Координаты : 7 ° N 81 ° E / 7 ° N 81 ° в.д.
Демократическая Социалистическая Республика Шри-Ланкаශ්රී ලංකා ප්රජාතාන්ත්රික සමාජවාදී ජනරජය ( сингальский )இலங்கை சனநாயக சோசலிசக் குடியரசு ( тамильский )Сингальский :Шри Ланка Праджатантрика Самаджавади ДжанараджаяТамильский :Иланкай Джатанаяка Сонсалисак Кудиярасу | |
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Гимн: « Шри-Ланка Матха » (английский: «Мать Шри-Ланка» ) | |
Капитал | Шри Джаяварденепура Котте (законодательный) [1] Коломбо (исполнительный и судебный) [2] 6 ° 56'N 79 ° 52'E / 6,933 ° N 79,867 ° E |
Крупнейший город | Коломбо |
Официальные языки | Сингальский тамильский [3] |
Признанные языки | английский |
Этнические группы (2012 [4] ) | 74,9% сингальцы 11,2% шри-ланкийские тамилы 9,2% шри-ланкийские мавры 4,2% индийские тамилы 0,5% прочие (включая бюргеров , малайцев , веддов , китайцев , индийцев ) |
Религия (2012) | 70,2% Буддизм ( официальный ) [5] 12,6% Индуизм 9,7% Ислам 7,4% Христианство 0,1% Другое / Нет |
Демоним (ы) | Шри-ланкийский |
Правительство | Унитарная полупрезидентская республика |
• Президент | Готабая Раджапакса |
• Премьер-министр | Махинда Раджапакса |
• Спикер парламента | Махинда Япа Абейвардена [6] |
• Главный судья | Джаянта Джаясурия |
Законодательная власть | Парламент |
Формирование | |
• Установлено Царство [7] | 543 г. до н. Э. |
• Установление Раджараты [8] | 437 г. до н.э. |
• Кандианские войны | 1796 г. |
• Подписание Кандианской конвенции | 1815 г. |
• Независимость | 4 февраля 1948 г. |
• Республика | 22 мая 1972 года |
• Действующая конституция | 7 сентября 1978 г. |
Площадь | |
• Всего | 65610 км 2 (25330 квадратных миль) ( 120-я ) |
• Воды (%) | 4.4 |
Население | |
• Оценка на 2020 год | 22,156,000 [9] ( 57-е ) |
• перепись 2012 г. | 20 277 597 [10] |
• Плотность | 337,7 / км 2 (874,6 / квадратных миль) ( 24-е ) |
ВВП ( ППС ) | Оценка на 2021 год |
• Всего | $ 306,997 млрд [11] ( 56-е место ) |
• На душу населения | $ 13 909 [11] ( 88-е место ) |
ВВП (номинальный) | Оценка на 2021 год |
• Всего | $ 84,532 миллиарда [11] ( 64-е место ) |
• На душу населения | $ 3 830 [11] ( 113-е место ) |
Джини (2016) | 39,8 [12] средний |
ИЧР (2019) | 0,782 [13] высокий · 72-й |
Валюта | Шри-ланкийская рупия (Rs) ( LKR ) |
Часовой пояс | UTC +5: 30 ( SLST ) |
Формат даты |
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Сети электроэнергии | 230 В – 50 Гц |
Сторона вождения | левый |
Телефонный код | +94 |
Код ISO 3166 | LK |
Интернет-домен |
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Сайт www .gov .lk |
Вам может потребоваться поддержка рендеринга для правильного отображения индийского текста в этой статье. |
Шри - Ланка ( UK : / сек г я л æ ŋ к ə , ʃ г я - / , США : / - л ɑː ŋ к ə / ( слушать ) ; Сингала : ශ්රී ලංකාව , латинизируется: ШРИ - ЛАНКА ( IPA: [ ʃriː laŋkaː] ); тамильский : இலங்கை , латинизированный: Ilaṅkai ( IPA: [ilaŋɡaj] )), ранее известный как Цейлон , а официально Демократическая Социалистическая Республика Шри-Ланка , является островным государством в Южной Азии . Он расположен в Индийском океане , к юго-западу от Бенгальского залива и к юго-востоку от Аравийского моря ; она отделена от Индийского субконтинента в заливе Маннары и Полкский пролив . Шри-Ланка имеет морскую границу с Индией и Мальдивами . Шри Джаяварденепура Котте - его законодательная столица, а Коломбоэто его крупнейший город и финансовый центр .
Задокументированная история Шри-Ланки насчитывает 3000 лет и свидетельствует о существовании доисторических поселений людей, возникших не менее 125000 лет назад. [14] Он имеет богатое культурное наследие. Самые ранние известные буддийские сочинения Шри-Ланки, известные под общим названием Палийский канон , относятся к четвертому буддийскому собору , который состоялся в 29 г. до н. Э. [15] [16] Географическое положение и глубокие гавани Шри-Ланки сделали ее очень важной стратегической, с самых первых дней древнего торгового пути Шелкового пути до сегодняшнего так называемого морского Шелкового пути . [17] [18] [19] Because its location made it a major trading hub, it was already known to both Far Easterners and Europeans as long ago as the Anuradhapura period. The country's trade in luxury goods and spices attracted traders of many nations, which helped to create Sri Lanka's diverse population. During a period of great political crisis in the Sinhalese kingdom of Kotte, the Portuguese arrived in Sri Lanka (largely by accident) and then sought to control the island's maritime regions and its lucrative external trade. Part of Sri Lanka became a Portuguese possession. After the Sinhalese-Portuguese war, the Dutch and the Kingdom of Kandyвзял под свой контроль эти районы. Затем голландские владения были захвачены британцами , которые позже расширили свой контроль над всем островом, колонизировав его с 1815 по 1948 год. В начале 20 века возникло национальное движение за политическую независимость, и в 1948 году Цейлон стал доминионом . В 1972 году к власти пришла республика под названием Шри-Ланка. Более недавняя история Шри-Ланки была омрачена 26-летней гражданской войной , которая началась в 1983 году и окончательно закончилась в 2009 году; когда Вооруженные силы Шри-Ланки победили Тигров освобождения Тамил-Илама . [20]
Сегодня Шри-Ланка - многонациональное государство , где проживают различные культуры, языки и этнические группы. В Sinhalese составляют большинство населения страны. В тамилах , которые являются большой группой меньшинства, также сыграли важную роль в истории острова. К другим давно сложившимся группам относятся мавры , бюргеры , малайцы , китайцы и местные ведды . [21]
Остров имеет долгую историю взаимодействия с современными международными группами: он является одним из основателей СААРК и членом Организации Объединенных Наций , Содружества Наций , G77 и Движения неприсоединения .
Шри-Ланка занимает первое место в Южной Азии по индексу человеческого развития и занимает второе место по доходу на душу населения в Южной Азии.
В древности Шри-Ланка была известна путешественникам под разными именами. Согласно Махавамсе , легендарный принц Виджая назвал остров Тамбапанни (« медно-красные руки» или «медно-красная земля»), потому что руки его последователей были покраснены красной почвой того места, где он приземлился. [22] [23] В индуистской мифологии появляется термин Ланка («Остров»), но неизвестно, относится ли он к современному государству. Но ученые в целом согласны с тем, что это, должно быть, была Шри-Ланка, потому что так утверждается в шри-ланкийском тексте V века Махавамса . [24] Тамильский терминИлам ( тамильский : ஈழம் , латинизированный: īḻam ) использовался для обозначения всего острова в сангамской литературе . [25] [26] Остров был известен во время правления Чола как Муммуди Чоламандалам («царство трех коронованных Чола»). [27]
Древнегреческие географы назвали его Тапробана ( древнегреческий : Ταπροβανᾶ ) или Тапробана ( Ταπροβανῆ ) [28] от слова Тамбапанни . Персы и арабы называли его Сарандиб (происхождение слова « интуиция ») с санскрита Ситхаладвипах . [29] [30] Ceilão , имя, данное Шри-Ланке Португальской империей, когда она прибыла в 1505 году, [31] было транслитерировано на английский язык как Ceylon . [32] Как колония британской короны, остров был известен как Цейлон; он получил независимость как Доминион Цейлон в 1948 году.
Страна теперь известна на сингальском как Шри Ланка ( сингальский : ශ්රී ලංකා ), а на тамильском как Иланкай ( тамильский : இலங்கை , IPA: [iˈlaŋɡaɪ] ). В 1972 году его официальное название было изменено на «Свободная, суверенная и независимая Республика Шри-Ланка». Позже, 7 сентября 1978 года, она была изменена на «Демократическую Социалистическую Республику Шри-Ланка». [33] [34] Поскольку название Цейлон до сих пор встречается в названиях ряда организаций, правительство Шри-Ланки объявило в 2011 году о плане переименования всех тех, над которыми оно имеет власть. [35]
Предыстория Шри-Ланки насчитывает 125 000 лет, а, возможно, даже 500 000 лет. [36] Эпоха охватывает палеолит , мезолит и ранний железный век . Среди палеолитических человеческих поселений, обнаруженных на Шри-Ланке, наиболее важными являются Пахиянгала (названная в честь китайского монаха- путешественника Факсиана ), датируемая 37 000 лет назад [37], Батадомбалена (28 500 лет назад) [38] и Белилена (12 000 лет назад). В этих пещерах археологи нашли останки анатомически современного человека.которого они назвали Человеком Балангода , и другие свидетельства [39], предполагающие, что они, возможно, занимались сельским хозяйством и держали домашних собак для игры в вождение. [40]
Самые ранние жители Шри - Ланки, вероятно , были предками людей Vedda , [41] коренной народ численностью около 2500 живущих в современной Шри - Ланке.
В протоисторический период (1000–500 гг. До н.э.) Шри-Ланка была культурно объединена с южной Индией [42] и имела одни и те же мегалитические захоронения, керамику , железные технологии, методы ведения сельского хозяйства и мегалитические граффити . [43] [44] Этот культурный комплекс распространился из южной Индии вместе с дравидийскими кланами, такими как Велир , до миграции носителей пракрита . [45] [46] [43]
Одно из первых письменных упоминаний об острове находится в индийском эпосе « Рамаяна» , в котором подробно рассказывается о королевстве под названием Ланка , созданном божественным скульптором Вишвакармой для Куберы , Повелителя богатства. [47] Говорят, что Кубера был свергнут своим сводным братом-демоном Раваной . [48]
Согласно Махавамсе , хронике пати, написанной в V веке нашей эры, коренными жителями Шри-Ланки считаются якши и наги . Древние кладбища, которые использовались до 600 г. до н.э., и другие признаки развитой цивилизации также были обнаружены на Шри-Ланке. [49] История сингалов традиционно начинается в 543 г. до н.э. с прибытием принца Виджая , полулегендарного принца, который с 700 последователями отправился в Шри-Ланку после изгнания из Королевства Ванга (современная Бенгалия ). [50] Он основал Королевство Тамбапанни., недалеко от современного Маннара . Виджая (Сингха) - первый из примерно 189 монархов Шри-Ланки, описанных в таких хрониках, как Дипавамса , Махавамса , Чунавамса и Раджавалия . [51]
После того, как пракрите колонки достигли господства на острове, Mahavamsa далее пересчитывает позднее миграция королевских невест и услуг каст от тамильского Пандья Королевства в Анурадхапура Королевства в начале исторического периода. [52]
Период Анурадхапуры (377 г. до н.э. - 1017 г. н.э.) начался с основания королевства Анурадхапура в 380 г. до н.э. во время правления Пандукабхая . После этого Анурадхапура служила столицей страны почти 1400 лет. [53] Древние шри-ланкийцы преуспели в строительстве определенных типов сооружений , таких как резервуары , дагобы и дворцы. [54] Общество претерпело серьезные изменения во время правления Деванампия Тиссы , с приходом буддизма из Индии. В 250 г. до н. Э. [55] Махинда , монахи сын императора Маурьев Ашока прибыл в Михинтале, неся послание буддизма. [56] Его миссия победила монарха, который принял веру и распространил ее среди сингальского населения . [57]
Succeeding kingdoms of Sri Lanka would maintain many Buddhist schools and monasteries and support the propagation of Buddhism into other countries in Southeast Asia. Sri Lankan Bhikkhus studied in India's famous ancient Buddhist University of Nalanda, which was destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji. It is probable that many of the scriptures from Nalanda are preserved in Sri Lanka's many monasteries and that the written form of the Tripiṭaka, including Sinhalese Buddhist literature, were part of the University of Nalanda.[58] In 245 BCE, bhikkhuni Sanghamitta arrived with the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhiдерево, которое считается молодым саженцем исторического Древа Бодхи, под которым Гаутама Будда стал просветленным. [59] Он считается самым старым деревом в мире, посаженным людьми (с непрерывной историей). ( Бодхивамса ) [60]
Шри-Ланка испытала первое из многих иностранных вторжений во время правления Суратиссы , который потерпел поражение от двух торговцев лошадьми по имени Сена и Гуттика из Южной Индии . [57] Следующее вторжение произошло сразу же в 205 г. до н.э. чола по имени Элара , который сверг Аселу и правил страной в течение 44 лет. Дутугамуну , старший сын южного регионального вице -короля Кавана Тиссы , победил Элару в битве при Виджитапуре . За два с половиной тысячелетия своего существования сингальское королевствобыл захвачен как минимум восемь раз соседними южноиндийскими династиями, такими как Чола , Пандья , Чера и Паллава . Были также вторжения королевств Калинга (современная Одиша ) и с Малайского полуострова .
The Fourth Buddhist Council of Theravada Buddhism was held at the Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya in Sri Lanka under the patronage of Valagamba of Anuradhapura in 25 BCE. The council was held in response to a year in which the harvests in Sri Lanka were particularly poor and many Buddhist monks subsequently died of starvation. Because the Pāli Canon was at that time oral literature maintained in several recensions by dhammabhāṇakas (dharmaчтецов), выжившие монахи осознавали опасность не записывать его, так что даже если некоторые из монахов, в обязанности которых входило изучение и запоминание частей Канона для последующих поколений, умерли, учения не были потеряны. [61] После Собора рукописи на пальмовых листах, содержащие законченный Канон, были отправлены в другие страны, такие как Бирма , Таиланд , Камбоджа и Лаос .
Шри-Ланка была первой азиатской страной, в которой, как известно, была женщина-правительница: Анула из Анурадхапура (годы правления 47–42 до н. Э.). [62] Монархи Шри-Ланки предприняли несколько замечательных строительных проектов, таких как Сигирия , так называемая «Небесная крепость», построенная во время правления Кашьяпы I из Анурадхапура , который правил между 477 и 495 годами. разветвленная сеть валов и рвов. Внутри этого защитного ограждения находились сады, пруды, беседки, дворцы и другие постройки. [63] [64]
In 993 CE, the invasion of Chola emperor Rajaraja I forced the then Sinhalese ruler Mahinda V to flee to the southern part of Sri Lanka. Taking advantage of this situation, Rajendra I, son of Rajaraja I, launched a large invasion in 1017. Mahinda V was captured and taken to India, and the Cholas sacked the city of Anuradhapura causing the fall of Anuradhapura Kingdom. Subsequently, they moved the capital to Polonnaruwa.[65]
Following a seventeen-year-long campaign, Vijayabahu I successfully drove the Chola out of Sri Lanka in 1070, reuniting the country for the first time in over a century.[66][67] Upon his request, ordained monks were sent from Burma to Sri Lanka to re-establish Buddhism, which had almost disappeared from the country during the Chola reign.[68] During the medieval period, Sri Lanka was divided into three sub-territories, namely Ruhunu, Pihiti and Maya.[69]
Sri Lanka's irrigation system was extensively expanded during the reign of Parākramabāhu the Great (1153–1186).[70] This period is considered as a time when Sri Lanka was at the height of its power.[71][72] He built 1,470 reservoirs – the highest number by any ruler in Sri Lanka's history – repaired 165 dams, 3,910 canals, 163 major reservoirs, and 2,376 mini-reservoirs.[73] His most famous construction is the Parakrama Samudra,[74] the largest irrigation project of medieval Sri Lanka. Parākramabāhu's reign is memorable for two major campaigns – in the south of India as part of a Pandyan war of succession, and a punitive strike against the kings of Ramanna (Burma) for various perceived insults to Sri Lanka.[75]
После его кончины власть Шри-Ланки постепенно пришла в упадок. В 1215 году Калинга Магха , захватчик с неопределенным происхождением, названный основателем королевства Джафна, вторгся и захватил Королевство Полоннарува . Он отплыл из Калинги [73] 690 морских миль на 100 больших кораблях с 24-тысячной армией. В отличие от предыдущих захватчиков, он безвозвратно разграбил , разграбил и уничтожил все в древних королевствах Анурадхапура и Полоннарува. [76] Его приоритетами в управлении было извлечь как можно больше из земли и опрокинуть как можно больше традиций Раджараты . Его правление ознаменовалось массовой миграцией коренных сингальцев.к югу и западу от Шри-Ланки и в гористую местность, пытаясь избежать его власти. [77] [78]
Шри-Ланка так и не оправилась от последствий вторжения Калинга-Магхи. Король Виджаябаху III, возглавивший сопротивление, привел королевство в Дамбадению . Тем временем север в конечном итоге превратился в королевство Джафна . [77] [78] Царство Джафна никогда не подпадало под власть какого-либо южного королевства, кроме одного случая; в 1450 году, после завоевания, которое возглавил приемный сын короля Паракрамабаху VI , принц Сапумал . [79] Он правил Севером с 1450 по 1467 год нашей эры. [80]
Следующие три столетия, начиная с 1215 года, были отмечены калейдоскопическим смещением коллекций столиц на юге и в центре Шри-Ланки, включая Дамбадению , Япахуву , Гамполу , Райгаму , Котте , [81] Ситаваку и, наконец, Канди . Китайский адмирал Чжэн Хэ и его военно-морской экспедиционный корпус высадились в Галле, Шри-Ланка, в 1409 году и вступили в бой с местным королем Вира Алакесвара из Гамполы . Чжэн Хэ захватил царя Виру Алакешвару, а затем освободил его. [82] [83] [84] [85] Чжэн Хэ возвелGalle Trilingual Inscription, a stone tablet at Galle written in three languages (Chinese, Tamil, and Persian), to commemorate his visit.[86][87] The stele was discovered by S. H. Thomlin at Galle in 1911 and is now preserved in the Colombo National Museum.
The early modern period of Sri Lanka begins with the arrival of Portuguese soldier and explorer Lourenço de Almeida, the son of Francisco de Almeida, in 1505.[88] In 1517, the Portuguese built a fort at the port city of Colombo and gradually extended their control over the coastal areas. In 1592, after decades of intermittent warfare with the Portuguese, Vimaladharmasuriya I moved his kingdom to the inland city of Kandy, a location he thought more secure from attack.[89] In 1619, succumbing to attacks by the Portuguese, the independent existence of the Jaffna kingdom came to an end.[90]
During the reign of the Rajasinha II, Dutch explorers arrived on the island. In 1638, the king signed a treaty with the Dutch East India Company to get rid of the Portuguese who ruled most of the coastal areas.[91] The following Dutch–Portuguese War resulted in a Dutch victory, with Colombo falling into Dutch hands by 1656. The Dutch remained in the areas they had captured, thereby violating the treaty they had signed in 1638. The Burgher people, a distinct ethnic group, emerged as a result of intermingling between the Dutch and native Sri Lankans in this period.[92]
The Kingdom of Kandy was the last independent monarchy of Sri Lanka.[93] In 1595, Vimaladharmasurya brought the sacred Tooth Relic – the traditional symbol of royal and religious authority amongst the Sinhalese – to Kandy, and built the Temple of the Tooth.[93] In spite of on-going intermittent warfare with Europeans, the kingdom survived. Later, a crisis of succession emerged in Kandy upon king Vira Narendrasinha's death in 1739. He was married to a Telugu-speaking Nayakkar princess from South India (Madurai) and was childless by her.[93]
Eventually, with the support of bhikku Weliwita Sarankara, the crown passed to the brother of one of Narendrasinha's princesses, overlooking the right of "Unambuwe Bandara", Narendrasinha's own son by a Sinhalese concubine.[94] The new king was crowned Sri Vijaya Rajasinha later that year. Kings of the Nayakkar dynasty launched several attacks on Dutch controlled areas, which proved to be unsuccessful.[95]
During the Napoleonic Wars, fearing that French control of the Netherlands might deliver Sri Lanka to the French, Great Britain occupied the coastal areas of the island (which they called Ceylon) with little difficulty in 1796.[96] Two years later, in 1798, Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha, third of the four Nayakkar kings of Sri Lanka, died of a fever. Following his death, a nephew of Rajadhi Rajasinha, eighteen-year-old Kannasamy, was crowned.[97] The young king, now named Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, faced a British invasion in 1803 but successfully retaliated. The First Kandyan War ended in a stalemate.[97]
By then the entire coastal area was under the British East India Company as a result of the Treaty of Amiens. On 14 February 1815, Kandy was occupied by the British in the second Kandyan War, ending Sri Lanka's independence.[97] Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, the last native monarch of Sri Lanka, was exiled to India.[98] The Kandyan Convention formally ceded the entire country to the British Empire. Attempts by Sri Lankan noblemen to undermine British power in 1818 during the Uva Rebellion were thwarted by Governor Robert Brownrigg.[99]
The beginning of the modern period of Sri Lanka is marked by the Colebrooke-Cameron reforms of 1833.[100] They introduced a utilitarian and liberal political culture to the country based on the rule of law and amalgamated the Kandyan and maritime provinces as a single unit of government.[100] An executive council and a legislative council were established, later becoming the foundation of a representative legislature. By this time, experiments with coffee plantations were largely successful.[101]
Soon, coffee became the primary commodity export of Sri Lanka. Falling coffee prices as a result of the depression of 1847 stalled economic development and prompted the governor to introduce a series of taxes on firearms, dogs, shops, boats, etc., and to reintroduce a form of rajakariya, requiring six days free labour on roads or payment of a cash equivalent.[101] These harsh measures antagonised the locals, and another rebellion broke out in 1848.[102] A devastating leaf disease, Hemileia vastatrix, struck the coffee plantations in 1869, destroying the entire industry within fifteen years.[103]Британцы быстро нашли замену: отказавшись от кофе, они занялись выращиванием чая. В последующие десятилетия производство чая в Шри-Ланке процветало. Крупные каучуковые плантации возникли в начале 20 века.
By the end of the 19th century, a new educated social class transcending race and caste arose through British attempts to staff the Ceylon Civil Service and the legal, educational, engineering, and medical professions with natives.[104] New leaders represented the various ethnic groups of the population in the Ceylon Legislative Council on a communal basis. Buddhist and Hindu revivalism reacted against Christian missionary activities.[105][106] The first two decades in the 20th century are noted by the unique harmony among Sinhalese and Tamil political leadership, which has since been lost.[107]
The 1906 malaria outbreak in Ceylon actually started in the early 1900s, but the first case was documented in 1906.
In 1919, major Sinhalese and Tamil political organisations united to form the Ceylon National Congress, under the leadership of Ponnambalam Arunachalam,[108] pressing colonial masters for more constitutional reforms. But without massive popular support, and with the governor's encouragement for "communal representation" by creating a "Colombo seat" that dangled between Sinhalese and Tamils, the Congress lost momentum towards the mid-1920s.[109]
The Donoughmore reforms of 1931 repudiated the communal representation and introduced universal adult franchise (the franchise stood at 4% before the reforms). This step was strongly criticised by the Tamil political leadership, who realised that they would be reduced to a minority in the newly created State Council of Ceylon, which succeeded the legislative council.[110][111] In 1937, Tamil leader G. G. Ponnambalam demanded a 50–50 representation (50% for the Sinhalese and 50% for other ethnic groups) in the State Council. However, this demand was not met by the Soulbury reforms of 1944–45.
The Soulbury constitution ushered in dominion status, with independence proclaimed on 4 February 1948.[112] D. S. Senanayake became the first Prime Minister of Ceylon.[113] Prominent Tamil leaders including Ponnambalam and Arunachalam Mahadeva joined his cabinet.[110][114] The British Royal Navy remained stationed at Trincomalee until 1956. A countrywide popular demonstration against withdrawal of the rice rations resulted in the resignation of prime minister Dudley Senanayake.[115]
SWRD Бандаранаике был избран премьер-министром в 1956 году. Его трехлетнее правление оказало глубокое влияние благодаря его самопровозглашенной роли «защитника осажденной сингальской культуры». [116] Он представил вызывающий споры закон «Только сингальский» , признав сингальский язык единственным официальным языком правительства. Хотя этот закон был частично отменен в 1958 году, он вызвал серьезную озабоченность у тамильского сообщества, которое усмотрело в нем угрозу своему языку и культуре. [117] [118] [119]
The Federal Party (FP) launched a movement of non-violent resistance (satyagraha) against the bill, which prompted Bandaranaike to reach an agreement (Bandaranaike–Chelvanayakam Pact) with S. J. V. Chelvanayakam, leader of the FP, to resolve the looming ethnic conflict.[120] The pact proved ineffective in the face of ongoing protests by opposition and the Buddhist clergy. The bill, together with various government colonisation schemes, contributed much towards the political rancour between Sinhalese and Tamil political leaders.[121] Bandaranaike was assassinated by an extremist Buddhist monk in 1959.[122]
Sirimavo Bandaranaike, the widow of Bandaranaike, took office as prime minister in 1960, and withstood an attempted coup d'état in 1962. During her second term as prime minister, the government instituted socialist economic policies, strengthening ties with the Soviet Union and China, while promoting a policy of non-alignment. In 1971, Ceylon experienced a Marxist insurrection, which was quickly suppressed. In 1972, the country became a republic named Sri Lanka, repudiating its dominion status. Prolonged minority grievances and the use of communal emotionalism as an election campaign weapon by both Sinhalese and Tamil leaders abetted a fledgling Tamil militancy in the north during the 1970s.[123] The policy of standardisation by the Sirimavo government to rectify disparities created in university enrolment, which was in essence an affirmative action to assist geographically disadvantaged students to obtain tertiary education,[124] resulted in reducing the proportion of Tamil students at university level and acted as the immediate catalyst for the rise of militancy.[125][126] The assassination of Jaffna Mayor Alfred Duraiyappah in 1975 by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) marked a crisis point.[127][128]
The government of J. R. Jayawardene swept to power in 1977, defeating the largely unpopular United Front government.[129] Jayawardene introduced a new constitution, together with a free-market economy and a powerful executive presidency modelled after that of France. It made Sri Lanka the first South Asian country to liberalise its economy.[130] Beginning in 1983, ethnic tensions were manifested in an on-and-off insurgency against the government by the LTTE. An LTTE attack on 13 soldiers resulted in the anti-Tamil race riots in July 1983, allegedly backed by Sinhalese hard-line ministers, which resulted in more than 150,000 Tamil civilians fleeing the island, seeking asylum in other countries.[131][132]
Lapses in foreign policy resulted in India strengthening the Tigers by providing arms and training.[133][134][135] In 1987, the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord was signed and the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) was deployed in northern Sri Lanka to stabilise the region by neutralising the LTTE.[136] The same year, the JVP launched its second insurrection in Southern Sri Lanka,[137] necessitating redeployment of the IPKF in 1990.[138] In October 1990, the LTTE expelled Sri Lankan Moors (Muslims by religion) from northern Sri Lanka.[139]В 2002 году правительство Шри-Ланки и ТОТИ подписали при посредничестве Норвегии соглашение о прекращении огня. [119]
The 2004 Asian tsunami killed over 30,000 in Sri Lanka.[140] From 1985 to 2006, the Sri Lankan government and Tamil insurgents held four rounds of peace talks without success. Both LTTE and the government resumed fighting in 2006, and the government officially backed out of the ceasefire in 2008.[119] In 2009, under the Presidency of Mahinda Rajapaksa, the Sri Lanka Armed Forces defeated the LTTE and re-established control of the entire country by the Sri Lankan Government.[141] Overall, between 60,000 and 100,000 people were killed during the 26 years of conflict.[142][143]
Шри-Ланка - островное государство в форме жемчуга в Южной Азии, расположенное на Индийской плите , основной тектонической плите , которая ранее была частью Индо-Австралийской плиты . [144] Он находится в Индийском океане к юго-западу от Бенгальского залива , между 5 ° и 10 ° северной широты и 79 ° и 82 ° восточной долготы . [145] Шри-Ланка отделена от материковой части Индийского субконтинента заливом Маннар и проливом Полк . Согласно индуистской мифологии , сухопутный мостсуществовала между материковой частью Индии и Шри-Ланкой. Сейчас это всего лишь цепочка известняковых отмелей, остающихся над уровнем моря . [146] Легенды утверждают, что он был проходимым до 1480 г. н.э., пока циклоны не углубили канал. [147] [148] Участки по-прежнему мелкие, как 1 метр (3 фута), что затрудняет навигацию. [149] Остров состоит в основном из плоских и холмистых прибрежных равнин, с горами, возвышающимися только в южно-центральной части. Самая высокая точка - Пидуруталагала , достигающая 2524 метра (8281 фут) над уровнем моря.
На Шри-Ланке 103 реки. Самая длинная из них - река Махавели , ее протяженность составляет 335 километров (208 миль). [150] Эти водные пути образуют 51 естественный водопад высотой 10 метров (33 фута) и более. Самый высокий - водопад Бамбараканда , его высота составляет 263 метра (863 фута). [151] Береговая линия Шри-Ланки составляет 1585 км (985 миль) в длину. [152] Шри-Ланка претендует на исключительную экономическую зону протяженностью 200 морских миль , что примерно в 6,7 раза больше площади суши Шри-Ланки. Береговая линия и прилегающие воды поддерживают высокопродуктивные морские экосистемы, такие как окаймляющие коралловые рифы и мелководные участки прибрежных и устьевых водоемов. seagrasses.[153]
Sri Lanka has 45 estuaries and 40 lagoons.[152] Sri Lanka's mangrove ecosystem spans over 7,000 hectares and played a vital role in buffering the force of the waves in the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.[154] The island is rich in minerals such as ilmenite, feldspar, graphite, silica, kaolin, mica and thorium.[155][156] Existence of petroleumи наличие газа в заливе Маннар также подтверждено, и добыча извлекаемых количеств продолжается. [157]
Климат тропический и теплый из-за смягчающего воздействия океанских ветров. Средняя температура колеблется от 17 ° C (62,6 ° F) в центральных высокогорьях , где в течение нескольких дней зимой могут быть заморозки, до максимальных 33 ° C (91,4 ° F) в низкогорных районах. Среднегодовая температура колеблется от 28 ° C (82,4 ° F) до почти 31 ° C (87,8 ° F). Дневная и ночная температура может варьироваться от 14 ° C (57,2 ° F) до 18 ° C (64,4 ° F). [158]
На характер осадков влияют муссонные ветры с Индийского океана и Бенгальского залива. «Влажная зона» и некоторые из наветренных склонов центрального нагорья получают до 2500 миллиметров (98,4 дюйма) дождя каждый год, но подветренные склоны на востоке и северо-востоке получают мало дождя. Большая часть восточной, юго-восточной и северной частей Шри-Ланки составляет «сухую зону», в которую ежегодно выпадает от 1200 до 1900 мм (47 и 75 дюймов) дождя. [159]
На засушливых северо-западных и юго-восточных побережьях выпадает наименьшее количество осадков - от 800 до 1200 мм (от 31 до 47 дюймов) в год. Периодически случаются шквалы, а иногда тропические циклоны приносят пасмурное небо и дожди на юго-запад, северо-восток и восток острова. Влажность обычно выше на юго-западе и в горных районах и зависит от сезонного режима осадков. [160] Увеличение среднего количества осадков в сочетании с более сильными дождями привело к повторяющимся наводнениям и связанному с ними ущербу для инфраструктуры, коммунального хозяйства и городской экономики. [161]
Западные Гаты Индии и Шри-Ланка были включены в число первых 18 горячих точек глобального биоразнообразия из-за высокого уровня эндемизма видов. Число очагов биоразнообразия в настоящее время увеличилось до 34. [163] Шри-Ланка имеет самый высокий уровень биоразнообразия на единицу площади среди азиатских стран по цветущим растениям и всем группам позвоночных, кроме птиц. [164] Чрезвычайно высокая доля видов среди его флоры и фауны, 27% из 3 210 цветковых растений и 22% млекопитающих являются эндемиками . [165] Шри-Ланка поддерживает богатую орнитологическую фауну, насчитывающую 453 вида, в том числе 240 видов птиц, которые, как известно, питаются в стране. 33 вида are accepted by some ornithologists as endemic while some ornithologists consider only 27 are endemic and the remaining six are considered as proposed endemics.[166] Sri Lanka's protected areas are administrated by two government bodies; The Department of Forest Conservation and the Department of Wildlife Conservation. Department of Wildlife Conservation administrates 61 wildlife sanctuaries, 22 national parks, four nature reserves, three strict nature reserves, and one jungle corridor while Department of Forest Conservation oversees 65 conservation forests and one national heritage wilderness area. 26.5% of the country's land area is legally protected. This is a higher percentage of protected areas when compared to the rest of Asia.[167]
Sri Lanka contains four terrestrial ecoregions: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests, Sri Lanka montane rain forests, Sri Lanka dry-zone dry evergreen forests, and Deccan thorn scrub forests.[168] Flowering acacias flourish on the arid Jaffna Peninsula. Among the trees of the dry-land forests are valuable species such as satinwood, ebony, ironwood, mahogany and teak. The wet zone is a tropical evergreen forest with tall trees, broad foliage, and a dense undergrowth of vines and creepers. Subtropical evergreen forests resembling those of temperate climates flourish in the higher altitudes.[169]
Yala National Park in the southeast protects herds of elephant, deer, and peacocks. The Wilpattu National Park in the northwest, the largest national park, preserves the habitats of many water birds such as storks, pelicans, ibis, and spoonbills. The island has four biosphere reserves: Bundala, Hurulu Forest Reserve, the Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya, and Sinharaja.[170] Sinharaja is home to 26 endemic birds and 20 rainforest species, including the elusive red-faced malkoha, the green-billed coucal and the Sri Lanka blue magpie. The untapped genetic potential of Sinharaja flora is enormous. Of the 211 woody trees and lianas within the reserve, 139 (66%) are endemic. The total vegetation density, including trees, shrubs, herbs, and seedlings, has been estimated at 240,000 individuals per hectare. The Minneriya National Park borders the Minneriya Tank, which is an important source of water for elephants inhabiting the surrounding forests. Dubbed "The Gathering", the congregation of elephants can be seen on the tank-bed in the late dry season (August to October) as the surrounding water sources steadily disappear. The park also encompasses a range of micro-habitats which include classic dry zone tropical monsoonal evergreen forest, thick stands of giant bamboo, hilly pastures (patanas), and grasslands (talawas).[171]
During the Mahaweli Program of the 1970s and 1980s in northern Sri Lanka, the government set aside four areas of land totalling 1,900 km2 (730 sq mi) as national parks. Statistics of Sri Lanka's forest cover show rapid deforestation from 1956 to 2010. In 1956, 44.2 percent of the country's land area had forest cover. Forest cover depleted rapidly in recent decades; 29.6 percent in 1999, 28.7 percent in 2010.[172]
Sri Lanka is a democratic republic and a unitary state which is governed by a semi-presidential system, with a mixture of a presidential system and a parliamentary system.[173] Sri Lanka is the oldest democracy in Asia.[174] Most provisions of the constitution can be amended by a two-thirds majority in parliament. The amendment of certain basic features such as the clauses on language, religion, and reference to Sri Lanka as a unitary state require both a two-thirds majority and approval in a nationwide referendum.
Как и во многих демократиях, у правительства Шри-Ланки есть три ветви:
The current political culture in Sri Lanka is a contest between two rival coalitions led by the centre-left and progressive United People's Freedom Alliance (UPFA), an offspring of Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP), and the comparatively right-wing and pro-capitalist United National Party (UNP).[183] Sri Lanka is essentially a multi-party democracy with many smaller Buddhist, socialist and Tamil nationalist political parties. As of July 2011, the number of registered political parties in the country is 67.[184] Of these, the Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP), established in 1935, is the oldest.[185]
The UNP, established by D. S. Senanayake in 1946, was until recently the largest single political party.[186] It is the only political group which had representation in all parliaments since independence.[186] SLFP was founded by S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike in July 1951.[187] SLFP registered its first victory in 1956, defeating the ruling UNP in 1956 Parliamentary election.[187] Following the parliamentary election in July 1960, Sirimavo Bandaranaike became the prime minister and the world's first elected female head of government.[188]
G. G. Ponnambalam, the Tamil nationalist counterpart of S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike,[189] founded the All Ceylon Tamil Congress (ACTC) in 1944. Objecting to Ponnambalam's cooperation with D. S. Senanayake, a dissident group led by S.J.V. Chelvanayakam broke away in 1949 and formed the Illankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi (ITAK), also known as the Federal Party, becoming the main Tamil political party in Sri Lanka for next two decades.[190] The Federal Party advocated a more aggressive stance toward the Sinhalese.[191] With the constitutional reforms of 1972, the ACTC and ITAK created the Tamil United Front (later Tamil United Liberation Front). Following a period of turbulence as Tamil militants rose to power in the late 1970s, these Tamil political parties were succeeded in October 2001 by the Tamil National Alliance.[191][192] Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna, a Marxist–Leninist political party founded by Rohana Wijeweera in 1965, serves as a third force in the current political context.[193] It endorses leftist policies which are more radical than the traditionalist leftist politics of the LSSP and the Communist Party.[191] Founded in 1981, the Sri Lanka Muslim Congress is the largest Muslim political party in Sri Lanka.[194]
President Mahinda Rajapaksa lost the 2015 presidential elections, ending his ten-year presidency. However, his successor as Sri Lankan President, Maithripala Sirisena, decided not to seek re-election in 2019.[195] The Rajapaksa family regain power in November 2019 presidential elections. The younger brother of Mahinda and former wartime defence chief Gotabaya Rajapaksa won the election, and he was sworn in as the new president of Sri Lanka.[196][197] Their firm grip of power consolidated in parliamentary elections in August 2020. The family's political party Sri Lanka People's Front (known by its Sinhala initials SLPP) got a landslide victory and a clear majority in the parliament. Five members of the Rajapaksa family won a seat in the parliament. Former president Mahinda Rajapaksa became the new prime minister.[198]
National symbols of Sri Lanka | |
---|---|
Flag | Lion Flag |
Emblem | Gold Lion Passant |
Anthem | "Sri Lanka Matha" |
Butterfly | Sri Lankan birdwing |
Animal | Grizzled giant squirrel |
Bird | Sri Lanka junglefowl |
Flower | Blue water lily |
Tree | Ceylon ironwood (nā) |
Sport | Volleyball |
Source: [199][200] | |
For administrative purposes, Sri Lanka is divided into nine provinces[201] and twenty-five districts.[202]
Provinces in Sri Lanka have existed since the 19th century, but they had no legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment of the 1978 constitution established provincial councils after several decades of increasing demand for a decentralisation of the government.[203] Each provincial council is an autonomous body not under the authority of any ministry. Some of its functions had been undertaken by central government ministries, departments, corporations, and statutory authorities,[203] but authority over land and police is not as a rule given to provincial councils.[204][205] Between 1989 and 2006, the Northern and Eastern provinces were temporarily merged to form the North-East Province.[206][207] Prior to 1987, all administrative tasks for the provinces were handled by a district-based civil service which had been in place since colonial times. Now each province is administered by a directly elected provincial council:
|
Each district is administered under a district secretariat. The districts are further subdivided into 256 divisional secretariats, and these to approximately 14,008 Grama Niladhari divisions.[211] The districts are known in Sinhala as disa and in Tamil as māwaddam. Originally, a disa (usually rendered into English as Dissavony) was a duchy, notably Matale and Uva.
There are three other types of local authorities: municipal councils (18), urban councils (13) and pradeshiya sabha, also called pradesha sabhai (256).[212] Local authorities were originally based on feudal counties named korale and rata, and were formerly known as "D.R.O. divisions" after the divisional revenue officer.[213] Later the D.R.O.s became "assistant government agents," and the divisions were known as "A.G.A. divisions". These divisional secretariats are currently administered by a divisional secretary.
Sri Lanka is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). While ensuring that it maintains its independence, Sri Lanka has cultivated relations with India.[214] Sri Lanka became a member of the United Nations in 1955. Today, it is also a member of the Commonwealth, the SAARC, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the Asian Development Bank, and the Colombo Plan.
The United National Party has traditionally favoured links with the West, while the Sri Lanka Freedom Party has favoured links with the East.[214] Sri Lankan Finance Minister J. R. Jayewardene, together with then Australian Foreign Minister Sir Percy Spencer, proposed the Colombo Plan at the Commonwealth Foreign Minister's Conference held in Colombo in 1950.[215] At the San Francisco Peace Conference in 1951, while many countries were reluctant, Sri Lanka argued for a free Japan and refused to accept payment of reparations for World War II damage because it believed it would harm Japan's economy.[216] Sri Lanka-China relations started as soon as the People's Republic of China was formed in 1949. The two countries signed an important Rice-Rubber Pact in 1952.[217] Sri Lanka played a vital role at the Asian–African Conference in 1955, which was an important step in the crystallisation of the NAM.[218]
The Bandaranaike government of 1956 significantly changed the pro-western policies set by the previous UNP government. It recognised Cuba under Fidel Castro in 1959. Shortly afterward, Cuba's revolutionary Che Guevara paid a visit to Sri Lanka.[219] The Sirima-Shastri Pact of 1964[220] and Sirima-Gandhi Pact of 1974[221] were signed between Sri Lankan and Indian leaders in an attempt to solve the long-standing dispute over the status of plantation workers of Indian origin. In 1974, Kachchatheevu, a small island in Palk Strait, was formally ceded to Sri Lanka.[222] By this time, Sri Lanka was strongly involved in the NAM, and the fifth NAM summit was held in Colombo in 1976.[223] The relationship between Sri Lanka and India became tense under the government of J. R. Jayawardene.[138][224] As a result, India intervened in the Sri Lankan Civil War and subsequently deployed an Indian Peace Keeping Force in 1987.[225] In the present, Sri Lanka enjoys extensive relations with China,[226] Russia,[227] and Pakistan.[228]
The Sri Lanka Armed Forces, comprising the Sri Lanka Army, the Sri Lanka Navy, and the Sri Lanka Air Force, come under the purview of the Ministry of Defence.[229] The total strength of the three services is around 346,000 personnel, with nearly 36,000 reserves.[230] Sri Lanka has not enforced military conscription.[231] Paramilitary units include the Special Task Force, the Civil Security Force, and the Sri Lanka Coast Guard.[232][233]
Since independence in 1948, the primary focus of the armed forces has been internal security, crushing three major insurgencies, two by Marxist militants of the JVP and a 26-year-long conflict with the LTTE. The armed forces have been in a continuous mobilised state for the last 30 years.[234][235] The Sri Lankan Armed Forces have engaged in United Nations peacekeeping operations since the early 1960s, contributing forces to permanent contingents deployed in several UN peacekeeping missions in Chad, Lebanon, and Haiti.[236]
According to the International Monetary Fund, Sri Lanka's GDP in terms of purchasing power parity is the second highest in the South Asian region in terms of per capita income. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Sri Lanka became a plantation economy famous for its production and export of cinnamon, rubber, and Ceylon tea, which remains a trademark national export.[237] The development of modern ports under British rule raised the strategic importance of the island as a centre of trade.[238] From 1948 to 1977, socialism strongly influenced the government's economic policies. Colonial plantations were dismantled, industries were nationalised, and a welfare state established. In 1977, the free market economy was introduced to the country, incorporating privatisation, deregulation, and the promotion of private enterprise.[130]
While the production and export of tea, rubber, coffee, sugar, and other commodities remain important, industrialisation has increased the importance of food processing, textiles, telecommunications, and finance. The country's main economic sectors are tourism, tea export, clothing, rice production, and other agricultural products. In addition to these economic sectors, overseas employment, especially in the Middle East, contributes substantially in foreign exchange.[239]
As of 2010[update], the service sector makes up 60% of GDP, the industrial sector 28%, and the agriculture sector 12%.[239] The private sector accounts for 85% of the economy.[240] China, India and the United States are Sri Lanka's largest trading partners.[241] Economic disparities exist between the provinces with the Western Province contributing 45.1% of the GDP and the Southern Province and the Central Province contributing 10.7% and 10%, respectively.[242] With the end of the war, the Northern Province reported a record 22.9% GDP growth in 2010.[243]
The per capita income of Sri Lanka doubled from 2005 to 2011.[245] During the same period, poverty dropped from 15.2% to 7.6%, unemployment rate dropped from 7.2% to 4.9%, market capitalisation of the Colombo Stock Exchange quadrupled, and the budget deficit doubled.[239] Over 90% of the households in Sri Lanka are electrified; 87% of the population have access to safe drinking water; and 39% have access to pipe-borne water.[239] Income inequality has also dropped in recent years, indicated by a Gini coefficient of 0.36 in 2010.[246]
The 2011 Global Competitiveness Report, published by the World Economic Forum, described Sri Lanka's economy as transitioning from the factor-driven stage to the efficiency-driven stage and that it ranked 52nd in global competitiveness.[247] Also, out of the 142 countries surveyed, Sri Lanka ranked 45th in health and primary education, 32nd in business sophistication, 42nd in innovation, and 41st in goods market efficiency. In 2016, Sri Lanka ranked 5th in the World Giving Index, registering high levels of contentment and charitable behaviour in its society.[248] In 2010, The New York Times placed Sri Lanka at the top of its list of 31 places to visit.[249] S&P Dow Jones Indices classifies Sri Lanka as a frontier market as of 2018.[250] Sri Lanka ranks well above other South Asian countries in the Human Development Index (HDI) with an index of 0.750.
By 2016, the country's debt soared as it was developing its infrastructure to the point of near bankruptcy which required a bailout from the International Monetary Fund (IMF)[251] The IMF had agreed to provide a US$1.5 billion bailout loan in April 2016 after Sri Lanka provided a set of criteria intended to improve its economy. By the fourth quarter of 2016, the debt was estimated to be $64.9 billion. Additional debt had been incurred in the past by state-owned organisations and this was said to be at least $9.5 billion. Since early 2015, domestic debt increased by 12% and external debt by 25%.[252] In November 2016, the IMF reported that the initial disbursement was larger than US$150 million originally planned, a full US$162.6 million (SDR 119.894 million). The agency's evaluation for the first tranche was cautiously optimistic about the future. Under the program Sri Lankan government implemented a new Inland Revenue Act and an automatic fuel pricing formula which were noted by the IMF in its fourth review. In 2018 China agreed to bail out Sri Lanka with a loan of $1.25 billion to deal with foreign debt repayment spikes in 2019 to 2021.[253][254][255]
According to the BBC, in September 2021 Sri Lanka is going through a major economic crisis.[256] The Chief of its Central Bank has stepped down amid the crisis.[257] The Parliament has declared emergency regulations due to the crisis, seeking to ban "food hoarding".[258][259]
In 2021 Sri Lanka started the first "100% organic farming" program and imposed a countrywide ban on inorganic fertilizers and pesticides in June 2021. The program was welcomed by its advisor Vandana Shiva,[260] but ignored critical voices from scientific and farming community who warned about possible collapse of farming,[261][262][263][264][265] including financial crisis due to devaluation of national currency pivoted around tea industry.[261] The situation in tea industry was described as critical, with farming under the organic program being described as 10x more expensive and producing half of the yield by the farmers.[266] In September 2021 the government announced "economic emergency", as the situation was further aggravated by falling national currency exchange rate, inflation rising as result of high food prices, and pandemic restrictions in tourism which further decreased country's income.[256]
Sri Lanka wants to transition to 100% biological agriculture; the trade in chemical fertilizers and pesticides has been banned. The government cancelled some of these measures, but importing urea remains banned.[267]
Sri Lanka has roughly 22,156,000 people and an annual population growth rate of 1.14%. The birth rate is 17.6 births per 1,000 people, and the death rate is 6.2 deaths per 1,000 people.[239] Population density is highest in western Sri Lanka, especially in and around the capital. Sinhalese constitute the largest ethnic group in the country, with 74.8% of the total population.[268] Sri Lankan Tamils are the second major ethnic group in the island, with a percentage of 11.2%. Moors comprise 9.2%. There are also small ethnic groups such as the Burghers (of mixed European descent) and Malays from Southeast Asia. Moreover, there is a small population of Vedda people who are believed to be the original indigenous group to inhabit the island.[269]
Sinhala and Tamil are the two official languages.[270] The constitution defines English as the link language. English is widely used for education, scientific and commercial purposes. Members of the Burgher community speak variant forms of Portuguese Creole and Dutch with varying proficiency, while members of the Malay community speak a form of Creole Malay that is unique to the island.[271]
Buddhism is the largest and is considered as an "Official religion" of Sri Lanka under Chapter II, Article 9, "The Republic of Sri Lanka shall give to Buddhism the foremost place and accordingly it shall be the duty of the State to protect and foster the Buddha Sasana".[274][275]Buddhism is practiced by 70.2% of the Sri Lankan's population with most being predominantly from Theravada school of thought.[276] Most Buddhists are of the Sinhalese ethnic group with minority Tamils. Buddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka in the 2nd century BCE by venerable Mahinda Maurya.[276] A sapling of the Bodhi Tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment was brought to Sri Lanka during the same time. The Pāli Canon (Thripitakaya), having previously been preserved as an oral tradition, was first committed to writing in Sri Lanka around 30 BCE.[277] Sri Lanka has the longest continuous history of Buddhism of any predominantly Buddhist nation.[276] During periods of decline, the Sri Lankan monastic lineage was revived through contact with Thailand and Burma.[277]
Hinduism was the dominant religion in Sri Lanka before the arrival of Buddhism in the 3rd century BCE. Buddhism was introduced into Sri Lanka by Mahinda, the son of the Emperor Ashoka, during the reign of King Devanampiya Tissa.[278] The Sinhalese embraced Buddhism and Tamils remain Hindus in Sri Lanka. However it was activity from across the Palk Strait that truly set the scene for Hinduism's survival in Sri Lanka. Shaivism (devotional worship of Lord Shiva) was the dominant branch practised by the Tamil peoples, thus most of the traditional Hindu temple architecture and philosophy of Sri Lanka drew heavily from this particular strand of Hinduism. Thirugnanasambanthar mentioned the names of a number of Sri Lankan Hindu temples in his works.[279]
Hinduism is the second most prevalent religion and predates Buddhism.[280] Islam is the third most prevalent religion in the country, having first been brought to the island by Arab traders over the course of many centuries, starting around the 7th century CE. Most Muslims are Sunni who follow the Shafi'i school.[281] Most followers today are believed to be descendants of those Arab traders and the local women they married.[282] Christianity reached the country through Western colonists in the early 16th century.[283] Around 7.4% of the Sri Lankan population are Christians, of whom 82% are Roman Catholics who trace their religious heritage directly to the Portuguese. Tamil Catholics attribute their religious heritage to St. Francis Xavier as well as Portuguese missionaries. The remaining Christians are evenly split between the Anglican Church of Ceylon and other Protestant denominations.[284] There is also a small population of Zoroastrian immigrants from India (Parsis) who settled in Ceylon during the period of British rule,[285] but this community has steadily dwindled in recent years.[286]
Religion plays a prominent role in the life and culture of Sri Lankans. The Buddhist majority observe Poya Days each month according to the Lunar calendar, and Hindus and Muslims also observe their own holidays. In a 2008 Gallup poll, Sri Lanka was ranked the third most religious country in the world, with 99% of Sri Lankans saying religion was an important part of their daily life.[287]
Largest cities or towns in Sri Lanka (2012 Department of Census and Statistics enumeration)[288] | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | ||
Colombo Kaduwela | 1 | Colombo | Western | 561,314 | 11 | Galle | Southern | 86,333 | Maharagama Kesbewa |
2 | Kaduwela | Western | 252,041 | 12 | Batticaloa | Eastern | 86,227 | ||
3 | Maharagama | Western | 196,423 | 13 | Jaffna | Northern | 80,829 | ||
4 | Kesbewa | Western | 185,122 | 14 | Matara | Southern | 74,193 | ||
5 | Dehiwala-Mount Lavinia | Western | 184,468 | 15 | Gampaha | Western | 62,335 | ||
6 | Moratuwa | Western | 168,280 | 16 | Katunayake | Western | 60,915 | ||
7 | Negombo | Western | 142,449 | 17 | Boralesgamuwa | Western | 60,110 | ||
8 | Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte | Western | 107,925 | 18 | Kolonnawa | Western | 60,044 | ||
9 | Kalmunai | Eastern | 99,893 | 19 | Anuradhapura | North Central | 50,595 | ||
10 | Kandy | Central | 98,828 | 20 | Trincomalee | Eastern | 48,351 |
Sri Lankans have a life expectancy of 77.9 years at birth, which is 10% higher than the world average.[239] The infant mortality rate stands at 8.5 per 1,000 births and the maternal mortality rate at 0.39 per 1,000 births, which is on par with figures from developed countries. The universal "pro-poor"[289] health care system adopted by the country has contributed much towards these figures.[290] Sri Lanka ranks first among southeast Asian countries with respect to deaths by suicide, with 33 deaths per 100,000 persons. According to the Department of Census and Statistics, poverty, destructive pastimes, and inability to cope with stressful situations are the main causes behind the high suicide rates.[291]On 8 July 2020, the World Health Organization declared that Sri Lanka had successfully eliminated rubella and measles ahead of their 2023 target.[292]
With a literacy rate of 92.5%,[239] Sri Lanka has one of the most literate populations amongst developing nations.[293] Its youth literacy rate stands at 98.8%,[294] computer literacy rate at 35%,[295] and primary school enrollment rate at over 99%.[296] An education system which dictates 9 years of compulsory schooling for every child is in place.
The free education system established in 1945[297] is a result of the initiative of C. W. W. Kannangara and A. Ratnayake.[298][299] It is one of the few countries in the world that provide universal free education from primary to tertiary stage.[300] Kannangara led the establishment of the Madhya Vidyalayas (central schools) in different parts of the country in order to provide education to Sri Lanka's rural children.[295] In 1942, a special education committee proposed extensive reforms to establish an efficient and quality education system for the people. However, in the 1980s changes to this system separated the administration of schools between the central government and the provincial government. Thus the elite national schools are controlled directly by the ministry of education and the provincial schools by the provincial government. Sri Lanka has approximately 9,675 government schools and 817 private schools and pirivenas.[239]
Sri Lanka has 17 public universities.[301][302] A lack of responsiveness of the education system to labour market requirements, disparities in access to quality education, lack of an effective linkage between secondary and tertiary education remain major challenges for the education sector.[303] A number of private, degree awarding institutions have emerged in recent times to fill in these gaps, yet the participation at tertiary level education remains at 5.1%.[304] Sri Lanka was ranked 101st in the Global Innovation Index in 2020, down from 89th in 2019.[305][306][307][308]
Science fiction author Arthur C. Clarke served as chancellor of Moratuwa University from 1979 to 2002.[309]
Sri Lanka has an extensive road network for inland transportation. With more than 100,000 km (62,000 mi) of paved roads,[310] it has one of the highest road densities in the world (1.5 km or 0.93 mi of paved roads per every 1 km2 or 0.39 sq mi of land). The road network consists of 35 A-Grade highways and four controlled-access highways.[311][312] A and B grade roads are national (arterial) highways administered by Road Development Authority.[313] C and D grade roads are provincial roads coming under the purview of the Provincial Road Development Authority of the respective province. The other roads are local roads falling under local government authorities.
The railway network, operated by the state-run National Railway operator Sri Lanka Railways, spans 1,447 kilometres (900 mi).[314] Sri Lanka also has three deep-water ports at Colombo, Galle, and Trincomalee, in addition to the newest port being built at Hambantota.
The Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation (formerly Radio Ceylon) is the oldest-running radio station in Asia,[315] established in 1923 by Edward Harper just three years after broadcasting began in Europe.[315] The station broadcasts services in Sinhala, Tamil, English and Hindi. Since the 1980s, many private radio stations have also been introduced. Broadcast television was introduced in 1979 when the Independent Television Network was launched. Initially, all television stations were state-controlled, but private television networks began broadcasting in 1992.[316]
As of 2010[update], 51 newspapers (30 Sinhala, 10 Tamil, 11 English) are published and 34 TV stations and 52 radio stations are in operation.[239] In recent years, freedom of the press in Sri Lanka has been alleged by media freedom groups to be amongst the poorest in democratic countries.[317] Alleged abuse of a newspaper editor by a senior government minister[318] achieved international notoriety because of the unsolved murder of the editor's predecessor, Lasantha Wickrematunge,[319] who had been a critic of the government and had presaged his own death in a posthumously published article.[320]
Officially, the constitution of Sri Lanka guarantees human rights as ratified by the United Nations. However, human rights has come under criticism by Amnesty International, Freedom from Torture, Human Rights Watch,[321] and the United States Department of State.[322] British colonial rulers,[323] the LTTE, and the government of Sri Lanka have been accused of violating human rights. A report by an advisory panel to the UN secretary-general accused both the LTTE and the Sri Lankan government of war crimes during final stages of the civil war.[324][325] Corruption remains a problem in Sri Lanka, and there is little protection for those who stand up against corruption.[326] The 135-year-old Article 365 of the Sri Lankan Penal Code criminalises gay sex and provides for a penalty of up to ten years in prison.[327]
The UN Human Rights Council has documented over 12,000 named individuals who have disappeared after detention by security forces in Sri Lanka, the second highest figure in the world since the Working Group came into being in 1980.[328] The Sri Lankan government confirmed that 6,445 of these died. Allegations of human rights abuses have not ended with the close of the ethnic conflict.[329]
UN Human Rights Commissioner Navanethem Pillay visited Sri Lanka in May 2013. After her visit, she said: "The war may have ended [in Sri Lanka], but in the meantime democracy has been undermined and the rule of law eroded." Pillay spoke about the military's increasing involvement in civilian life and reports of military land grabbing. She also said that, while in Sri Lanka, she had been allowed to go wherever she wanted, but that Sri Lankans who came to meet her were harassed and intimidated by security forces.[330][331]
In 2012, the UK charity Freedom from Torture reported that it had received 233 referrals of torture survivors from Sri Lanka for clinical treatment or other services provided by the charity. In the same year, the group published Out of the Silence, which documents evidence of torture in Sri Lanka and demonstrates that the practice has continued long after the end of the civil war in 2009.[332] On 29 July 2020, Human Rights Watch said that the Sri Lanka government has targeted lawyers, human rights defenders, and journalists to suppress criticism against the government.[333]
The culture of Sri Lanka is influenced primarily by Buddhism and Hinduism.[334] Sri Lanka is the home to two main traditional cultures: the Sinhalese (centred in Kandy and Anuradhapura) and the Tamil (centred in Jaffna). Tamils co-existed with the Sinhalese people since then, and the early mixing rendered the two ethnic groups almost physically indistinct.[335] Ancient Sri Lanka is marked for its genius in hydraulic engineering and architecture. The British colonial culture has also influenced the locals. The rich cultural traditions shared by all Sri Lankan cultures is the basis of the country's long life expectancy, advanced health standards and high literacy rate.[336]
Dishes include rice and curry, pittu, kiribath, wholemeal roti, string hoppers, wattalapam (a rich pudding of Malay origin made with coconut milk, jaggery, cashews, eggs, and spices including cinnamon and nutmeg), kottu, and appam.[337] Jackfruit may sometimes replace rice. Traditionally food is served on a plantain leaf or lotus leaf. Middle Eastern influences and practices are found in traditional Moor dishes, while Dutch and Portuguese influences are found with the island's Burgher community preserving their culture through traditional dishes such as lamprais (rice cooked in stock and baked in a banana leaf), breudher (Dutch holiday biscuit), and bolo fiado (Portuguese-style layer cake).
In April, Sri Lankans celebrate the Buddhist and Hindu new year festivals.[338] Esala Perahera is a symbolic Buddhist festival consisting of dances and decorated elephants held in Kandy in July and August.[339] Fire dances, whip dances, Kandyan dances and various other cultural dances are integral parts of the festival. Christians celebrate Christmas on 25 December to celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ and Easter to celebrate the resurrection of Jesus. Tamils celebrate Thai Pongal and Maha Shivaratri, and Muslims celebrate Hajj and Ramadan.
The movie Kadawunu Poronduwa (The Broken Promise), produced by S. M. Nayagam of Chitra Kala Movietone, heralded the coming of Sri Lankan cinema in 1947. Ranmuthu Duwa (Island of Treasures) marked the transition cinema from black-and-white to colour. In recent years, movies have featured subjects such as family melodrama, social transformation and the years of conflict between the military and the LTTE.[340] The Sri Lankan cinematic style is similar to Bollywood movies. In 1979, movie attendance rose to an all-time high, but has been in steady decline since then.[341]
An influential filmmaker is Lester James Peiris, who has directed a number of movies which led to global acclaim, including Rekava (Line of Destiny, 1956), Gamperaliya (The Changing Village, 1964), Nidhanaya (The Treasure, 1970) and Golu Hadawatha (Cold Heart, 1968).[342] Sri Lankan-Canadian poet Rienzi Crusz, is the subject of a documentary on his life in Sri Lanka. His work is published in Sinhala and English. Naturalised Canadian Michael Ondaatje is well known for his English-language novels and three films.
The earliest music in Sri Lanka came from theatrical performances such as Kolam, Sokari and Nadagam.[343] Traditional music instruments such as Béra, Thammátama, Daŭla and Răbān were performed at these dramas. The first music album, Nurthi, recorded in 1903, was released through Radio Ceylon. Songwriters like Mahagama Sekara and Ananda Samarakoon and musicians such as W. D. Amaradeva, Victor Ratnayake, Nanda Malini and Clarence Wijewardene have contributed much towards the progression of Sri Lankan music.[344] Baila originated among Kaffirs or the Afro-Sinhalese community.[345]
There are three main styles of Sri Lankan classical dance. They are, the Kandyan dances, low country dances and Sabaragamuwa dances. Of these, the Kandyan style is most prominent. It is a sophisticated form of dance[346] that consists of five sub-categories: Ves dance, Naiyandi dance, Udekki dance, Pantheru dance and 18 Vannam.[347] An elaborate headdress is worn by the male dancers, and a drum called Geta Béraya is used to assist the dancers to keep on rhythm.[348]
The history of Sri Lankan painting and sculpture can be traced as far back as to the 2nd or 3rd century BCE.[349] The earliest mention about the art of painting on Mahāvaṃsa, is to the drawing of a palace on cloth using cinnabar in the 2nd century BCE. The chronicles have a description of various paintings in relic-chambers of Buddhist stupas and in monastic residence.
Theatre came to the country when a Parsi theatre company from Mumbai introduced Nurti, a blend of European and Indian theatrical conventions to the Colombo audience in the 19th century.[347] The golden age of Sri Lankan drama and theatre began with the staging of Maname, a play written by Ediriweera Sarachchandra in 1956.[350] It was followed by a series of popular dramas like Sinhabāhu, Pabāvatī, Mahāsāra, Muudu Puththu and Subha saha Yasa.
Sri Lankan literature spans at least two millennia and is heir to the Aryan literary tradition as embodied in the hymns of the Rigveda.[351] The Pāli Canon, the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, was written down in Sri Lanka during the Fourth Buddhist council, at the Alulena cave temple, Kegalle, as early as 29 BCE.[352] Chronicles such as the Mahāvaṃsa, written in the 6th century, provide vivid descriptions of Sri Lankan dynasties. According to the German philosopher Wilhelm Geiger, the chronicles are based on Sinhala Atthakatha (commentary).[351] The oldest surviving prose work is the Dhampiya-Atuva-Getapadaya, compiled in the 9th century CE.[351] The greatest literary feats of medieval Sri Lanka include Sandesha Kāvya (poetic messages) such as Girā Sandeshaya (parrot message), Hansa Sandeshaya (swan message) and Salalihini Sandeshaya (myna message). Poetry including Kavsilumina, Kavya-Sekharaya (Diadem of Poetry) and proses such as Saddharma-Ratnāvaliya, Amāvatura (Flood of Nectar) and Pujāvaliya are also notable works of this period, which is considered to be the golden age of Sri Lankan literature.[351] The first modern-day novel, Meena by Simon de Silva appeared in 1905[347] and was followed by several revolutionary literary works. Martin Wickramasinghe, the author of Madol Doova is considered the iconic figure of Sri Lankan literature.[353]
While the national sport is volleyball, by far the most popular sport in the country is cricket.[354] Rugby union also enjoys extensive popularity,[355] as do association football, netball and tennis. Aquatic sports such as boating, surfing, swimming, kitesurfing[356] and scuba diving attract many Sri Lankans and foreign tourists. There are two styles of martial arts native to Sri Lanka: Cheena di and Angampora.[357]
The Sri Lanka national cricket team achieved considerable success beginning in the 1990s, rising from underdog status to winning the 1996 Cricket World Cup.[358] They also won the 2014 ICC World Twenty20 played in Bangladesh, beating India in the final. In addition, Sri Lanka became the runners-up of the Cricket World Cup in 2007[359] and 2011,[360] and of the ICC World Twenty20 in 2009 and 2012.[361] Former Sri Lankan off-spinner Muttiah Muralitharan has been rated as the greatest test match bowler ever by Wisden Cricketers' Almanack,[362] and four Sri Lankan cricketers ranked 2nd (Sangakkara), 4th (Jayasuriya), 5th (Jayawardene) and 11th (Dilshan) highest ODI run scorers of all time, which is the second best by a team. Sri Lanka has won the Asia Cup in 1986,[363] 1997,[364] 2004,[365] 2008[366] and 2014.[367] Sri Lanka once held highest team score in all three formats of cricket.[368] The country co-hosted the Cricket World Cup in 1996 and 2011, and hosted the 2012 ICC World Twenty20.
Sri Lankans have won two medals at Olympic Games: one silver, by Duncan White at 1948 London Olympics for men's 400 metres hurdles;[369] and one silver by Susanthika Jayasinghe at 2000 Sydney Olympics for women's 200 metres.[370] In 1973, Muhammad Lafir won the World Billiards Championship, the highest feat by a Sri Lankan in a Cue sport.[371] Sri Lanka has also won the Carrom World Championship titles twice in 2012, 2016[372] and 2018, men's team becoming champions and women's team won second place.
... the Pali canon of Theravada is the earliest known collection of Buddhist writings ...
|journal=
(help)Parakramabahu 1 further extended the system to the highest resplendent peak of hydraulic civilization of the country's history.
... and when at the height of its prosperity, during the long and glorious reign of Parakramabahu the Great ...
His [Parakramabahu's] reign is described by Tumour as having been the most martial, enterprising, and glorious in Singhalese history.
..His invasion in 1215 was more or less a looting expedition..
While the government is aiming to raise its low revenue collection, partly through an increase in the value-added tax rate ... the country has a spotty record on tax collection.
"We still don't know the exact total debt number," Sri Lanka's prime minister admitted to parliament earlier this month.
[IMF] completed the first review of Sri Lanka's economic performance under the program supported by a three-year extended arrangement under the Extended Fund Facility (EFF) arrangement.
By diverting the attention of policymakers towards pointless nonscientific arguments instead of promoting such integrated management systems and high technological fertilizer production, will be only a time-wasting effort and meanwhile, the global demand for Ceylon Tea will generate diminishing returns. At present, there are about 500,000 direct beneficiaries from the tea industry and about 600 factories are operating around the country. In general, the livelihood of around 3 million people is directly and indirectly woven around the domestic tea industry. The researchers and the experienced growers have predicted that a 50 percent reduction in the yield has to be anticipated with the ban of chemical fertilizer. The negative implication of this yield reduction is such that there is a risk of collapsing the banking sector which is centralized around the tea industry in the major tea growing areas including Ratnapura, Galle, Matara, Kaluthara, and Kegalle.
'The original mandate derives from Commission on Human Rights resolution 20 (XXXVI) of 29 February 1980','Since its establishment, the Working Group has transmitted 12,460 cases to the Government; of those, 40 cases have been clarified on the basis of information provided by the source, 6,535 cases have been clarified on the basis of information provided by the Government, 214 cases were found to be duplications and were therefore deleted, and 5,671 remain outstanding.'
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Ceylon". |
Wikimedia Atlas of Sri Lanka