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Выморочным / ɪ s tʃ я т / [1] [2] является общим законом доктрина, передает недвижимую собственность лица, умершего без наследников короны или государства. Он служит для того, чтобы собственность не оставалась в «подвешенном состоянии» без признания права собственности. Первоначально он применялся к ряду ситуаций, когда законный интерес к земле был уничтожен в силу закона , так что право собственности на землю перешло к непосредственно вышестоящему феодалу .

Этимология [ править ]

Термин «escheat» происходит от латинского ex-cadere - «выпадение» через средневековый французский escheoir . [3] Имеется в виду феодальное поместье на земле, переходящее из владения арендатора во владение лорда.

Истоки феодализма [ править ]

В феодальной Англии вымогательство относилось к ситуации, когда арендатор платы (или «феодального владения») умер без наследника или совершил уголовное преступление . В случае такой кончины главного арендатора , гонорар возвращался к королевскому владению навсегда, когда он снова становился просто земельным участком без арендатора, но мог быть воссоздан в качестве платы путем выплаты другому лицу. последователи короля. Если умерший подвергся субинфеудии со стороны главного арендатора, плата временно возвращалась короне в течение одного года и одного дня по праву primer seisin, после чего она перешла к верховному лорду, который предоставил его умершему путем enfeoffment. . Со временГенрих III , монархия проявляла особый интерес к выкупу как источнику дохода.

Фон [ править ]

При норманнском завоевании Англии вся земля Англии была объявлена ​​личной собственностью Вильгельма Завоевателя под аллодиальным титулом . Таким образом, монарх стал единственным «владельцем» всей земли в королевстве, положение, которое сохраняется и по сей день. Затем он предоставил его своим любимым последователям, которые, таким образом, стали главными арендаторами по различным договорам феодального землевладения . Такие владения, даже самые высокие из « феодального баронства », никогда не давали права собственности на землю, а только владели правами на нее, то есть владением земельным имением . Таким образом, таких лиц правильно называют «землевладельцами» или «арендаторами».(от латинскоготенео держать), а не владельцы. При свободном владении, то есть на правах безусловного владения , такие владения передавались по наследству законному наследнику владельца. При уплате премии, называемой феодальным пособием, в казну , такой наследник имел право потребовать от короля возмещения соответствующей пошлины .

Where no legal heir existed, the logic of the situation was that the fief had ceased to exist as a legal entity, since being tenantless no one was living who had been enfeoffed with the land, and the land was thus technically owned by either the crown or the immediate overlord (where the fee had been subinfeudated by the tenant-in-chief to a mesne lord, and perhaps the process of subinfeudation had been continued by a lower series of mesne-lords) as ultimus haeres. Logically therefore it was in the occupation of the crown alone, that is to say in the royal demesne. This was the basic operation of an escheat (excadere), a failure of heirs.

Вымогательство также могло иметь место, если арендатор был объявлен вне закона или осужден за тяжкое преступление, когда король мог воспользоваться древним правом растрачивать землю преступника в течение года и дня, после чего земля перешла бы к сюзерену. (Однако один виновный в государственной измене (а не просто в совершении преступления) уступил все земли королю. Иоанн и его наследники часто настаивали на захвате в качестве terrae Normannorum (то есть «земель норманнов») английских земель этих лордов с владениями в Нормандии. кто предпочитал быть норманнами, а не англичанами, когда победы Филиппа II из Франциивынудили их сделать провозглашение верности Франции.) Поскольку отказ от феодальных уз считался уголовным преступлением, лорды могли лишить земли тех, кто отказывался выполнять их феодальные услуги. С другой стороны, были и арендаторы, которые просто вяло выполняли свои обязанности, но при этом не бунтовали против лорда. Судебные средства правовой защиты против подобных вещей даже во времена Брактона были доступны, но считались трудоемкими и часто неэффективными для достижения желаемого результата. Самым распространенным механизмом было задержание , также известное как бедствие (districtio), при котором лорд изымал движимое имущество или имущество, принадлежащее арендатору, и удерживался до тех пор, пока не было достигнуто исполнение. Эта практика была рассмотрена в 1267 г.Статут Мальборо . Несмотря на это, он оставался наиболее распространенным внесудебным методом, применяемым повелителями во времена Quia Emptores. [4]

Таким образом, согласно английскому общему праву, вымогательство могло произойти двумя основными способами:

  1. A person's lands escheated to the immediate overlord if he was convicted of a felony (but not treason, in that event the land was forfeited to the Crown). If the person was executed for felony, his heirs were attainted, i.e. were ineligible to inherit. In most common-law jurisdictions, this type of escheat has been abolished outright, for example in the United States under Article 3 § 3 of the United States Constitution, which states that attainders for treason do not give rise to posthumous forfeiture, or "corruption of blood".
  2. If a person had no heir to receive his lands under his Will, or under the laws of intestacy, then any land he owned at death would escheat. This rule has been replaced in most common-law jurisdictions by bona vacantia or a similar concept.

Procedure[edit]

From the 12th century onward, the Crown appointed escheators to manage escheats and report to the Exchequer, with one escheator per county established by the middle of the 14th century. Upon the death of a tenant-in-chief, the escheator would be instructed by a writ of diem clausit extremum ("he has closed his last day", i.e. he is dead) issued by the king's chancery, to empanel a jury to hold an "inquisition post mortem" to ascertain who the legal heir was, if any, and what was the extent of the land held. Thus it would be revealed whether the king had any rights to the land. It was also important for the king to know who the heir was, and to assess his personal qualities, since he would thenceforth form a constituent part of the royal army, if he held under military tenure. If there was any doubt, the escheator would seize the land and refer the case to the king's court where it would be settled, ensuring that not one day's revenue would be lost. This would be a source of concern with land-holders when there were delays from the court.

Current operation[edit]

Jury finding from Kentucky County, Virginia County Court from an inquest of escheat. A twelve-man panel adjudged John Connolly and Alexander McKee to be British citizens within the meaning of the Virginia Assembly Act of 1779 concerning British subjects and their rights under Virginia law. (The Assembly had seized Connolly's claims prior to the inquest.) The jury found that the lands of Connolly and McKee were forfeited as they were British (and not American) citizens. Daniel Boone was listed as member of jury. (July 1780)

Most common-law jurisdictions have abolished the concept of feudal land tenure of property, and so the concept of escheat has lost something of its meaning. In England and Wales, the possibility of escheat of a deceased person's property to the feudal overlord was abolished by the Administration of Estates Act 1925; however, the concept of Bona vacantia means that the crown (or Duchy of Cornwall or Duchy of Lancaster) can still receive such property if no one else can be found who is eligible to inherit it.

The term is often now applied to the transfer of the title to a person's property to the state when the person dies intestate without any other person capable of taking the property as heir. For example, a common-law jurisdiction's intestacy statute might provide that when someone dies without a will, and is not survived by a spouse, descendants, parents, grandparents, descendants of parents, children or grandchildren of grandparents, or great-grandchildren of grandparents, then the person's estate will escheat to the state.

In some jurisdictions, escheat can also occur when an entity, typically a bank, credit union or other financial institution, holds money or property which appears to be unclaimed, for instance due to a lack of activity on the account by way of deposits, withdrawals or any other transactions for a lengthy time in a cash account. In many jurisdictions, if the owner cannot be located, such property can be revocably escheated to the state.

In commerce, it is the process of reassigning legal title in unclaimed or abandoned payroll checks, insurance payouts, or stocks and shares whose owners cannot be traced, to a state authority (in the United States). A company is required to file unclaimed property reports with its state annually and, in some jurisdictions, to make a good-faith effort to find the owners of their dormant accounts. The escheating criteria are set by individual state regulations.

England and Wales[edit]

Bankruptcies and liquidations[edit]

Escheat can still occur in England and Wales, if a person is made bankrupt or a corporation is liquidated. Usually this means that all the property held by that person is 'vested in' (transferred to) the Official Receiver or Trustee in Bankruptcy. However, it is open to the Receiver or Trustee to refuse to accept that property by disclaiming it. It is relatively common for a trustee in bankruptcy to disclaim freehold property which may give rise to a liability, for example the common parts of a block of flats owned by the bankrupt would ordinarily pass to the trustee to be realised in order to pay his debts, but the property may give the landlord an obligation to spend money for the benefit of lessees of the flats. The bankruptcy of the original owner means that the freehold is no longer the bankrupt's legal property, and the disclaimer destroys the freehold estate, so that the land ceases to be owned by anyone and effectively escheats to become land held by the Crown in demesne. This situation affects a few hundred properties each year.

Although such escheated property is owned by the Crown, it is not part of the Crown Estate, unless the Crown (through the Crown Estate Commissioners) 'completes' the escheat, by taking steps to exert rights as owner. However, usually, in the example given above, the tenants of the flats, or their mortgagees would exercise their rights given by the Insolvency Act 1986 to have the freehold property transferred to them. This is the main difference between escheat and bona vacantia, as in the latter, a grant takes place automatically, with no need to 'complete' the transaction.

Registration of Crown land[edit]

One consequence of the Land Registration Act 1925 was that only estates in land (freehold or leasehold) could be registered. Land held directly by the Crown, known as property in the "royal demesne", is not held under any vestigial feudal tenure (the crown has no historical overlord other than, for brief periods, the papacy) and there is therefore no estate to register. This had the consequence that freeholds which escheated to the Crown ceased to be registrable. This created a slow drain of property out of registration, amounting to some hundreds of freehold titles in each year.

The problem was noted by the Law Commission in their report "Land Registration for the Twenty-First Century". The Land Registration Act 2002 was passed in response to that report. It provides that land held in demesne by the Crown may be registered.

United States[edit]

Transfer agents and escheatment[edit]

Escheatment is the process of returning lost or unclaimed property to the government of a State, for safekeeping until the owner(s) is identified. Geographic jurisdiction of the State is determined by the last known address of the original owner. Each of the United States has laws regulating escheatment, with holding periods typically ranging around five years. The legal principle behind escheatment is that all property has a legally recognized owner; therefore, if the original owner cannot be found within a specified time, government is presumed to be the owner.[5]

Escheats are performed on a revocable basis. Thus, if property has escheated to a State but the original owner subsequently is found, escheatment is revoked and ownership of the property reverts to that original owner.

Lost shareholders[edit]

According to SEC Rule 17 CFR 240.17f-1: Transfer Agents are obligated by the SEC to report to Commission (specifically to its designee; the SEC's Securities Information System) anytime a certificate is known to be lost or missing for at least 2 days.[6] Transfer Agents must search for the holder's SSN or EIN utilizing an information database system, or if not available, exercise their best effort to match the holder's name and address through these systems. All Transfer Agents must report all lost or missing certificates/shareholders on their own annual filings.[7]

See also[edit]

  • Bona vacantia
  • Breakage
  • Doctrine of lapse
  • History of the English fiscal system
  • Intestacy
  • Quia Emptores

Sources[edit]

  • S.T. Gibson, "The Escheatries, 1327–1341", English Historical Review, 36(1921).
  • John Bean, The Decline of English Feudalism, 1215–1540, 1968.

References[edit]

  1. ^ "Escheat". Retrieved 2 November 2011.
  2. ^ Walker, John (1838). A Critical Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor of the English Language. ISBN 9781402171710.
  3. ^ Collins Dictionary of the English Language, London, 1986, p.520
  4. ^ Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law, Vol 1, pp. 355–366, Cambridge University Press, 1968
  5. ^ Staff, Investopedia (18 November 2003). "Escheat". Investopedia. Retrieved 26 January 2018.
  6. ^ "17 CFR 240.17f-1 - Requirements for reporting and inquiry with respect to missing, lost, counterfeit or stolen securities". LII / Legal Information Institute. Retrieved 26 January 2018.
  7. ^ "Escheatment". Retrieved 26 January 2018.