению, где ссылка делается только на условия для плоскости изображения - серьезное упражнение в самоотношении и, в конечном счете, подмножество шаблона.
Но то, как работают изображения, остается спорным. Философы, искусствоведы и критики, психологи восприятия и другие исследователи в области искусства и социальных наук внесли свой вклад в дебаты, и многие из наиболее влиятельных вкладов были междисциплинарными. Ниже приводится краткий обзор некоторых ключевых позиций.
Сходство
Традиционно изображение отличается от денотативного значения наличием миметического элемента или сходства . Картина похожа на свой объект не так, как слово или звук. Очевидно, сходство не является гарантией изображения. Две ручки могут быть похожи друг на друга, но не изображать друг друга. Сказать, что картина особенно похожа на свой объект, значит только сказать, что ее объект - это то, на что она особенно похожа; который начинается строго с самого рисунка. Действительно, поскольку все чем-то похоже на что-то, простое сходство как отличительная черта тривиально. Более того, изображение не является гарантией сходства с объектом. Изображение дракона не похоже на настоящего дракона. Так что сходства недостаточно.
Теории пытались либо установить дополнительные условия для вида необходимого сходства, либо искали способы, с помощью которых система обозначений могла бы допускать такое сходство. Широко распространено мнение, что проблема с теорией сходства изображения состоит в том, что сходство - это симметричное отношение между терминами (обязательно, если x похож на y, тогда y похож на x), в то время как изображение, напротив, в лучшем случае несимметричное отношение (это не обязательно, что, если x изображает y, y изображает x). Если это верно, то изображение и сходство не могут быть идентифицированы, и теория подобия изображения вынуждена предлагать более сложное объяснение, например, полагаясь вместо этого на опытное сходство, что явно является асимметричным понятием (что вы воспринимаете x как похожее y не означает, что вы также воспринимаете y как похожее на x). [2] Другие, однако, утверждали, что понятие сходства не является исключительно реляционным понятием, и поэтому исходная проблема просто очевидна. [3]
В истории искусства история реальных попыток достичь сходства в изображениях обычно покрывается терминами « реализм », натурализм или « иллюзионизм ».
Иллюзия
Самый известный и тщательно продуманный аргумент в пользу сходства, модифицированного ссылкой, принадлежит историку искусства Эрнсту Гомбриху . [4] [5] [6] Сходство на фотографиях призвано создать иллюзию. Считается, что инстинкты зрительного восприятия запускаются или тревожатся изображениями, даже когда нас редко обманывают. Глаз якобы не может сопротивляться обнаружению сходства, которое согласуется с иллюзией. Таким образом, сходство сводится к чему-то вроде семян иллюзии. Против одностороннего отношения референции Гомбрих приводит доводы в пользу более слабого или лабильного отношения, унаследованного от подстановки . [7] Таким образом, изображения являются более примитивными и мощными, чем более строгие ссылки.
Но то, может ли картина немного обмануть, в то время как она представляет столько же, кажется серьезно скомпрометированной. Также оспариваются претензии на врожденные диспозиции в поле зрения. Гомбрих обращается к массиву психологических исследований Джеймса Дж. Гибсона , Р.Л. Грегори, Джона М. Кеннеди, Конрада Лоренца, Ульрика Нейссера и других в доводах в пользу «оптической» основы для перспективы, в частности (см. Также перспективу (рисунок) . Последующие кросс-культурные исследования изобразительной компетентности и связанные с ними исследования детского развития и нарушений зрения в лучшем случае неубедительны.
Убеждения Гомбрича имеют важное значение для его популярной истории искусства [8], для лечения и приоритетов в этой области. В более позднем исследовании Джона Уиллатса (1997) [9] о разнообразии и развитии картинных плоскостей взгляды Гомбриха на больший реализм перспективы лежат в основе многих важных открытий. [10]
Двойные инварианты
Более откровенно бихевиористский вид принимаются перцептивным психолог Джеймс Дж Gibson , [11] , частично в ответ на Гомбрич. Гибсон рассматривает зрительное восприятие как глаз, регистрирующий необходимую информацию для поведения в данной среде. Информация фильтруется от световых лучей, попадающих на сетчатку. Свет называется энергией стимула или ощущением. Информация состоит из основных шаблонов или «инвариантов» жизненно важных функций окружающей среды.
Gibson's view of depiction concerns the re-presentation of these invariants. In the case of illusions or trompe l'oeil, the picture also conveys the stimulus energy, but generally the experience is of perceiving two sets of invariants, one for the picture surface, another for the object pictured. He pointedly rejects any seeds of illusion or substitution and allows that a picture represents when two sets of invariants are displayed. But invariants tell us little more than that the resemblance is visible, dual invariants only that the terms of reference are the same as those for resemblance
Проводы
A similar duality is proposed by the philosopher of art Richard Wollheim. He calls it 'twofoldness'.[12] Our experience of the picture surface is called the 'configurational' aspect, and our experience of the object depicted the 'recognitional'. Wollheim's main claim is that we are simultaneously aware of both the surface and the depicted object. The concept of twofoldness has been very influential in contemporary analytic aesthetics, especially in the writings of Dominic Lopes[13] and of Bence Nanay.[14] Again, illusion is forestalled by the prominence of the picture surface where an object is depicted. Yet the object depicted quite simply is the picture surface under one reading, the surface indifferent to picture, another. The two are hardly compatible or simultaneous. Nor do they ensure a reference relation.
Wollheim introduces the concept of 'seeing-in' to qualify depictive resemblance.[15] Seeing-in is a psychological disposition to detect a resemblance between certain surfaces, such as inkblots or accidental stains, etc. and three-dimensional objects. The eye is not deceived, but finds or projects some resemblance to the surface. This is not quite depiction, since the resemblance is only incidental to the surface. The surface does not strictly refer to such objects. Seeing-in is a necessary condition to depiction, and sufficient when in accordance with the maker's intentions, where these are clear from certain features to a picture. But seeing-in cannot really say in what way such surfaces resemble objects either, only specify where they perhaps first occur.
Wollheim's account of how a resemblance is agreed or modified, whereby maker and user anticipate each other's roles, does not really explain how a resemblance refers, but rather when an agreed resemblance obtains.
Другие психологические ресурсы
The appeal to broader psychological factors in qualifying depictive resemblance is echoed in the theories of philosophers such as Robert Hopkins,[16] Flint Schier[17] and Kendall Walton.[18] They enlist 'experience', 'recognition' and 'imagination' respectively. Each provides additional factors to an understanding or interpretation of pictorial reference, although none can explain how a picture resembles an object (if indeed it does), nor how this resemblance is then also a reference.
For example, Schier returns to the contrast with language to try to identify a crucial difference in depictive competence. Understanding a pictorial style does not depend upon learning a vocabulary and syntax. Once grasped, a style allows the recognition of any object known to the user. Of course recognition allows a great deal more than that – books teaching children to read often introduce them to many exotic creatures such as a kangaroo or armadillo through illustrations. Many fictions and caricatures are promptly recognised without prior acquaintance of either a particular style or the object in question.[19] So competence cannot rely on a simple index or synonymy for objects and styles.
Schier's conclusion that lack of syntax and semantics in reference then qualifies as depiction, leaves dance, architecture, animation, sculpture and music all sharing the same mode of reference. This perhaps points as much to limitations in a linguistic model.
Обозначение
Reversing orthodoxy, the philosopher Nelson Goodman[20] starts from reference and attempts to assimilate resemblance. He denies resemblance as either necessary or sufficient condition for depiction but surprisingly, allows that it arises and fluctuates as a matter of usage or familiarity.[21]
For Goodman, a picture denotes. Denotation is divided between description, covering writing and extending to more discursive notation including music and dance scores, to depiction at greatest remove. However, a word does not grow to resemble its object, no matter how familiar or preferred. To explain how a pictorial notation does, Goodman proposes an analogue system, consisting of undifferentiated characters, a density of syntax and semantics and relative repleteness of syntax. These requirements taken in combination mean that a one-way reference running from picture to object encounters a problem. If its semantics is undifferentiated, then the relation flows back from object to picture. Depiction can acquire resemblance but must surrender reference. This is a point tacitly acknowledged by Goodman, conceding firstly that density is the antithesis of notation[22] and later that lack of differentiation may actually permit resemblance.[23] A denotation without notation lacks sense.
Nevertheless, Goodman's framework is revisited by philosopher John Kulvicki[24] and applied by art historian James Elkins[25] to an array of hybrid artefacts, combining picture, pattern and notation.
Живописная семиотика
Pictorial semiotics aims for just the kind of integration of depiction with notation undertaken by Goodman, but fails to identify his requirements for syntax and semantics. It seeks to apply the model of structural linguistics, to reveal core meanings and permutations for pictures of all kinds, but stalls in identifying constituent elements of reference, or as semioticians prefer, 'signification'. Similarly, they accept resemblance although call it 'iconicity' (after Charles Sanders Peirce,[26] 1931–58) and are uncomfortable in qualifying its role. Older practitioners, such as Roland Barthes[27] and Umberto Eco[28] variously shift analysis to underlying 'connotations' for an object depicted or concentrate on description of purported content at the expense of more medium-specific meaning. Essentially they establish a more general iconography.
A later adherent, Göran Sonesson,[29][30] rejects Goodman's terms for syntax and semantics as alien to linguistics, no more than an ideal and turns instead to the findings of perceptual psychologists, such as J. M. Kennedy,[31] N. H. Freeman[32][33] and David Marr[34][35] in order to detect underlying structure. Sonesson accepts 'seeing-in',[36] although prefers Edmund Husserl's version.[37][38] Resemblance is again grounded in optics or the visible, although this does not exclude writing nor reconcile resemblance with reference. Discussion tends to be restricted to the function of outlines in schemes for depth.
Deixis
The art historian Norman Bryson[39] persists with a linguistic model and advances a detail of parsing and tense, 'deixis'. He rejects resemblance and illusion as incompatible with the ambiguities and interpretation available to pictures and is also critical of the inflexible nature of structuralist analysis. Deixis is taken as the rhetoric of the narrator, indicating the presence of the speaker in a discourse, a bodily or physical aspect as well as an explicit temporal dimension. In depiction this translates as a difference between 'The Gaze' where deixis is absent and 'The Glance' where it is present. Where present, details to materials indicate how long and in what way the depiction was made, where absent, a telling suppression or prolonging of the act. The distinction attempts to account for the 'plastic' or medium-specific qualities absent from earlier semiotic analyses and somewhat approximates the 'indexic' aspect to signs introduced by Peirce.
Deixis offers a more elaborate account of the picture surface and broad differences to expression and application but cannot qualify resemblance.
Иконография
Lastly, iconography is the study of pictorial content, mainly in art, and would seem to ignore the question of how to concentrate upon what. But iconography's findings take a rather recondite view of content, are often based on subtle literary, historical and cultural allusion and highlight a sharp difference in terms of resemblance, optical accuracy or intuitive illusion. Resemblance is hardly direct or spontaneous for the iconographer, reference rarely to the literal or singular. Visual perception here is subject to reflection and research, the object as much reference as referent.
The distinguished art historian Erwin Panofsky[40] allowed three levels to iconography. The first is 'natural' content, the object recognised or resembling without context, on a second level, a modifying historical and cultural context and at a third, deeper level, a fundamental structure or ideology (called iconology). He even ascribed the use of perspective a deep social meaning (1927). However more recently, a natural or neutral level tends to be abandoned as mythical. The cultural scholar W. J. T. Mitchell[41][42][43] looks to ideology to determine resemblance and depiction as acknowledgement of shifts in relations there, albeit by an unspecified scheme or notation.
Iconography points to differences in scope for a theory of depiction. Where stylistics and a basic object is nominated, resemblance is prominent, but where more elaborate objects are encountered, or terms for nature denied, simple perception or notation flounder. The difference corresponds somewhat to the division in philosophy between the analytic and continental.
Другие вопросы
Dozens of factors influence depictions and how they are represented.[44] These include the equipment used to create the depiction, the creator’s intent, vantage point, mobility, proximity, publication format, among others, and, when dealing with human subjects, their potential desire for impression management.
Other debates about the nature of depiction include the relationship between seeing something in a picture and seeing face to face, whether depictive representation is conventional, how understanding novel depictions is possible, the aesthetic and ethical value of depiction and the nature of realism in pictorial art.
Смотрите также
- Figurative art
- Representationalism
- Symbol
дальнейшее чтение
Books
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Рекомендации
- ^ e.g. Robert Hopkins (1998), "Picture, Image, Experience" (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) p. 71.
- ^ see e.g. Hopkins (1998), Christopher Peacocke (1987) 'Depiction', in Philosophical Review 96(3):383-410.
- ^ John Hyman (2012), 'Depiction', in Royal Institute of Philosophy Supplement 71:129-150.
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- ^ Gombrich (1995), pp. 133, 228.
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- ^ Wollheim, Richard (1987), Painting as an Art (London: Thames and Hudson) pp 46-7, 72-5.
- ^ Lopes, Dominic (2005), Sight and Sensibility: Evaluating Pictures (Oxford: Clarendon Press).
- ^ Nanay, Bence (2005), 'Is Twofoldness Necessary for Representational Seeing?', British Journal of Aesthetics 45(3): 263-272.
- ^ Wollheim (1987), pp. 59-61.
- ^ Hopkins, Robert (1998), Picture, Image, and Experience (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
- ^ Schier, Flint (1986), Deeper Into Pictures (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
- ^ Walton, Kendall (1990), Mimesis as Make-believe (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press).
- ^ Ross, Stephanie (1971), 'Caricature', The Monist 58: pp 285-93.
- ^ Goodman, Nelson (1968), Languages of Art: An Approach to a Theory of Symbols (Indianapolis and New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc.).
- ^ Goodman (1968), pp. 16-19.
- ^ Goodman (1968), p. 160.
- ^ Goodman, Nelson and Elgin, Catherine Z, (1988) Reconceptions in Philosophy (London and New York: Routledge) p. 131.
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- ^ Eco, Umberto (1980), A Theory of Semiotics (Milan 1976) (Bloomington: Indiana University Press).
- ^ Sonesson, Göran (1989), Pictorial Concepts: Inquiries into the semiotic heritage and its relevance for the analysis of the visual world. (Lund: Aris/Lund University Press).
- ^ Sonesson, Göran (2001), 'Iconicity strikes back: the third generation – or why Eco is still wrong'. VISIO 9: 3-4.
- ^ Kennedy, John M. (1974) The Psychology of Picture Perception (San Francisco, Jossey-Bass).
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- ^ Marr, David (1978), 'Representing visual information: a computational approach.' in Computer Vision, A. R. Hanson and E. M. Riseman (eds.) Academic Press, New York and London, pp. 61-80.
- ^ Sonesson, Göran (Revised August 2006), 'Current issues in pictorial semiotics. Lecture three: From the Critique of the Iconicity Critique to Pictorality' . Third conference of a series published online at the Semiotics Institute Online. January 2006.
- ^ Husserl, Edmund (1928), Zur Phänomenologie des inneren Zeitbewusstseins. Halle. (Republished in Husserliana X, The Hague: Nijhoff, 1966).
- ^ Husserl, Edmund (1980), Phantasie, Bildbewusstsein, Erinnerung, Husserliana XXIII. (The Hague: Nijhoff).
- ^ Bryson, Norman (1983) Vision and Painting: The Logic of The Gaz, (New Haven and London: Yale University Press).
- ^ Panofsky, Erwin (1955) Meaning in the Visual Arts (New York: Doubleday).
- ^ Mitchell, W. J. T. (1980), The Language of Images (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press).
- ^ Mitchell, W. J. T. (1986), Iconology: Image, Text, Ideology, (Chicago and London: University Of Chicago Press).
- ^ Mitchell, W. J. T. (1994), Picture Theory (Chicago and London: University Of Chicago Press).
- ^ Thomson, T. J.; Greenwood, Keith (2016-03-08). "Beyond Framing" (PDF). Journalism Practice. 0 (5): 625–644. doi:10.1080/17512786.2016.1152908. ISSN 1751-2786. S2CID 147475471.
Внешние ссылки
- Depiction & Painting