Инфаркт миокарда


Инфаркт миокарда ( ИМ ), обычно известный как сердечный приступ , происходит , когда поток крови уменьшается или прекращается к части сердца , что приводит к повреждению сердечной мышцы . [1] Наиболее частым симптомом является боль или дискомфорт в груди, которые могут переходить в плечо, руку, спину, шею или челюсть. [1] Часто это происходит в центре или на левой стороне груди и длится более нескольких минут. [1] Иногда дискомфорт может ощущаться как изжога . [1] Другие симптомы могут включать одышку., тошнота, слабость , холодный пот или чувство усталости . [1] Около 30% людей имеют атипичные симптомы. [8] Женщины чаще обращаются без боли в груди, а вместо этого имеют боль в шее, руке или чувство усталости. [11] Среди людей старше 75 лет около 5% перенесли ИМ с небольшими симптомами или без них. [12] ИМ может вызвать сердечную недостаточность , нерегулярное сердцебиение , кардиогенный шок или остановку сердца . [3] [4]

Большинство ИМ возникает из-за ишемической болезни сердца . [3] Факторы риска включают высокое кровяное давление , курение , диабет , отсутствие физических упражнений , ожирение , высокий уровень холестерина в крови , неправильное питание и чрезмерное употребление алкоголя . [5] [6] Полная блокада коронарной артерии, вызванная разрывом атеросклеротической бляшки , обычно является основным механизмом ИМ. [3] ИМ реже вызывается спазмами коронарных артерий , которые могут быть вызваны , среди прочего, кокаином , значительным эмоциональным стрессом (обычно известным как синдром Такоцубо или синдром разбитого сердца ) и сильным холодом. [13] [14] Для постановки диагноза полезен ряд тестов, включая электрокардиограмму (ЭКГ), анализы крови и коронарную ангиографию . [7] ЭКГ, которая представляет собой запись электрической активности сердца, может подтвердить ИМ с подъемом сегмента ST (ИМпST), если присутствует подъем сегмента ST . [8] [15] Обычно используемые анализы крови включают тропонин и реже креатинкиназу MB . [7]

Лечение инфаркта миокарда критично по времени. [16] Аспирин является подходящим средством немедленного лечения при подозрении на ИМ. [9] Нитроглицерин или опиоиды могут использоваться для облегчения боли в груди; однако они не улучшают общие результаты. [8] [9] Дополнительный кислород рекомендуется людям с низким уровнем кислорода или одышкой. [9] При ИМпST лечение направлено на восстановление кровотока к сердцу и включает чрескожное коронарное вмешательство (ЧКВ), при котором артерии открываются и могут быть стентированы , или тромболизис , при котором закупорка устраняется с помощью лекарств. [8] Людям с инфарктом миокарда без подъема сегмента ST (ИМбпST) часто назначают гепарин , разжижающий кровь , с дополнительным использованием ЧКВ у пациентов с высоким риском. [9] Людям с закупоркой нескольких коронарных артерий и диабетом может быть рекомендовано коронарное шунтирование (АКШ), а не ангиопластика . [17] После инфаркта миокарда обычно рекомендуется изменение образа жизни, а также длительное лечение аспирином, бета-блокаторами и статинами . [8]

В 2015 году во всем мире произошло около 15,9 миллиона инфарктов миокарда. [10] Более 3 миллионов человек имели ИМ с подъемом сегмента ST и более 4 миллионов имели ИМбпST. [18] ИМпST встречаются примерно в два раза чаще у мужчин, чем у женщин. [19] Ежегодно в США около миллиона человек страдают инфарктом миокарда. [3] В развитом мире риск смерти для тех, кто перенес ИМпST, составляет около 10%. [8] В период с 1990 по 2010 год частота ИМ для данного возраста снизилась во всем мире. [20] В 2011 году ИМ входил в пятерку самых дорогих состояний во время стационарных госпитализаций в США, стоимость лечения составила около 11,5 миллиардов долларов. 612 000 госпитализаций. [21]

Инфаркт миокарда (ИМ) относится к смерти ( инфаркту ) сердечной мышцы ( миокарда ), вызванной ишемией, то есть недостаточной доставкой кислорода к ткани миокарда. Это тип острого коронарного синдрома , который описывает внезапное или кратковременное изменение симптомов, связанных с притоком крови к сердцу. [22] В отличие от другого типа острого коронарного синдрома, нестабильной стенокардии , инфаркт миокарда возникает при гибели клеток, это можно оценить с помощью анализа крови на биомаркеры ( тропонин сердечного белка ). [23] При наличии признаков ИМ его можно классифицировать как инфаркт миокарда с подъемом сегмента ST (ИМпST) или инфаркт миокарда без подъема сегмента ST (ИМбпST) на основании результатов ЭКГ . [24]

Фраза «сердечный приступ» часто используется неспецифически для обозначения инфаркта миокарда. ИМ отличается от остановки сердца , но может вызвать ее , когда сердце не сокращается совсем или настолько плохо, что все жизненно важные органы перестают функционировать, что может привести к смерти. [25] Это также отличается от сердечной недостаточности , при которой нарушается насосное действие сердца. Однако инфаркт миокарда может привести к сердечной недостаточности. [26]

View of the back with common areas of MI coloured
Области, где при инфаркте миокарда ощущается боль, проявляются общие (темно-красные) и менее частые (светло-красные) области на груди и спине.

Боль в груди, которая может распространяться или не распространяться на другие части тела, является наиболее типичным и значительным симптомом инфаркта миокарда. Это может сопровождаться другими симптомами, такими как потоотделение. [27]

Боль

Боль в груди является наиболее частым симптомом острого инфаркта миокарда и часто описывается как ощущение стеснения, давления или сдавливания. Боль чаще всего излучается в левую руку, но может также распространяться в нижнюю челюсть, шею, правую руку, спину и верхнюю часть живота . [28] [29] Боль, наиболее характерная для острого инфаркта миокарда с самым высоким коэффициентом правдоподобия , - это боль, иррадиация в правую руку и плечо. [30] [29] Аналогично, боль в груди, похожая на предыдущий сердечный приступ, также наводит на размышления. [31] Боль, связанная с ИМ, обычно диффузная, не меняется в зависимости от положения и длится более 20 минут. [24] Это можно описать как давление, стеснение, ножевидность, раздирание, ощущение жжения (все это также проявляется при других заболеваниях). Это можно было почувствовать как необъяснимую тревогу или даже отсутствие боли. [29] Признак Левина , при котором человек локализует боль в груди, сжимая один или оба кулака над грудиной , классически считался прогностическим признаком сердечной боли в груди, хотя проспективное обсервационное исследование показало, что оно имеет плохую положительную прогностическую ценность . [32]

Как правило, боль в груди из-за ишемии, будь то нестабильная стенокардия или инфаркт миокарда, уменьшается при приеме нитроглицерина , но нитроглицерин также может облегчить боль в груди, возникающую не по сердечным причинам. [33]

Сопутствующие симптомы

Боль в груди может сопровождаться потливостью , тошнотой или рвотой, и обмороки , [24] [30] , и эти симптомы могут также возникнуть без какой - либо боли. [28] У женщин наиболее частыми симптомами инфаркта миокарда являются одышка, слабость и утомляемость . [34] Одышка является общей, а иногда и единственным симптомом, когда происходит повреждение сердца ограничивает выход из левого желудочка , с одышкой , возникающей либо из в крови низкого содержания кислорода , или отека легкихов . [28] [35] К другим менее распространенным симптомам относятся слабость, головокружение , учащенное сердцебиение и нарушения сердечного ритма или артериального давления . [16] Эти симптомы, вероятно, вызваны массивным выбросом катехоламинов из симпатической нервной системы , который возникает в ответ на боль и, если присутствует, низкое кровяное давление . [36] Потеря сознания из-за недостаточного притока крови к мозгу и кардиогенного шока , а также внезапная смерть , часто из-за развития фибрилляции желудочков , может произойти при инфаркте миокарда. [37] Остановка сердца и такие атипичные симптомы, как сердцебиение , чаще встречаются у женщин, пожилых людей, людей с диабетом, у людей, которые только что перенесли операцию, и у пациентов в критическом состоянии. [24]

Тихий инфаркт

«Тихие» инфаркты миокарда могут протекать бессимптомно. [12] Эти случаи могут быть обнаружены позже на электрокардиограмме , с помощью тестов на ферменты крови или на вскрытии после смерти человека. Такой молчащий инфаркт миокард представляет между 22 и 64% все инфарктами, [12] и более распространены в пожилых людях , [12] у пациентов с сахарным диабетом [16] и после трансплантации сердца . У людей с диабетом в качестве возможных объяснений отсутствия симптомов приводились различия в болевом пороге , вегетативной невропатии и психологических факторах. [38] При трансплантации сердца донорское сердце не полностью иннервируется нервной системой реципиента. [39]

Наиболее заметными факторами риска инфаркта миокарда являются пожилой возраст, активное курение , высокое кровяное давление , сахарный диабет , а также уровень общего холестерина и липопротеинов высокой плотности . [40] Многие факторы риска инфаркта миокарда связаны с ишемической болезнью сердца , основной причиной инфаркта миокарда, [16] с другими факторами риска, включая мужской пол, низкий уровень физической активности, семейный анамнез , ожирение и употребление алкоголя. . [16] Факторы риска заболевания миокарда часто включаются в шкалу стратификации факторов риска, например, в шкалу риска Фрамингема . [19] В любом возрасте мужчины более подвержены риску развития сердечно-сосудистых заболеваний, чем женщины. [41] Высокий уровень холестерина в крови является известным фактором риска, особенно высокий уровень липопротеинов низкой плотности, липопротеинов низкой плотности и высокий уровень триглицеридов . [42]

Многие факторы риска инфаркта миокарда потенциально поддаются изменению, наиболее важным из которых является курение табака (включая пассивное курение ). [16] Курение, по-видимому, является причиной около 36%, а ожирение - причиной 20% ишемической болезни сердца . [43] Отсутствие физической активности было связано в 7–12% случаев. [43] [44] Менее распространенные причины включают связанные со стрессом причины, такие как стресс на работе , на который приходится около 3% случаев [43], и высокий уровень хронического стресса. [45]

Диета

Существуют различные данные о важности насыщенных жиров в развитии инфаркта миокарда. Исследования показали, что употребление полиненасыщенных жиров вместо насыщенных жиров связано со снижением риска инфаркта миокарда [46], в то время как другие исследования не находят доказательств того, что сокращение потребления насыщенных жиров или увеличение потребления полиненасыщенных жиров влияет на риск сердечного приступа. [47] [48] Пищевой холестерин, по-видимому, не оказывает значительного влияния на холестерин в крови, поэтому рекомендации по его потреблению могут не потребоваться. [49] Трансжиры действительно увеличивают риск. [47] Острое и продолжительное употребление большого количества алкогольных напитков (3-4 или более в день) увеличивает риск сердечного приступа. [50]

Генетика

Семейный анамнез ишемической болезни сердца или ИМ, особенно если у кого-то есть родственник первой степени родства (отец, брат) мужского пола, перенесший инфаркт миокарда в возрасте до 55 лет, или родственница женского пола первой степени (мать, сестра) младше 65 лет. увеличивает риск ИМ. [41]

Полногеномные ассоциативные исследования обнаружили 27 генетических вариантов, которые связаны с повышенным риском инфаркта миокарда. [51] Самая сильная ассоциация MI была обнаружена с хромосомой 9 на коротком плече p в локусе 21, который содержит гены CDKN2A и 2B, хотя вовлеченные однонуклеотидные полиморфизмы находятся в некодирующей области. [51] Большинство этих вариантов находятся в регионах, которые ранее не были вовлечены в заболевание коронарной артерии. Следующие гены имеют ассоциацию с MI: PCSK9 , SORT1 , MIA3 , WDR12 , СВП , PHACTR1 , LPA , TCF21 , MTHFDSL , ZC3HC1 , CDKN2A , 2В , АВО , PDGF0 , Аполипопротеин A5 , MNF1ASM283 , COL4A1 , HHIPC1 , SMAD3 , ADAMTS7 , RAS1 , SMG6 , SNF8 , LDLR , SLC5A3 , MRPS6 , KCNE2 . [51]

Другой

Риск инфаркта миокарда увеличивается с возрастом, низкой физической активностью и низким социально-экономическим статусом . [41] Сердечные приступы чаще возникают в утренние часы, особенно с 6 утра до полудня. [52] Данные свидетельствуют о том, что сердечные приступы по крайней мере в три раза чаще происходят утром, чем поздно вечером. [53] Сменная работа также связана с более высоким риском инфаркта миокарда. [54] И один анализ показал увеличение числа сердечных приступов сразу после перехода на летнее время . [55]

У женщин, принимающих комбинированные пероральные противозачаточные таблетки , риск инфаркта миокарда несколько повышен, особенно при наличии других факторов риска. [56] Использование нестероидных противовоспалительных препаратов (НПВП) даже в течение недели увеличивает риск. [57]

Эндометриоз у женщин в возрасте до 40 лет - выявленный фактор риска. [58]

Загрязнение воздуха также является важным изменяемым риском. Кратковременное воздействие загрязнения воздуха , такие как монооксид углерода , диоксид азота и диоксид серы (но не озон ) было связанно с ИМ и другими острыми сердечно - сосудистыми событиями. [59] Для случаев внезапной сердечной смерти каждое приращение индекса стандартов загрязнителей на 30 единиц коррелировало с 8% повышением риска остановки сердца вне больницы в день воздействия. [60] Также связаны экстремальные температуры. [61]

Ряд острых и хронических инфекций, включая Chlamydophila pneumoniae , грипп , Helicobacter pylori и Porphyromonas gingivalis, среди других, были связаны с атеросклерозом и инфарктом миокарда. [62] Однако по состоянию на 2013 г. нет доказательств пользы от антибиотиков или вакцинации , что ставит эту связь под сомнение. [62] [63] Инфаркт миокарда также может возникать как позднее последствие болезни Кавасаки . [64]

Отложения кальция в коронарных артериях можно обнаружить с помощью компьютерной томографии . Кальций, обнаруженный в коронарных артериях, может предоставить прогностическую информацию помимо классических факторов риска. [65] Высокий уровень гомоцистеина в крови связан с преждевременным атеросклерозом; [66] вопрос о том, является ли повышенный уровень гомоцистеина в нормальном диапазоне причиной. [67]

У людей без явной ишемической болезни сердца возможными причинами инфаркта миокарда являются коронарный спазм или расслоение коронарной артерии . [68]

Атеросклероз

"> Воспроизвести медиа
На анимации показано, как скопление бляшек или спазм коронарной артерии могут привести к сердечному приступу, а блокирование кровотока в коронарной артерии может привести к сердечному приступу.

Наиболее частой причиной инфаркта миокарда является разрыв атеросклеротической бляшки на артерии, кровоснабжающей сердечную мышцу. [37] [69] Бляшки могут стать нестабильными, разорваться и дополнительно способствовать образованию тромба , блокирующего артерию; это может произойти за считанные минуты. Закупорка артерии может привести к гибели ткани, снабжаемой этой артерией. [70] Атеросклеротические бляшки часто присутствуют в течение десятилетий, прежде чем вызывают симптомы. [70]

Постепенное накопление холестерина и фиброзной ткани в бляшках на стенке коронарных или других артерий, обычно в течение десятилетий, называется атеросклерозом . [71] Атеросклероз характеризуется прогрессирующим воспалением стенок артерий. [70] Воспалительные клетки, особенно макрофаги , перемещаются в пораженные стенки артерий. Со временем они насыщаются продуктами холестерина, особенно ЛПНП , и становятся пенистыми клетками . А основные холестерина формы , как пенистые клетки умирают. В ответ на факторы роста, секретируемые макрофагами, гладкие мышцы и другие клетки перемещаются в бляшку и действуют, стабилизируя ее. Стабильный налет может иметь толстую фиброзную крышку с кальцификацией . Если воспаление продолжается, колпачок может быть тонким или изъязвленным. Под воздействием давления, связанного с кровотоком, бляшки, особенно с тонкой подкладкой, могут разорваться и вызвать образование сгустка крови (тромба). [70] Кристаллы холестерина были связаны с разрывом бляшек в результате механических повреждений и воспалений. [72]

Другие причины

Атеросклеротическое заболевание - не единственная причина инфаркта миокарда, оно может усугубить или способствовать возникновению других причин . Инфаркт миокарда может быть результатом сердца с ограниченным кровоснабжением и повышенным потреблением кислорода, например, при лихорадке, учащенном сердцебиении , гипертиреозе , слишком малом количестве эритроцитов в кровотоке или низком кровяном давлении . Повреждение или неудача таких процедур, как чрескожное коронарное вмешательство или шунтирование коронарной артерии, могут вызвать инфаркт миокарда. Спазм коронарных артерий, например стенокардия Принцметала, может вызвать закупорку. [24] [28]

Смерть ткани

Рисунок, показывающий инфаркт передней стенки левого желудочка

Если нарушение кровотока к сердцу длится достаточно долго, это запускает процесс, называемый ишемическим каскадом ; сердечные клетки на территории закупоренной коронарной артерии погибают ( инфаркт ), главным образом в результате некроза , и больше не отрастают. На их месте образуется коллагеновый рубец . [70] Когда артерия заблокирована, клеткам не хватает кислорода , необходимого для выработки АТФ в митохондриях . АТФ необходим для поддержания электролитного баланса, особенно через Na / K-АТФазу . Это приводит к ишемическому каскаду внутриклеточных изменений, некрозу и апоптозу пораженных клеток. [73]

Клетки в области с наихудшим кровоснабжением, чуть ниже внутренней поверхности сердца ( эндокарда ), наиболее подвержены повреждению. [74] [75] Ишемия сначала поражает эту область, субэндокардиальную область, и ткань начинает отмирать в течение 15–30 минут после потери кровоснабжения. [76] Мертвая ткань окружена зоной потенциально обратимой ишемии, которая прогрессирует до трансмурального инфаркта на всю толщину . [73] [76] Начальная «волна» инфаркта может длиться 3–4 часа. [70] [73] Эти изменения наблюдаются при макроскопической патологии и не могут быть предсказаны по наличию или отсутствию зубцов Q на ЭКГ. [75] Положение, размер и степень инфаркта зависят от пораженной артерии, общей блокады, продолжительности блокады, наличия коллатеральных кровеносных сосудов , потребности в кислороде и успеха интервенционных процедур. [28] [69]

Отмирание тканей и рубцевание миокарда изменяют нормальные проводящие пути сердца и ослабляют пораженные участки. Размер и расположение подвергают человека риску нарушения сердечного ритма (аритмий) или сердечной блокады , аневризмы желудочков сердца , воспаления сердечной стенки после инфаркта и разрыва сердечной стенки, что может иметь катастрофические последствия. [69] [77]

Повреждение миокарда также происходит при повторной перфузии. Это может проявляться в виде желудочковой аритмии. Повреждение повторной перфузии является следствием поглощения кальция и натрия сердечными клетками и высвобождения кислородных радикалов во время повторной перфузии. Феномен отсутствия оплавления - когда кровь все еще не может быть распределена по пораженному миокарду, несмотря на устранение окклюзии - также способствует повреждению миокарда. Местный отек эндотелия - один из многих факторов, способствующих этому явлению. [78]

Diagram showing the blood supply to the heart by the two major blood vessels, the left and right coronary arteries (labelled LCA and RCA). A myocardial infarction (2) has occurred with blockage of a branch of the left coronary artery (1).

Criteria

A myocardial infarction, according to current consensus, is defined by elevated cardiac biomarkers with a rising or falling trend and at least one of the following:[79]

  • Symptoms relating to ischemia
  • Changes on an electrocardiogram (ECG), such as ST segment changes, new left bundle branch block, or pathologic Q waves
  • Changes in the motion of the heart wall on imaging
  • Demonstration of a thrombus on angiogram or at autopsy.

Types

Myocardial infarctions are generally clinically classified into ST-elevation MI (STEMI) and non-ST elevation MI (NSTEMI). These are based on changes to an ECG.[24] STEMIs make up about 25–40% of myocardial infarctions.[19] A more explicit classification system, based on international consensus in 2012, also exists. This classifies myocardial infarctions into five types:[24]

  1. Spontaneous MI related to plaque erosion and/or rupture fissuring, or dissection
  2. MI related to ischemia, such as from increased oxygen demand or decreased supply, e.g. coronary artery spasm, coronary embolism, anemia, arrhythmias, high blood pressure or low blood pressure
  3. Sudden unexpected cardiac death, including cardiac arrest, where symptoms may suggest MI, an ECG may be taken with suggestive changes, or a blood clot is found in a coronary artery by angiography and/or at autopsy, but where blood samples could not be obtained, or at a time before the appearance of cardiac biomarkers in the blood
  4. Associated with coronary angioplasty or stents
    • Associated with percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI)
    • Associated with stent thrombosis as documented by angiography or at autopsy
  5. Associated with CABG
  6. Associated with spontaneous coronary artery dissection in young, fit women

Cardiac biomarkers

There are a number of different biomarkers used to determine the presence of cardiac muscle damage. Troponins, measured through a blood test, are considered to be the best,[19] and are preferred because they have greater sensitivity and specificity for measuring injury to the heart muscle than other tests.[69] A rise in troponin occurs within 2–3 hours of injury to the heart muscle, and peaks within 1–2 days. The level of the troponin, as well as a change over time, are useful in measuring and diagnosing or excluding myocardial infarctions, and the diagnostic accuracy of troponin testing is improving over time.[69] One high-sensitivity cardiac troponin is able to rule out a heart attack as long as the ECG is normal.[80][81]

Other tests, such as CK-MB or myoglobin, are discouraged.[82] CK-MB is not as specific as troponins for acute myocardial injury, and may be elevated with past cardiac surgery, inflammation or electrical cardioversion; it rises within 4–8 hours and returns to normal within 2–3 days.[28] Copeptin may be useful to rule out MI rapidly when used along with troponin.[83]

Electrocardiogram

A 12-lead ECG showing a STEMI. Elevation of the ST segment can be seen in some leads.

Electrocardiograms (ECGs) are a series of leads placed on a person's chest that measure electrical activity associated with contraction of the heart muscle.[84] The taking of an ECG is an important part in the workup of an AMI,[24] and ECGs are often not just taken once but may be repeated over minutes to hours, or in response to changes in signs or symptoms.[24]

ECG readouts product a waveform with different labelled features.[84] In addition to a rise in biomarkers, a rise in the ST segment, changes in the shape or flipping of T waves, new Q waves, or a new left bundle branch block can be used to diagnose an AMI.[24] In addition, ST elevation can be used to diagnose an ST segment myocardial infarction (STEMI). A rise must be new in V2 and V3 ≥2 mm (0,2 mV) for males or ≥1.5 mm (0.15 mV) for females or ≥1 mm (0.1 mV) in two other adjacent chest or limb leads.[19][24] ST elevation is associated with infarction, and may be preceded by changes indicating ischemia, such as ST depression or inversion of the T waves.[84] Abnormalities can help differentiate the location of an infarct, based on the leads that are affected by changes.[16] Early STEMIs may be preceded by peaked T waves.[19] Other ECG abnormalities relating to complications of acute myocardial infarctions may also be evident, such as atrial or ventricular fibrillation.[85]

ECG : AMI with ST elevation in V2-4

Imaging

Noninvasive imaging plays an important role in the diagnosis and characterisation of myocardial infarction.[24] Tests such as chest X-rays can be used to explore and exclude alternate causes of a person's symptoms.[24] Tests such as stress echocardiography and myocardial perfusion imaging can confirm a diagnosis when a person's history, physical examination (including cardiac examination) ECG, and cardiac biomarkers suggest the likelihood of a problem.[86]

Echocardiography, an ultrasound scan of the heart, is able to visualize the heart, its size, shape, and any abnormal motion of the heart walls as they beat that may indicate a myocardial infarction. The flow of blood can be imaged, and contrast dyes may be given to improve image.[24] Other scans using radioactive contrast include SPECT CT-scans using thallium, sestamibi (MIBI scans) or tetrofosmin; or a PET scan using Fludeoxyglucose or rubidium-82.[24] These nuclear medicine scans can visualize the perfusion of heart muscle.[24] SPECT may also be used to determine viability of tissue, and whether areas of ischemia are inducible.[24][87]

Medical societies and professional guidelines recommend that the physician confirm a person is at high risk for myocardial infarction before conducting imaging tests to make a diagnosis,[86][88] as such tests are unlikely to change management and result in increased costs.[86] Patients who have a normal ECG and who are able to exercise, for example, do not merit routine imaging.[86]

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    Poor movement of the heart due to an MI as seen on ultrasound[89]

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    Pulmonary edema due to an MI as seen on ultrasound[89]

  • Differential diagnosis

    There are many causes of chest pain, which can originate from the heart, lungs, gastrointestinal tract, aorta, and other muscles, bones and nerves surrounding the chest.[90] In addition to myocardial infarction, other causes include angina, insufficient blood supply (ischemia) to the heart muscles without evidence of cell death, gastroesophageal reflux disease; pulmonary embolism, tumors of the lungs, pneumonia, rib fracture, costochondritis, heart failure and other musculoskeletal injuries.[90][24] Rarer severe differential diagnoses include aortic dissection, esophageal rupture, tension pneumothorax, and pericardial effusion causing cardiac tamponade.[91] The chest pain in an MI may mimic heartburn.[37] Causes of sudden-onset breathlessness generally involve the lungs or heart – including pulmonary edema, pneumonia, allergic reactions and asthma, and pulmonary embolus, acute respiratory distress syndrome and metabolic acidosis.[90] There are many different causes of fatigue, and myocardial infarction is not a common cause.[92]

    There is a large crossover between the lifestyle and activity recommendations to prevent a myocardial infarction, and those that may be adopted as secondary prevention after an initial myocardial infarction,[69] because of shared risk factors and an aim to reduce atherosclerosis affecting heart vessels.[28] The influenza vaccine also appear to protect against myocardial infarction with a benefit of 15 to 45%.[93]

    Primary prevention

    Lifestyle

    Physical activity can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease, and people at risk are advised to engage in 150 minutes of moderate or 75 minutes of vigorous-intensity aerobic exercise a week.[94] Keeping a healthy weight, drinking alcohol within the recommended limits, and quitting smoking reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.[94]

    Substituting polyunsaturated fats such as olive oil and rapeseed oil instead of saturated fats may reduce the risk of myocardial infarction,[46] although there is not universal agreement.[47] Dietary modifications are recommended by some national authorities, with recommendations including increasing the intake of wholegrain starch, reducing sugar intake (particularly of refined sugar), consuming five portions of fruit and vegetables daily, consuming two or more portions of fish per week, and consuming 4–5 portions of unsalted nuts, seeds, or legumes per week.[94] The dietary pattern with the greatest support is the Mediterranean diet.[95] Vitamins and mineral supplements are of no proven benefit,[96] and neither are plant stanols or sterols.[94]

    Public health measures may also act at a population level to reduce the risk of myocardial infarction, for example by reducing unhealthy diets (excessive salt, saturated fat and trans fat) including food labeling and marketing requirements as well as requirements for catering and restaurants, and stimulating physical activity. This may be part of regional cardiovascular disease prevention programs, or through the health impact assessment of regional and local plans and policies.[97]

    Most guidelines recommend combining different preventive strategies. A 2015 Cochrane Review found some evidence that such an approach might help with blood pressure, body mass index and waist circumference. However, there was insufficient evidence to show an effect on mortality or actual cardio-vascular events.[98]

    Medication

    Statins, drugs that act to lower blood cholesterol, decrease the incidence and mortality rates of myocardial infarctions.[99] They are often recommended in those at an elevated risk of cardiovascular diseases.[94]

    Aspirin has been studied extensively in people considered at increased risk of myocardial infarction. Based on numerous studies in different groups (e.g. people with or without diabetes), there does not appear to be a benefit strong enough to outweigh the risk of excessive bleeding.[100][101] Nevertheless, many clinical practice guidelines continue to recommend aspirin for primary prevention,[102] and some researchers feel that those with very high cardiovascular risk but low risk of bleeding should continue to receive aspirin.[103]

    Secondary prevention

    There is a large crossover between the lifestyle and activity recommendations to prevent a myocardial infarction, and those that may be adopted as secondary prevention after an initial myocardial infarct.[69] Recommendations include stopping smoking, a gradual return to exercise, eating a healthy diet, low in saturated fat and low in cholesterol, and drinking alcohol within recommended limits, exercising, and trying to achieve a healthy weight.[69][104] Exercise is both safe and effective even if people have had stents or heart failure,[105] and is recommended to start gradually after 1–2 weeks.[69] Counselling should be provided relating to medications used, and for warning signs of depression.[69] Previous studies suggested a benefit from omega-3 fatty acid supplementation but this has not been confirmed.[104]

    Medications

    Following a heart attack, nitrates, when taken for two days, and ACE-inhibitors decrease the risk of death.[106] Other medications include:

    Aspirin is continued indefinitely, as well as another antiplatelet agent such as clopidogrel or ticagrelor ("dual antiplatelet therapy" or DAPT) for up to twelve months.[104] If someone has another medical condition that requires anticoagulation (e.g. with warfarin) this may need to be adjusted based on risk of further cardiac events as well as bleeding risk.[104] In those who have had a stent, more than 12 months of clopidogrel plus aspirin does not affect the risk of death.[107]

    Beta blocker therapy such as metoprolol or carvedilol is recommended to be started within 24 hours, provided there is no acute heart failure or heart block.[19][82] The dose should be increased to the highest tolerated.[104] Contrary to what was long believed, the use of beta blockers does not appear to affect the risk of death, possibly because other treatments for MI have improved.[108] When beta blocker medication is given within the first 24–72 hours of a STEMI no lives are saved. However, 1 in 200 people were prevented from a repeat heart attack, and another 1 in 200 from having an abnormal heart rhythm. Additionally, for 1 in 91 the medication causes a temporary decrease in the heart's ability to pump blood.[109]

    ACE inhibitor therapy should be started within 24 hours, and continued indefinitely at the highest tolerated dose. This is provided there is no evidence of worsening kidney failure, high potassium, low blood pressure, or known narrowing of the renal arteries.[69] Those who cannot tolerate ACE inhibitors may be treated with an angiotensin II receptor antagonist.[104]

    Statin therapy has been shown to reduce mortality and subsequent cardiac events and should be commenced with the aim of lowering LDL cholesterol. Other medications, such as ezetimibe, may also be added with this goal in mind.[69]

    Aldosterone antagonists (spironolactone or eplerenone) may be used if there is evidence of left ventricular dysfunction after an MI, ideally after beginning treatment with an ACE inhibitor.[104][110]

    Other

    A defibrillator, an electric device connected to the heart and surgically inserted under the skin, may be recommended. This is particularly if there are any ongoing signs of heart failure, with a low left ventricular ejection fraction and a New York Heart Association grade II or III after 40 days of the infarction.[69] Defibrillators detect potentially fatal arrhythmia and deliver an electrical shock to the person to depolarize a critical mass of the heart muscle.[111]

    A myocardial infarction requires immediate medical attention. Treatment aims to preserve as much heart muscle as possible, and to prevent further complications.[28] Treatment depends on whether the myocardial infarction is a STEMI or NSTEMI.[69] Treatment in general aims to unblock blood vessels, reduce blot clot enlargement, reduce ischemia, and modify risk factors with the aim of preventing future MIs.[28] In addition, the main treatment for myocardial infarctions with ECG evidence of ST elevation (STEMI) include thrombolysis or percutaneous coronary intervention, although PCI is also ideally conducted within 1–3 days for NSTEMI.[69] In addition to clinical judgement, risk stratification may be used to guide treatment, such as with the TIMI and GRACE scoring systems.[16][69][112]

    Pain

    The pain associated with myocardial infarction may be treated with nitroglycerin or morphine.[28] Nitroglycerin (given under the tongue or intravenously) may improve the blood supply to the heart, and decrease the work the heart must do.[28] It is an important part of therapy for its pain relief, despite there being no benefit to overall mortality.[28][113] Morphine may also be used, and is effective for the pain associated with STEMI.[28] The evidence for benefit from morphine on overall outcomes, however, is poor and there is some evidence of potential harm.[114][115]

    Antithrombotics

    Aspirin, an antiplatelet drug, is given as a loading dose with the goal of reducing the clot size and reduce further clotting in the affected artery.[28][69] It is known to decrease mortality associated with acute myocardial infarction by at least 50%.[69] P2Y12 inhibitors such as clopidogrel, prasugrel and ticagrelor are given concurrently, also as a loading dose, with the dose depending on whether further surgical management or fibrinolysis is planned.[69] Prasugrel and ticagrelor are recommended in European and American guidelines, as they are active more quickly and consistently than clopidogrel.[69] P2Y12 inhibitors are recommended in both NSTEMI and STEMI, including in PCI, with evidence also to suggest improved mortality.[69] Heparins, particularly in the unfractionated form, act at several points in the clotting cascade, help to prevent the enlargement of a clot, and are also given in myocardial infarction, owing to evidence suggesting improved mortality rates.[69] In very high-risk scenarios, inhibitors of the platelet glycoprotein αIIbβ3a receptor such as eptifibatide or tirofiban may be used.[69]

    There is varying evidence on the mortality benefits in NSTEMI. A 2014 review of P2Y12 inhibitors such as clopidogrel found they do not change the risk of death when given to people with a suspected NSTEMI prior to PCI,[116] nor do heparins change the risk of death.[117] They do decrease the risk of having a further myocardial infarction.[69][117]

    Inserting a stent to widen the artery.

    Angiogram

    Primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) is the treatment of choice for STEMI if it can be performed in a timely manner, ideally within 90–120 minutes of contact with a medical provider.[69][118] Some recommend it is also done in NSTEMI within 1–3 days, particularly when considered high-risk.[69] A 2017 review, however, did not find a difference between early versus later PCI in NSTEMI.[119]

    PCI involves small probes, inserted through peripheral blood vessels such as the femoral artery or radial artery into the blood vessels of the heart. The probes are then used to identify and clear blockages using small balloons, which are dragged through the blocked segment, dragging away the clot, or the insertion of stents.[28][69] Coronary artery bypass grafting is only considered when the affected area of heart muscle is large, and PCI is unsuitable, for example with difficult cardiac anatomy.[120] After PCI, people are generally placed on aspirin indefinitely and on dual antiplatelet therapy (generally aspirin and clopidogrel) for at least a year.[19][69][121]

    Fibrinolysis

    If PCI cannot be performed within 90 to 120 minutes in STEMI then fibrinolysis, preferably within 30 minutes of arrival to hospital, is recommended.[69][122] If a person has had symptoms for 12 to 24 hours evidence for effectiveness of thrombolysis is less and if they have had symptoms for more than 24 hours it is not recommended.[123] Thrombolysis involves the administration of medication that activates the enzymes that normally dissolve blood clots. These medications include tissue plasminogen activator, reteplase, streptokinase, and tenecteplase.[28] Thrombolysis is not recommended in a number of situations, particularly when associated with a high risk of bleeding or the potential for problematic bleeding, such as active bleeding, past strokes or bleeds into the brain, or severe hypertension. Situations in which thrombolysis may be considered, but with caution, include recent surgery, use of anticoagulants, pregnancy, and proclivity to bleeding.[28] Major risks of thrombolysis are major bleeding and intracranial bleeding.[28] Pre-hospital thrombolysis reduces time to thrombolytic treatment, based on studies conducted in higher income countries, however it is unclear whether this has an impact on mortality rates.[124]

    Other

    In the past, high flow oxygen was recommended for everyone with a possible myocardial infarction.[82] More recently, no evidence was found for routine use in those with normal oxygen levels and there is potential harm from the intervention.[125][126][127][128][129] Therefore, oxygen is currently only recommended if oxygen levels are found to be low or if someone is in respiratory distress.[28][82]

    If despite thrombolysis there is significant cardiogenic shock, continued severe chest pain, or less than a 50% improvement in ST elevation on the ECG recording after 90 minutes, then rescue PCI is indicated emergently.[130][131]

    Those who have had cardiac arrest may benefit from targeted temperature management with evaluation for implementation of hypothermia protocols. Furthermore, those with cardiac arrest, and ST elevation at any time, should usually have angiography.[19] Aldosterone antagonists appear to be useful in people who have had an STEMI and do not have heart failure.[132]

    Rehabilitation

    Cardiac rehabilitation benefits many who have experienced myocardial infarction,[69] even if there has been substantial heart damage and resultant left ventricular failure. It should start soon after discharge from the hospital. The program may include lifestyle advice, exercise, social support, as well as recommendations about driving, flying, sports participation, stress management, and sexual intercourse.[104] Returning to sexual activity after myocardial infarction is a major concern for most patients, and is an important area to be discussed in the provision of holistic care.[133][134]

    Exercise-based cardiovascular rehabilitation programs reduce cardiovascular mortality and subsequent hospitalization.[135]

    The prognosis after myocardial infarction varies greatly depending on the extent and location of the affected heart muscle, and the development and management of complications.[16] Prognosis is worse with older age and social isolation.[16] Anterior infarcts, persistent ventricular tachycardia or fibrillation, development of heart blocks, and left ventricular impairment are all associated with poorer prognosis.[16] Without treatment, about a quarter of those affected by MI die within minutes, and about forty percent within the first month.[16] Morbidity and mortality from myocardial infarction has however improved over the years due to earlier and better treatment:[30] in those who have an STEMI in the United States, between 5 and 6 percent die before leaving the hospital and 7 to 18 percent die within a year.[19]

    It is unusual for babies to experience a myocardial infarction, but when they do, about half die.[136] In the short-term, neonatal survivors seem to have a normal quality of life.[136]

    Complications

    Complications may occur immediately following the myocardial infarction or may take time to develop. Disturbances of heart rhythms, including atrial fibrillation, ventricular tachycardia and fibrillation and heart block can arise as a result of ischemia, cardiac scarring, and infarct location.[16][69] Stroke is also a risk, either as a result of clots transmitted from the heart during PCI, as a result of bleeding following anticoagulation or as a result of disturbances in the heart's ability to pump effectively as a result of the infarction.[69] Regurgitation of blood through the mitral valve is possible, particularly if the infarction causes dysfunction of the papillary muscle.[69] Cardiogenic shock as a result of the heart being unable to adequately pump blood may develop, dependent on infarct size, and is most likely to occur within the days following an acute myocardial infarction. Cardiogenic shock is the largest cause of in-hospital mortality.[30][69] Rupture of the ventricular dividing wall or left ventricular wall may occur within the initial weeks.[69] Dressler's syndrome, a reaction following larger infarcts and a cause of pericarditis is also possible.[69]

    Heart failure may develop as a long-term consequence, with an impaired ability of heart muscle to pump, scarring, and increase in the size of the existing muscle. Aneurysm of the left ventricle myocardium develops in about 10% of MI and is itself a risk factor for heart failure, ventricular arrhythmia and the development of clots.[16]

    Risk factors for complications and death include age, hemodynamic parameters (such as heart failure, cardiac arrest on admission, systolic blood pressure, or Killip class of two or greater), ST-segment deviation, diabetes, serum creatinine, peripheral vascular disease, and elevation of cardiac markers.[137][138][139]

    Myocardial infarction is a common presentation of coronary artery disease. The World Health Organization estimated in 2004, that 12.2% of worldwide deaths were from ischemic heart disease;[140] with it being the leading cause of death in high- or middle-income countries and second only to lower respiratory infections in lower-income countries.[140] Worldwide, more than 3 million people have STEMIs and 4 million have NSTEMIs a year.[18] STEMIs occur about twice as often in men as women.[19]

    Rates of death from ischemic heart disease (IHD) have slowed or declined in most high-income countries, although cardiovascular disease still accounted for one in three of all deaths in the US in 2008.[141] For example, rates of death from cardiovascular disease have decreased almost a third between 2001 and 2011 in the United States.[142]

    In contrast, IHD is becoming a more common cause of death in the developing world. For example, in India, IHD had become the leading cause of death by 2004, accounting for 1.46 million deaths (14% of total deaths) and deaths due to IHD were expected to double during 1985–2015.[143] Globally, disability adjusted life years (DALYs) lost to ischemic heart disease are predicted to account for 5.5% of total DALYs in 2030, making it the second-most-important cause of disability (after unipolar depressive disorder), as well as the leading cause of death by this date.[140]

    Social determinants such as neighborhood disadvantage, immigration status, lack of social support, social isolation, access to health services play an important role in myocardial infarction risk and survival.[144][145][146][147] Studies have shown that low socioeconomic status is associated with an increased risk of poorer survival. There are well-documented disparities in myocardial infarction survival by socioeconomic status, race, education, and census-tract-level poverty.[148]

    Race: In the U.S. African Americans have a greater burden of myocardial infarction and other cardiovascular events. On a population level, there is a higher overall prevalence of risk factors that are unrecognized and therefore not treated, which places these individuals at a greater likelihood of experiencing adverse outcomes and therefore potentially higher morbidity and mortality.[149]

    Socioeconomic status: Among individuals who live in the low-socioeconomic (SES) areas, which is close to 25% of the US population, myocardial infarctions (MIs) occurred twice as often compared with people who lived in higher SES areas.[150]

    Immigration status: In 2018 many lawfully present immigrants who are eligible for coverage remain uninsured because immigrant families face a range of enrollment barriers, including fear, confusion about eligibility policies, difficulty navigating the enrollment process, and language and literacy challenges. Uninsured undocumented immigrants are ineligible for coverage options due to their immigration status.[151]

    Health care access: Lack of health insurance and financial concerns about accessing care were associated with delays in seeking emergency care for acute myocardial infarction which can have significant, adverse consequences on patient outcomes.[152]

    Education: Researchers found that compared to people with graduate degrees, those with lower educational attainment appeared to have a higher risk of heart attack, dying from a cardiovascular event, and overall death.[153]

    Depictions of heart attacks in popular media often include collapsing or loss of consciousness which are not common symptoms; these depictions contribute to widespread misunderstanding about the symptoms of myocardial infarctions, which in turn contributes to people not getting care when they should.[154]

    Legal implications

    At common law, in general, a myocardial infarction is a disease, but may sometimes be an injury. This can create coverage issues in the administration of no-fault insurance schemes such as workers' compensation. In general, a heart attack is not covered;[155] however, it may be a work-related injury if it results, for example, from unusual emotional stress or unusual exertion.[156] In addition, in some jurisdictions, heart attacks suffered by persons in particular occupations such as police officers may be classified as line-of-duty injuries by statute or policy. In some countries or states, a person having suffered from an MI may be prevented from participating in activity that puts other people's lives at risk, for example driving a car or flying an airplane.[157]

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