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Франсуа Рабле ( Великобритания : / г æ б ə л / БОА -ə-скрутки , США : / ˌ г æ б ə л / -⁠ LAY , [2] [3] Французский:  [fʁɑswa ʁablɛ] ; родился между 1483 и 1494; умер 1553) был французским писателем эпохи Возрождения , врачом, гуманистом эпохи Возрождения , монахом и греческим ученым. Он прежде всего известен как автор сатиры, гротеска, похабных шуток и песен.

Церковный и антиклерикальный , христианский, которого некоторые считают вольнодумцем , врачом и имеющим образ "bon vivant", множество аспектов его личности иногда кажутся противоречивыми. Захваченный религиозными и политическими потрясениями Реформации , Рабле проявил как чуткость, так и критичность по отношению к великим вопросам своего времени. Впоследствии взгляды на его жизнь и творчество эволюционировали в соответствии со временем и течением мысли.

Поклонник Эразма , работающий с пародией и сатирой, Рабле борется за терпимость, мир, евангельскую веру и возвращение к знаниям древнего греко-римского , за пределами «готической тьмы», характерной для средневековья , принимая тезисы Платона, чтобы противостоять крайностям аристотелизма . Он атакует злоупотребления со стороны князей и людей Церкви и противостоит им, с одной стороны, евангелической гуманистической мысли, а с другой - массовой культуре, непристойной, «шутливой», отмеченной вкусом вина и игр, тем самым проявляя скромная и открытая христианская вера , далекая от церковного веса. Он поделился с протестантизмомкритика схоластики и монашества , но религиозный реформатор Жан Кальвин также напал на него в 1550 году.

Из-за его литературной силы и исторической важности западные литературные критики считают его одним из великих писателей мировой литературы и одним из создателей современной европейской письменности. [4] Его самые известные работы - Гаргантюа и Пантагрюэль , сказки с их гигантскими персонажами, героико-комические пародии, рыцарские эпосы и романы , но которые также являются прообразом реалистического, сатирического и философского романа , считаются одной из первых форм. современного романа.

Его литературное наследие таково, что слово раблезианское было придумано как описательное, вдохновленное его работой и жизнью. Мерриам-Вебстер определяет это слово как описание кого-то или чего-то, что «отмечено грубым здравым юмором, экстравагантностью карикатуры или смелым натурализмом». [5]

Биография [ править ]

Никаких надежных документов о месте или дате рождения Франсуа Рабле не сохранилось. Хотя некоторые ученые называют дату 1483 годом, он, вероятно, родился в ноябре 1494 года недалеко от Шинона в провинции Турень , где его отец работал юристом. [6] [7] В поместье Ла Девиньер в Сёйи в современном Эндр-и-Луаре , предположительно на родине писателя, находится музей Рабле.

Рабле стал послушником в францисканский порядке , а позже монахом в Фонтене-ле-Конт в Пуату , где он изучал греческий и латынь , а также науки, филология , и закон, уже став известным и уважаемым гуманистами его эпохи, в том числе Гийом Буде (1467–1540). Оскорблен из-за направления его исследований и разочарован запретом францисканского ордена на изучение греческого языка (из-за комментария Эразма к греческой версии Евангелия от Святого Луки ), [8] : 11Рабле обратился к Папе Клименту VII (в должности 1523–1534 гг.) И получил разрешение покинуть францисканцев и войти в орден бенедиктинцев в Майлезе в Пуату , где его приняли более тепло. [9]

Дом Франсуа Рабле в Меце

Позже он покинул монастырь, чтобы изучать медицину в университетах Пуатье и Монпелье . В 1532 году он переехал в Лион , один из интеллектуальных центров Возрождения, а в 1534 году начал работать врачом в Hôtel-Dieu de Lyon (больнице), за которую он зарабатывал 40 ливров в год. Во время своего пребывания в Лионе он редактировал латинские произведения для печатника Себастьяна Грифиуса и написал знаменитое восхищенное письмо Эразму, сопровождающее передачу греческой рукописи из печатника. Грифиус опубликовал переводы Рабле и аннотации Гиппократа , Галена иДжованни Манардо . Как врач, он использовал свое свободное время для написания и публикации юмористических брошюр, критикующих установленную власть и озабоченных образовательными и монашескими нравами того времени. [8] : 13–15

В 1532 году под псевдонимом Алькофрибас Насье ( анаграмма Франсуа Рабле) он опубликовал свою первую книгу « Пантагрюэль, король дипсодов» , первую из его серии о Гаргантюа . Идея основать аллегорию на жизнях гигантов пришла к Рабле из фольклорной легенды о Les Grandes chroniques du grand et énorme géant Gargantua , которые в то время продавались как популярная литература в виде недорогих брошюр на ярмарках и на ярмарках. Лиона. [8] : 13Пантагрюэлизм - это философия «есть, пить и веселиться», которая привела его книги в немилость церкви, но одновременно принесла им популярный успех и восхищение более поздних критиков за их внимание к телу. Эта первая книга, критикующая существующую монашескую и образовательную систему, содержит первое известное появление на французском языке слов encyclopédie , caballe , progrès и utopie среди других. [10] [11] Несмотря на популярность книги, и она, и последующий приквел (1534 г.) о жизни и подвигах отца Пантагрюэля Гаргантюа были осуждены Сорбонной в 1543 г. и Римско-католической церковью.в 1545. [12] : 111–15, 128–32 Рабле преподавал медицину в Монпелье в 1534 году и снова в 1539 году. В 1537 году Рабле давал урок анатомии в Лионе Отель-Дье, используя труп повешенного; [8] : xvii Этьен Доле , с которым Рабле был близок в то время, писал об этих уроках анатомии в своей « Кармине» . [13] : 247

Рабле часто ездил в Рим со своим другом и терпеливым кардиналом Жаном дю Белле и недолго жил в Турине (1540–1540 гг.) В составе семьи брата дю Белле, Гийома . Рабле также провел некоторое время, лежа на дне, под периодической угрозой осуждения за ересь в зависимости от состояния здоровья его различных защитников. Только защита дю Белле спасла Рабле после осуждения его романа Сорбонной . : xix-xx В июне 1543 года Рабле стал магистром запросов . [14]

Между 1545 и 1547 годами Франсуа Рабле жил в Меце , в то время свободном имперском городе и республике, чтобы избежать осуждения со стороны Парижского университета . В 1547 году он стал кюре из Сен-Кристоф-дю-Jambet в штате Мэн и Медоне близ Парижа.

При поддержке членов известной семьи дю Белле Рабле получил одобрение короля Франциска I на продолжение публикации своего собрания. Однако после смерти короля в 1547 году академическая элита осудила Рабле, и французский парламент приостановил продажу его четвертой книги ( Le Quart Livre ), опубликованной в 1552 году. [8] : xx [15]

Рабле ушел из духовенства в январе 1553 г. и умер в Париже в конце того же года. [1] [8] : xx – xxi : xix-xx

Романы [ править ]

Гаргантюа и Пантагрюэль [ править ]

Иллюстрация к Гаргантюа и Пантагрюэль по Гюстава Доре .
Иллюстрация Гюстава Доре к Гаргантюа и Пантагрюэль .

Гаргантюа и Пантагрюэль рассказывают о приключениях Гаргантюа и его сына Пантагрюэля. Рассказы авантюрные и эрудированные, праздничные и грубые, вселенские и редко - если вообще - торжественные надолго. Первой книгой в хронологическом порядке был « Пантагрюэль»: «Король дипсодов и Гаргантюа», упомянутый в прологе, относится не к собственному творчеству Рабле, а к сборникам рассказов, которые продавались на лионских ярмарках в начале 1530-х годов. [16] : 297, 300 В первой главе самой ранней книги происхождение Пантагрюэля перечислено на 60 поколений назад до гиганта по имени Халброт. Рассказчик отвергает скептиков того времени, которые могли бы подумать, что гигант слишком велик для Ноева ковчега.—stating that Hurtaly (the giant reigning during the flood and a great fan of soup) simply rode the Ark like a kid on a rocking horse, or like a fat Swiss guy on a cannon.[16]:508–14

In the Prologue to Gargantua the narrator addresses the  : "Most illustrious drinkers, and you the most precious pox-ridden—for to you and you alone are my writings dedicated ..." before turning to Plato's Banquet.[16]:50 An unprecedented syphilis epidemic had raged through Europe for over 30 years when the book was published,[17] even the king of France was reputed to have been infected. Etion was the first giant in Pantagruel's list of ancestors to suffer from the disease.[16]:510

Although most chapters are humorous, wildly fantastic and frequently absurd, a few relatively serious passages have become famous for expressing humanistic ideals of the time. In particular, the chapters on Gargantua's boyhood and Gargantua's paternal letter to Pantagruel[18]:192–96 present a quite detailed vision of education.

Thélème[edit]

In the second novel, Gargantua, M. Alcofribas narrates the Abbey of Thélème, built by the giant Gargantua. It differs markedly from the monastic norm, as the abbey is open to both monks and nuns and has a swimming pool, maid service, and no clocks in sight. Only the good-looking are permitted to enter.[16]:268–69 The inscription on the gate to the abbey first sets out who is unwelcome: hypocrites, bigots, the pox-ridden, Goths, Magoths, straw-chewing law clerks, usurious grinches, old or officious judges, and burners of heretics.[16]:272 When the members are defined positively, the text becomes more inviting:

Honour, praise, distraction
Herein lies subtraction
in the tuning up of joy.
To healthy bodies so employed
Do pass on this reaction:
Honour, praise, distraction[16]:274

Titlepage of a 1571 edition containing the last three books of Pantagruel: Le Tiers Livre des Faits & Dits Heroïques du Bon Pantagruel (The Third Book of the True and Reputed Heroic Deeds of the Noble Pantagruel)

The Thélèmites in the abbey live according to a single rule:

All their life was regulated not by laws, statutes, or rules, but according to their free will and pleasure. They rose from bed when they pleased, and drank, ate, worked, and slept when the fancy seized them. Nobody woke them; nobody compelled them either to eat or to drink, or to do anything else whatever. So it was that Gargantua had established it. In their rules there was only one clause:

DO WHAT YOU WILL

because people who are free, well-born, well-bred, and easy in honest company have a natural spur and instinct which drives them to virtuous deeds and deflects them from vice; and this they called honour. When these same men are depressed and enslaved by vile constraint and subjection, they use this noble quality which once impelled them freely towards virtue, to throw off and break this yoke of slavery. For we always strive after things forbidden and covet what is denied us.[18]:159

The Third Book[edit]

Published in 1546 under his own name with the privilège granted by Francis I for the first edition and by Henri II for the 1552 edition, The Third Book was condemned by the Sorbonne, like the previous tomes. In it, Rabelais revisited discussions he had had while working as a secretary to Geoffroy d'Estissac earlier in Poitiers, where la querelle des femmes had been a lively subject of debate.[8]:xix More recent exchanges with Marguerite de Navarre—possibly about the question of clandestine marriage and the Book of Tobit whose canonical status was being debated at the Council of Trent—led Rabelais to dedicate the book to her before she wrote the Heptameron. In the dedication, it has been suggested he was encouraging her to turn from spiritual poetry to more embodied stories.[19]

In contrast to the two preceding chronicles, the dialogue between the characters is much more developed than the plot elements in the third book. In particular, the central question of the book, which Panurge and Pantagruel consider from multiple points of view, is an abstract one: whether Panurge should marry or not. Torn between the desire for a woman and the fear of being cuckolded, Panurge engages in divinatory methods, like dream interpretation and bibliomancy. He consults authorities vested with revealed knowledge, like the sibyl of Panzoust or the mute Nazdecabre, profane acquaintances, like the theologian Hippothadée or the philosopher Trouillogan, and even the jester Triboulet. It is likely that several of the characters refer to real people: Abel Lefranc argues that Hippothadée was Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples,[20] Rondibilis was the doctor Guillaume Rondelet, the esoteric Her Trippa corresponds to Cornelius Agrippa.[21] One of the comic features of the story is the contradictory interpretations Pantagruel and Panurge get embroiled in, the first of which being the paradoxical encomium of debts in chapter III.[22] The Third Book, deeply indebted to In Praise of Folly, contains the first-known attestation of the word paradoxe in French.[13]

The more reflective tone shows the characters' evolution from the earlier tomes. Here Panurge is not as crafty as Pantagruel and is stubborn in his will to turn every sign to his advantage, refusing to listen to advice he had himself sought out. For example, when Her Trippa reads dark omens in his future marriage, Panurge accuses him of the same blind self-love (philautie) from which he seems to suffer. His erudition is more often put to work for pedantry than let to settle into wisdom. By contrast, Pantagruel's speech has gained in weightiness by the third book, the exuberance of the young giant having faded.[23]

At the end of the Third Book, the protagonists decide to set sail in search of a discussion with the Oracle of the Divine Bottle. The last chapters are focused on the praise of the Pantagruelion (hemp)—a plant used in the 16th century for both the hangman's rope and medicinal purposes—being copiously loaded onto the ships.[24] As a naturalist inspired by Pliny the Elder and Charles Estienne, the narrator intercedes in the story, first describing the plant in great detail, then waxing lyrical on its various qualities.[25]

The Fourth Book[edit]

A first draft edition of The Fourth Book appeared in 1548 containing eleven chapters and many typos. The slipshod nature of this first edition made the circumstances of its publication mysterious, especially for a controversial author. While the prologue denounces slanderers, the story that follows did not raise any polemical issues. Already it contained some of the best-known episodes, including the storm at sea and Panurge's sheep. It was framed as an erratic odyssey,[26] inspired both by the Argonauts and the news of Jacques Cartier's voyage to Canada.[27]

Use of language[edit]

The French Renaissance was a time of linguistic contact and debate. The first book of French, rather than Latin, grammar was published in 1530,[28] followed nine years later by the language's first dictionary.[29] Spelling was far less codified back then. Rabelais, as an educated reader of the day, preferred etymological spelling, preserved clues to the lineage of words, to more phonetic spellings which wash those traces away.

Rabelais' use of Latin, Greek, regional and dialectal terms, creative calquing, gloss, neologism and mis-translation was the fruit of the printing press having been invented less than a hundred years earlier. A doctor by trade, Rabelais was a prolific reader, who wrote a great deal about bodies and all they excrete or ingest. His fictional works are filled with multilingual, often sexual, puns, absurd creatures, bawdy songs and lists. Words and metaphors from Rabelais abound in modern French and some words have found their way into English, through Thomas Urquhart's unfinished 1693 translation, completed and considerably augmented by Peter Anthony Motteux by 1708.

Scholarly views[edit]

Most scholars today agree that Rabelais wrote from a perspective of Christian humanism.[30][page needed] This has not always been the case. Abel Lefranc, in his 1922 introduction to Pantagruel, depicted Rabelais as a militant anti-Christian atheist.[31][page needed] On the contrary, M. A. Screech, like Lucien Febvre before him,[9]:329–60 describes Rabelais as an Erasmian.[32] While formally a Roman Catholic, Rabelais was an adherent of Renaissance humanism, which meant that he favoured classical Antiquity over the "barbarous" Middle Ages and believed in the need of reform to bring science and arts to their classical flourishing and theology and the Church to their original Evangelical form as expressed in the Gospels.[33] In particular, he was critical of monasticism. Rabelais criticised what he considered to be inauthentic Christian positions by both Catholics and Protestants, and was attacked and portrayed as a threat to religion or even an atheist by both. For example, "at the request of Catholic theologians, all four Pantagrueline chronicles were censured by either the Sorbonne, Parliament, or both".[34] On the opposite end of the spectrum, John Calvin saw Rabelais as a representative of the numerous moderate evangelical humanists who, while "critical of contemporary Catholic institutions, doctrines, and conduct", did not go far enough; in addition, Calvin considered Rabelais' apparent mocking tone to be especially dangerous, since it could be easily misinterpreted as a rejection of the sacred truths themselves.[35]

Timothy Hampton writes that "to a degree unequaled by the case of any other writer from the European Renaissance, the reception of Rabelais's work has involved dispute, critical disagreement, and ... scholarly wrangling ..."[36][page needed] In particular, as pointed out by Bruno Braunrot, the traditional view of Rabelais as a humanist has been challenged by early post-structuralist analyses denying a single consistent ideological message of his text, and to some extent earlier by Marxist critiques such as Mikhail Bakhtin with his emphasis on the subversive folk roots of Rabelais' humour in medieval "carnival" culture. At present, however, "whatever controversy still surrounds Rabelais studies can be found above all in the application of feminist theories to Rabelais criticism", as he is alternately considered a misogynist or a feminist based on different episodes in his works.[37]

Citing Jean de La Bruyère, the Catholic Encyclopedia of 1911 declared that Rabelais was

... a revolutionary who attacked all the past, Scholasticism, the monks; his religion is scarcely more than that of a spiritually minded pagan. Less bold in political matters, he cared little for liberty; his ideal was a tyrant who loves peace. [...] His vocabulary is rich and picturesque, but licentious and filthy. In short, as La Bruyère says: "His book is a riddle which may be considered inexplicable. Where it is bad, it is beyond the worst; it has the charm of the rabble; where it is good it is excellent and exquisite; it may be the daintiest of dishes." As a whole it exercises a baneful influence.[38]

In literature[edit]

In his 1759-1767 novel Tristram Shandy, Laurence Sterne quotes extensively from Rabelais.[39]

Alfred Jarry performed, from memory, hymns of Rabelais at Symbolist Rachilde's Tuesday salons. Jarry worked for years on an unfinished libretto for an opera by Claude Terrasse based on Pantagruel.[40]

Anatole France lectured on him in Argentina. John Cowper Powys, D. B. Wyndham-Lewis, and Lucien Febvre (one of the founders of the French historical school Annales), all wrote books about him.

James Joyce included an allusion to "Master Francois somebody" in his 1922 novel Ulysses.[a][41]

Mikhail Bakhtin, a Russian philosopher and critic, derived his concepts of the carnivalesque and grotesque body from the world of Rabelais. He points to the historical loss of communal spirit after the Medieval period and speaks of carnival laughter as an "expression of social consciousness".[4]:92

Aldous Huxley admired Rabelais' work. Writing in 1929, he praised Rabelais, stating "Rabelais loved the bowels which Swift so malignantly hated. His was the true amor fati : he accepted reality in its entirety, accepted with gratitude and delight this amazingly improbable world."[42]

George Orwell was not an admirer of Rabelais. Writing in 1940, he called him "an exceptionally perverse, morbid writer, a case for psychoanalysis".[43]

Milan Kundera, in a 2007 article in The New Yorker, commented on a list of the most notable works of French literature, noting with surprise and indignation that Rabelais was placed behind Charles de Gaulle's war memoirs, and was denied the "aura of a founding figure! Yet in the eyes of nearly every great novelist of our time he is, along with Cervantes, the founder of an entire art, the art of the novel".[44]

Rabelais is treated as a pivotal figure in Kenzaburō Ōe's 1994 acceptance speech for the Nobel Prize in Literature.[45]

Honours, tributes and legacy[edit]

Bust of Rabelais in Meudon, where he served as Curé
Monument to Rabelais at Montpellier's Jardin des Plantes
  • The public university in Tours, France is named Université François Rabelais.
  • Honoré de Balzac was inspired by the works of Rabelais to write Les Cent Contes Drolatiques (The Hundred Humorous Tales). Balzac also pays homage to Rabelais by quoting him in more than twenty novels and the short stories of La Comédie humaine (The Human Comedy). Michel Brix wrote of Balzac that he "is obviously a son or grandson of Rabelais... He has never hidden his admiration for the author of Gargantua that he cites in Le Cousin Pons as "the greatest mind of modern humanity".[46][47] In his story of Zéro, Conte Fantastique published in La Silhouette on 3 October 1830, Balzac even adopted Rabelais's pseudonym (Alcofribas).[48]
  • Rabelais also left a tradition at the University of Montpellier's Faculty of Medicine: no graduating medic can undergo a convocation without taking an oath under Rabelais's robe. Further tributes are paid to him in other traditions of the university, such as its faluche, a distinctive student headcap styled in his honour with four bands of colour emanating from its centre.[49]
  • Asteroid '5666 Rabelais' was named in honor of François Rabelais in 1982.[50]
  • In Jean-Marie Gustave Le Clézio's 2008 Nobel Prize lecture, Le Clézio referred to Rabelais as "the greatest writer in the French language".[51]
  • In France the moment at a restaurant when the waiter presents the bill is still sometimes called le quart d'heure de Rabelais (The fifteen minutes of Rabelais), in memory of a famous trick[which?] Rabelais used to get out of paying a tavern bill when he had no money.[52][53]

Works[edit]

  • Gargantua and Pantagruel, a series of four or five books including:
    • Pantagruel (1532)
    • La vie très horrifique du grand Gargantua, usually called Gargantua (1534)
    • Le Tiers Livre ("The third book", 1546)
    • Le Quart Livre ("The fourth book", 1552)
    • Le Cinquième Livre (a fifth book, whose authorship is contested)

See also[edit]

  • Rabelais and His World
  • Thomas Urquhart
  • Peter Anthony Motteux, (works at wikisource)
  • The Great Mare

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b Traditionally, the death date of Rabelais has been given as 9 April 1553 (archive copy of the Notice de personne at BnF), but the recent discovery of a notarial document concerning his brother, places Rabelais' death before 14 March 1553: "il est maintenant établi que Rabelais mourut avant le 14 mars 1553, comme le prouve la pièce notariale [...] qui instaure comme légataire [...] son frère Jamet, marchand à Chinon." (See Huchon 2011, p. 24 and snippet view at Google Books.)
  2. ^ Wells, John C. (2008). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.). Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0.
  3. ^ Jones, Daniel (2011). Roach, Peter; Setter, Jane; Esling, John (eds.). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-15255-6.
  4. ^ a b Mihail Mihajlovič Bakhtin (1984). Rabelais and His World. Indiana University Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-253-20341-0.
  5. ^ "Rabelaisian". Merriam-Webster.
  6. ^ The Rabelais Encyclopedia, p. xiii
  7. ^ "Rabelais, François". The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001–07. Retrieved 27 May 2008.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g Boulenger, Jacques (1978). "Introduction: Vie de Rabelais" in Œuvres complètes de François Rabelais (in French). Gallimard (La Bibliothèque de la Pléiade).
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Bibliography[edit]

Commentary[edit]

  • Bakhtin, Mikhail, Tapani Laine, Paula Nieminen, and Erkki Salo. François Rabelais: Keskiajan Ja Renessanssin Nauru. Helsinki: Like, 1968.
  • Bakhtin, Mikhail (1993). Rabelais and His World. Translated by Hélène Iswolsky. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
  • Bowen, Barbara C. (1998). Enter Rabelais, Laughing. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 978-0-8265-1306-9.
  • Dixon, J.E.G.; Dawson, John L. (1992). Concordance des Oeuvres de François Rabelais (in French). Geneva: Librairie Droz.
  • Febvre, Lucien (1982). The Problem of Unbelief in the Sixteenth Century: The Religion of Rabelais. Translated by Beatrice Gottlieb. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
  • Huchon, Mireille (2011). Rabelais (in French). Paris: Gallimard. ISBN 978-2-07-073544-0.
  • Kinser, Samuel (1990). Rabelais's Carnival: Text, Context, Metatext. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Screech, Michael A. (1979). Rabelais. London: Duckworth. ISBN 978-0-7156-1660-4.
  • Screech, Michael A. (1992). Rabelais. Tel (in French). Translated by Marie-Anne de Kisch. Paris: Gallimard. OCLC 377631583.

Complete Works[edit]

  • Rabelais, François (1994). Œuvres complètes. Bibliothèque de la Pléiade (in French). édition établie, présentée et annotée par Mireille Huchon avec la collaboration de François Moreau. Paris: Gallimard. OCLC 31599267. Huchon 1994.
  • Frame, Donald Murdoch; Rabelais, François (1999). The complete works of François Rabelais. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 9780520064010. Frame.

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ "those books he brings me the works of Master Francois somebody supposed to be a priest about a child born out of her ear because her bumgut fell out a nice word for any priest".

External links[edit]

  • Works by François Rabelais at Project Gutenberg
  • Works by or about François Rabelais at Internet Archive
  • Works by François Rabelais at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
  • Project Gutenberg e-text of Gargantua and Pantagruel
  • Association de Bibliophiles Universels e-text of Gargantua in French
  • A Dutch website about Rabelais
  • Rabelais et la Renaissance, sur le Portail de la Renaissance française (French)
  • François Rabelais Museum on the Internet (French)
  • Henry Émile Chevalier, Rabelais and his editors, 1868 (French).