Реклама

Coca-Cola рекламу с 1890 - х годов

Реклама - это маркетинговая коммуникация, в которой используется открыто спонсируемое неличное сообщение для продвижения или продажи продукта, услуги или идеи. ^{[1] : 465} Спонсоры рекламы - это обычно компании, желающие продвигать свои продукты или услуги. Реклама отличается от связей с общественностью тем, что рекламодатель платит за сообщение и контролирует его. Он отличается от личных продаж тем, что сообщение не носит личного характера, т. Е. Не адресовано конкретному человеку. ^{[1] : 661 672} Реклама передается через различные средства массовой информации ^[2], включая традиционные средства массовой информации.такие как газеты, журналы, телевидение , радио , наружная реклама или прямая почтовая рассылка ; и новые медиа, такие как результаты поиска , блоги, социальные сети, веб-сайты или текстовые сообщения. Фактическое представление сообщения на носителе называется рекламой : рекламой или для краткости рекламой .

Коммерческая реклама часто стремится увеличить потребление своих продуктов или услуг посредством « брендинга », который связывает название продукта или изображение с определенными качествами в сознании потребителей. С другой стороны, объявления, которые предназначены для немедленной продажи, известны как реклама с прямым откликом . Некоммерческие организации, которые рекламируют не только потребительские товары или услуги, включают политические партии, группы по интересам, религиозные организации и правительственные учреждения. Некоммерческие организации могут использовать бесплатные методы убеждения , такие как публичное объявление . Реклама также может помочь убедить сотрудников или акционеров в жизнеспособности или успешности компании.

Современная реклама возникла на основе методов, представленных в рекламе табака в 1920-х годах, в первую очередь благодаря кампаниям Эдварда Бернейса , который считается основателем современной рекламы « Мэдисон Авеню ». ^{[3] [4]}

Мировые расходы на рекламу в 2015 году оцениваются в 529,43 миллиарда долларов  США . ^[5] Прогнозируемое распространение рекламы на 2017 год составило 40,4% на телевидении, 33,3% на цифровых ресурсах, 9% в газетах, 6,9% в журналах, 5,8% на наружных и 4,3% на радио. ^{[6] На} международном уровне крупнейшими («Большая пятерка») группами рекламных агентств являются Dentsu , Interpublic , Omnicom , Publicis и WPP . ^[7]

На латыни advertere означает «повернуться навстречу». ^[8]

История

Египтяне использовали папирус для изготовления рекламных объявлений и настенных плакатов. ^[9] Коммерческие послания и показы политической кампании были найдены в руинах Помпеи и древней Аравии . Проиграл и нашли рекламу на папирус был распространен в Древней Греции и Древнем Риме . Настенная или наскальная живопись для коммерческой рекламы - еще одно проявление древней формы рекламы, которая до сих пор присутствует во многих частях Азии, Африки и Южной Америки. Традиция настенной росписи восходит к индийским наскальным рисункам, датируемым 4000 годом до нашей эры. ^[10]

В древнем Китае самая ранняя известная реклама была устной, как записано в « Классике поэзии» (11-7 вв. До н.э.) о бамбуковых флейтах, на которых играли для продажи кондитерских изделий. Реклама обычно имеет форму каллиграфических вывесок и бумаги с тушью. Медная печатная форма, датируемая династией Сун, использовалась для печати плакатов в виде квадратного листа бумаги с логотипом кролика с надписью «Магазин тонких игл Цзинань Лю» и «Мы покупаем высококачественные стальные стержни и делаем высококачественные иглы. «Быть ​​готовым к использованию дома в кратчайшие сроки», написанное выше и ниже ^[11] , считается самым ранним идентифицированным печатным рекламным носителем в мире. ^[12]

В Европе, когда в средние века города начали расти, а население в целом не могло читать, вместо знаков с надписью «сапожник», «мельник», «портной» или «кузнец» изображения, связанные с их ремесло использовалось, например, в ботинке, костюме, шляпе, часах, бриллианте, подкове, свече или даже в мешке с мукой. Фрукты и овощи продавались на городской площади из-под телег и фургонов, а их владельцы использовали уличных звонков ( городских глашатаев ), чтобы объявить о своем местонахождении. Первый сборник таких рекламных объявлений был собран в "Les Crieries de Paris", стихотворении XIII века Гийома де ла Вильнева. ^[13]

В 18 веке в Англии в еженедельных газетах стала появляться реклама. Эта ранняя печатная реклама использовалась в основном для продвижения книг и газет, которые становились все более доступными с развитием печатного станка; и лекарства, пользующиеся повышенным спросом. Однако ложная реклама и так называемая « шарлатанская » реклама стали проблемой, которая положила начало регулированию рекламного контента.

19 век

Томаса Дж. Барратта из Лондона называют «отцом современной рекламы». ^{[14] [15] [16]} Работая в компании Pears Soap , Барратт создал эффективную рекламную кампанию для продуктов компании, в которой использовались целевые слоганы, изображения и фразы. Один из его слоганов: «Доброе утро. Вы пользовались грушевым мылом?» был известен в свое время и в 20 веке. ^{[17] [18]}

Барратт представил многие важные идеи, лежащие в основе успешной рекламы, и они были широко распространены в его время. Он постоянно подчеркивал важность сильного и эксклюзивного имиджа бренда Pears и подчеркивания доступности продукта с помощью кампаний по насыщению. Он также понимал важность постоянной переоценки рынка для изменения вкусов и нравов, заявив в 1907 году, что «вкусы меняются, мода меняется, и рекламодатель должен меняться вместе с ними. Идея, которая была эффективна поколение назад, потерпит неудачу, потеряет свою актуальность. и невыгодно, если представить его публике сегодня. Не то чтобы сегодняшняя идея всегда лучше, чем старая идея, но она другая - она ​​соответствует вкусу настоящего ». ^[15]

По мере того, как в 19 веке мировая экономика росла, росла и реклама. В Соединенных Штатах успех этого формата рекламы в конечном итоге привел к росту рекламы по почте.

В июне 1836 года французская газета La Presse первой включила на свои страницы платную рекламу, что позволило снизить ее цену, расширить круг читателей и повысить прибыльность, и вскоре формулу скопировали все заголовки. Около 1840 года Волни Б. Палмерзаложила основы современного рекламного агентства в Филадельфии. В 1842 году Палмер купил большое количество площадей в различных газетах по сниженной цене, а затем перепродал их рекламодателям по более высоким ценам. Фактическая реклама - копия, макет и иллюстрации - все еще была подготовлена ​​компанией, желающей рекламировать; по сути, Палмер был космическим брокером. Ситуация изменилась, когда в 1869 году в Филадельфии было основано первое рекламное агентство полного цикла NW Ayer & Son. Компания Ayer & Son предложила своим клиентам спланировать, создать и провести комплексные рекламные кампании. К 1900 году рекламное агентство стало центром творческого планирования, и реклама прочно утвердилась как профессия. ^[19] Примерно в то же время во Франции Шарль-Луи Гавасрасширил услуги своего информационного агентства Havas, включив в него маклерство рекламы, что сделало его первой французской группой, организованной. Сначала агентства были брокерами для размещения рекламы в газетах. ^[19]

20 век

Реклама в Соединенных Штатах резко возросла по мере того, как индустриализация расширила предложение готовой продукции. В 1919 году он составлял 2,5 процента валового внутреннего продукта (ВВП) США, а в период с того времени и по крайней мере до 2007 года он составлял в среднем 2,2 процента ВВП, хотя, возможно, он резко снизился после Великой рецессии .

Промышленность не могла получить выгоду от повышения производительности без существенного увеличения потребительских расходов. Это способствовало развитию массового маркетинга, призванного влиять на экономическое поведение населения в более широких масштабах. ^[21] В 1910-х и 1920-х годах рекламодатели в США приняли доктрину, согласно которой человеческие инстинкты можно преследовать и использовать - « сублимировать » в желание покупать товары. ^[22] Эдвард Бернейс , племянник Зигмунда Фрейда , стал ассоциироваться с этим методом, и его иногда называют основоположником современной рекламы и связей с общественностью. ^[23] Бернейс утверждал, что:

«[] Общий принцип, согласно которому люди в значительной степени движимы мотивами, которые они скрывают от самих себя, справедлив как для массы, так и для индивидуальной психологии. Очевидно, что успешный пропагандист должен понимать истинные мотивы и не довольствоваться причины, которые люди приводят за то, что они делают ". ^[24]

Другими словами, продажа продуктов, апеллируя к рациональному уму клиентов (основной метод, использовавшийся до Бернейса), была гораздо менее эффективна, чем продажа продуктов, основанная на бессознательных желаниях, которые, по мнению Бернейса, были истинными мотиваторами человеческих действий. «Секс продает» стал спорным вопросом , поскольку методы возбуждения и расширения аудитории бросают вызов общепринятой морали. ^{[25] [26]}

В 1920-е годы американское правительство под руководством министра торговли Герберта Гувера продвигало рекламу. Сам Гувер в 1925 году выступил перед Ассоциацией рекламных клубов мира с обращением под названием «Реклама - жизненно важная сила в нашей национальной жизни» ^[27]. В октябре 1929 года глава Бюро внешней и внутренней торговли США Джулиус Кляйн, заявил: «Реклама - ключ к мировому процветанию» ^[28]. Согласно европейскому экономическому журналу 1933 года, это было частью «беспрецедентного» сотрудничества между бизнесом и правительством в 1920-х годах. ^[29]

Табачные компании стали крупными рекламодателями для продажи сигарет в упаковке. ^[30] Табачные компании первыми применили новые методы рекламы, когда наняли Бернейса для создания положительных ассоциаций с курением табака. ^{[3] [4]}

Реклама также использовалась как средство культурной ассимиляции , побуждая рабочих обмениваться своими традиционными привычками и структурой сообщества в пользу общего «современного» образа жизни. ^[31] Важным инструментом влияния на рабочих-иммигрантов была Американская ассоциация газет на иностранных языках (AAFLN). AAFLN было прежде всего рекламным агентством, но также получило централизованный контроль над большей частью иммигрантской прессы. ^{[32] [33]}

На рубеже 20-го века реклама была одним из немногих вариантов карьеры для женщин. Поскольку женщины несут ответственность за большую часть совершенных домашних покупок, рекламодатели и агентства признали ценность понимания женщин в творческом процессе. Фактически, первая американская реклама сексуального надувательства была создана женщиной - для мыла. Несмотря на то, что по сегодняшним меркам это было скучно, в рекламе была изображена пара с надписью «Кожа, к которой ты любишь прикасаться». ^[34]

В 1920-е годы психологи Вальтер Д. Скотт и Джон Б. Уотсон внесли прикладную психологическую теорию в сферу рекламы. Скотт сказал: «Человека называли разумным животным, но с большей правдивостью его можно было бы назвать созданием внушения. Он разумен, но в большей степени поддается внушению». ^[35] Он продемонстрировал это с помощью своей рекламной техники прямой команды потребителю.

Радио 1920-х годов

В начале 1920-х годов первые радиостанции были созданы производителями радиооборудования, а затем некоммерческими организациями, такими как школы, клубы и общественные группы, которые также создали свои собственные станции. ^[36] Розничные торговцы и производители потребительских товаров быстро осознали потенциал радио в отношении потребителей в их доме и вскоре приняли рекламные методы, которые позволили бы их сообщениям выделяться; лозунги , талисманы и джинглы начали появляться на радио в 1920-х годах и на телевидении в 1930-х годах. ^[37]

Рост средств массовой информации позволил производителям брендовых товаров обходить розничных торговцев, рекламируя их напрямую потребителям. Это был серьезный сдвиг парадигмы, который заставил производителей сосредоточиться на бренде и стимулировал потребность в более глубоком понимании покупательского поведения, потребления и использования; их потребности, желания и стремления. ^[38] Самый ранний сериал радиодрамы спонсировался производителями мыла, и этот жанр стал известен как мыльная опера . ^[39] Вскоре владельцы радиостанций поняли, что они могут увеличить доходы от рекламы, продавая «эфирное время» за небольшие промежутки времени, которые можно продать нескольким предприятиям. К 1930-м годам эти рекламные ролики,со временем пакеты стали продаваться географическими торговыми представителями станции, открывая эру национальной радиорекламы. ^[40]

К 1940-м годам производители начали понимать, как потребители развивают личные отношения с их брендами в социальном, психологическом и антропологическом смысле. ^[41] Рекламодатели начали использовать мотивационные исследования и исследования потребителей, чтобы собирать информацию о покупках потребителей. Сильные кампании под брендом Chrysler и Exxon / Esso с использованием аналитических методов, полученных из психологии и культурной антропологии, привели к одним из самых устойчивых кампаний 20-го века. ^[42]

Коммерческое телевидение в 1950-е годы

В начале 1950-х годов телеканал DuMont Television Network начал современную практику продажи рекламного времени нескольким спонсорам. Раньше у DuMont были проблемы с поиском спонсоров для многих своих программ, и она компенсировалась продажей небольших блоков рекламного времени нескольким предприятиям. В конечном итоге это стало стандартом для индустрии коммерческого телевидения в Соединенных Штатах. Тем не менее, проведение шоу с участием одного спонсора, например, The United States Steel Hour, по- прежнему было обычной практикой . В некоторых случаях спонсоры полностью контролировали содержание шоу - вплоть до того, что рекламное агентство действительно писало шоу. ^{[ необходима цитата ]}Модель единого спонсора сейчас гораздо менее распространена, за исключением Зала славы клейма . ^{[ необходима цитата ]}

Кабельное телевидение 1980-х годов

В конце 1980-х и начале 1990-х годов появилось кабельное телевидение и, в частности, MTV . Пионерские концепцию музыкального видео, MTV открыла новый вид рекламы: потребитель мелодии в течение рекламного сообщения, а не это являющийся побочным продуктом или второстепенным. По мере того как кабельное и спутниковое телевидение становилось все более распространенным, появились специализированные каналы , в том числе каналы, полностью посвященные рекламе , такие как QVC , Home Shopping Network и ShopTV Canada . ^[43]

Интернет 1990-х

С появлением сервера рекламы онлайн-реклама выросла, что способствовало буму доткомов в 1990-х годах. ^[44] Целые корпорации работали исключительно за счет доходов от рекламы, предлагая все, от купонов до бесплатного доступа в Интернет. На рубеже 21 века некоторые веб-сайты, в том числе поисковая система Google , изменили онлайн-рекламу , персонализировав рекламу на основе поведения при просмотре веб-страниц. Это привело к другим аналогичным усилиям и увеличению интерактивной рекламы . ^[45]

Доля расходов на рекламу по отношению к ВВП мало изменилась из-за крупных изменений в средствах массовой информации с 1925 года. В 1925 году основными рекламными носителями в Америке были газеты, журналы, вывески на трамваях и уличные плакаты . Расходы на рекламу в процентах от ВВП составили около 2,9 процента. К 1998 году телевидение и радио стали основными рекламными СМИ; к 2017 году баланс между трансляцией и онлайн-рекламой изменился, и онлайн-расходы превысили трансляцию. ^[46] Тем не менее, доля расходов на рекламу в ВВП была немного ниже - около 2,4 процента. ^[47]

Партизанский маркетинг включает необычные подходы, такие как постановочные встречи в общественных местах, раздача товаров, таких как автомобили, которые покрыты сообщениями бренда, и интерактивная реклама, на которую зритель может ответить, чтобы стать частью рекламного сообщения. Этот вид рекламы непредсказуем, что заставляет потребителей покупать продукт или идею. ^[48] Это отражает растущую тенденцию интерактивной и «встроенной» рекламы, например, через продакт-плейсмент , голосование потребителей через текстовые сообщения и различные кампании с использованием сервисов социальных сетей, таких как Facebook или Twitter . ^[49]

Рекламная бизнес-модель также была адаптирована в последние годы. ^{[ когда? ] [ требуется пояснение ]} В средствах массовой информации за капитал реклама не продается, а предоставляется начинающим компаниям в обмен на капитал . Если компания растет и продается, медиакомпании получают деньги за свои акции.

Регистранты доменных имен (обычно те, кто регистрируют и продлевают домены в качестве инвестиций) иногда «парковают» свои домены и позволяют рекламным компаниям размещать рекламу на своих сайтах в обмен на плату за клик. Эти объявления обычно запускаются поисковыми системами с оплатой за клик, такими как Google или Yahoo, но иногда объявления могут быть размещены непосредственно на целевых доменных именах посредством аренды домена или путем установления контакта с регистрантом доменного имени, которое описывает продукт. Регистраторов доменных имен обычно легко идентифицировать с помощью записей WHOIS , которые общедоступны на веб-сайтах регистраторов. ^[50]

Классификация

Advertising may be categorized in a variety of ways, including by style, target audience, geographic scope, medium, or purpose.^[2]:9–15 For example, in print advertising, classification by style can include display advertising (ads with design elements sold by size) vs. classified advertising (ads without design elements sold by the word or line). Advertising may be local, national or global. An ad campaign may be directed toward consumers or to businesses. The purpose of an ad may be to raise awareness (brand advertising), or to elicit an immediate sale (direct response advertising). The term above the line (ATL) is used for advertising involving mass media; more targeted forms of advertising and promotion are referred to as below the line (BTL).^[51][52] The two terms date back to 1954 when Procter & Gamble began paying their advertising agencies differently from other promotional agencies.^[53] In the 2010s, as advertising technology developed, a new term, through the line (TTL) began to come into use, referring to integrated advertising campaigns.^[54][55]

Traditional media

Virtually any medium can be used for advertising. Commercial advertising media can include wall paintings, billboards, street furniture components, printed flyers and rack cards, radio, cinema and television adverts, web banners, mobile telephone screens, shopping carts, web popups, skywriting, bus stop benches, human billboards and forehead advertising, magazines, newspapers, town criers, sides of buses, banners attached to or sides of airplanes ("logojets"), in-flight advertisements on seatback tray tables or overhead storage bins, taxicab doors, roof mounts and passenger screens, musical stage shows, subway platforms and trains, elastic bands on disposable diapers, doors of bathroom stalls, stickers on apples in supermarkets, shopping cart handles (grabertising), the opening section of streaming audio and video, posters, and the backs of event tickets and supermarket receipts. Any situation in which an "identified" sponsor pays to deliver their message through a medium is advertising.^[56]

Television

Television advertising is one of the most expensive types of advertising; networks charge large amounts for commercial airtime during popular events. The annual Super Bowl football game in the United States is known as the most prominent advertising event on television – with an audience of over 108 million and studies showing that 50% of those only tuned in to see the advertisements.^[58][59] During the 2014 edition of this game, the average thirty-second ad cost US$4 million, and $8 million was charged for a 60-second spot.^[58] Virtual advertisements may be inserted into regular programming through computer graphics. It is typically inserted into otherwise blank backdrops^[60] or used to replace local billboards that are not relevant to the remote broadcast audience.^[61] Virtual billboards may be inserted into the background where none exist in real-life. This technique is especially used in televised sporting events. Virtual product placement is also possible.^[62][63] An infomercial is a long-format television commercial, typically five minutes or longer. The name blends the words "information" and "commercial". The main objective in an infomercial is to create an impulse purchase, so that the target sees the presentation and then immediately buys the product through the advertised toll-free telephone number or website. Infomercials describe and often demonstrate products, and commonly have testimonials from customers and industry professionals.^{[citation needed]}

Radio

Radio advertisements are broadcast as radio waves to the air from a transmitter to an antenna and a thus to a receiving device. Airtime is purchased from a station or network in exchange for airing the commercials. While radio has the limitation of being restricted to sound, proponents of radio advertising often cite this as an advantage. Radio is an expanding medium that can be found on air, and also online. According to Arbitron, radio has approximately 241.6 million weekly listeners, or more than 93 percent of the U.S. population.^{[citation needed]}

Online

Online advertising is a form of promotion that uses the Internet and World Wide Web for the expressed purpose of delivering marketing messages to attract customers. Online ads are delivered by an ad server. Examples of online advertising include contextual ads that appear on search engine results pages, banner ads, in pay per click text ads, rich media ads, Social network advertising, online classified advertising, advertising networks and e-mail marketing, including e-mail spam.^{[citation needed]} A newer form of online advertising is Native Ads; they go in a website's news feed and are supposed to improve user experience by being less intrusive. However, some people argue this practice is deceptive.^[64]

Domain names

Domain name advertising is most commonly done through pay per click web search engines, however, advertisers often lease space directly on domain names that generically describe their products. When an Internet user visits a website by typing a domain name directly into their web browser, this is known as "direct navigation", or "type in" web traffic. Although many Internet users search for ideas and products using search engines and mobile phones, a large number of users around the world still use the address bar. They will type a keyword into the address bar such as "geraniums" and add ".com" to the end of it. Sometimes they will do the same with ".org" or a country-code Top Level Domain (TLD such as ".co.uk" for the United Kingdom or ".ca" for Canada). When Internet users type in a generic keyword and add .com or another top-level domain (TLD) ending, it produces a targeted sales lead.^[65] Domain name advertising was originally developed by Oingo (later known as Applied Semantics), one of Google's early acquisitions.^[66]

Product placements

Covert advertising is when a product or brand is embedded in entertainment and media. For example, in a film, the main character can use an item or other of a definite brand, as in the movie Minority Report, where Tom Cruise's character John Anderton owns a phone with the Nokia logo clearly written in the top corner, or his watch engraved with the Bulgari logo. Another example of advertising in film is in I, Robot, where main character played by Will Smith mentions his Converse shoes several times, calling them "classics", because the film is set far in the future. I, Robot and Spaceballs also showcase futuristic cars with the Audi and Mercedes-Benz logos clearly displayed on the front of the vehicles. Cadillac chose to advertise in the movie The Matrix Reloaded, which as a result contained many scenes in which Cadillac cars were used. Similarly, product placement for Omega Watches, Ford, VAIO, BMW and Aston Martin cars are featured in recent James Bond films, most notably Casino Royale. In "Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer", the main transport vehicle shows a large Dodge logo on the front. Blade Runner includes some of the most obvious product placement; the whole film stops to show a Coca-Cola billboard.^{[citation needed]}

Print

Print advertising describes advertising in a printed medium such as a newspaper, magazine, or trade journal. This encompasses everything from media with a very broad readership base, such as a major national newspaper or magazine, to more narrowly targeted media such as local newspapers and trade journals on very specialized topics. One form of print advertising is classified advertising, which allows private individuals or companies to purchase a small, narrowly targeted ad paid by the word or line. Another form of print advertising is the display ad, which is generally a larger ad with design elements that typically run in an article section of a newspaper.^[2]:14

Outdoor

Billboards, also known as hoardings in some parts of the world, are large structures located in public places which display advertisements to passing pedestrians and motorists. Most often, they are located on main roads with a large amount of passing motor and pedestrian traffic; however, they can be placed in any location with large numbers of viewers, such as on mass transit vehicles and in stations, in shopping malls or office buildings, and in stadiums. The form known as street advertising first came to prominence in the UK by Street Advertising Services to create outdoor advertising on street furniture and pavements. Working with products such as Reverse Graffiti, air dancers and 3D pavement advertising, for getting brand messages out into public spaces.^{[citation needed]} Sheltered outdoor advertising combines outdoor with indoor advertisement by placing large mobile, structures (tents) in public places on temporary bases. The large outer advertising space aims to exert a strong pull on the observer, the product is promoted indoors, where the creative decor can intensify the impression.^{[citation needed]} Mobile billboards are generally vehicle mounted billboards or digital screens. These can be on dedicated vehicles built solely for carrying advertisements along routes preselected by clients, they can also be specially equipped cargo trucks or, in some cases, large banners strewn from planes. The billboards are often lighted; some being backlit, and others employing spotlights. Some billboard displays are static, while others change; for example, continuously or periodically rotating among a set of advertisements. Mobile displays are used for various situations in metropolitan areas throughout the world, including: target advertising, one-day and long-term campaigns, conventions, sporting events, store openings and similar promotional events, and big advertisements from smaller companies.^{[citation needed]}

Point-of-sale

In-store advertising is any advertisement placed in a retail store. It includes placement of a product in visible locations in a store, such as at eye level, at the ends of aisles and near checkout counters (a.k.a. POP – point of purchase display), eye-catching displays promoting a specific product, and advertisements in such places as shopping carts and in-store video displays.^{[citation needed]}

Novelties

Advertising printed on small tangible items such as coffee mugs, T-shirts, pens, bags, and such is known as novelty advertising. Some printers specialize in printing novelty items, which can then be distributed directly by the advertiser, or items may be distributed as part of a cross-promotion, such as ads on fast food containers.^{[citation needed]}

Celebrity endorsements

Advertising in which a celebrity endorses a product or brand leverages celebrity power, fame, money, popularity to gain recognition for their products or to promote specific stores' or products. Advertisers often advertise their products, for example, when celebrities share their favorite products or wear clothes by specific brands or designers. Celebrities are often involved in advertising campaigns such as television or print adverts to advertise specific or general products. The use of celebrities to endorse a brand can have its downsides, however; one mistake by a celebrity can be detrimental to the public relations of a brand. For example, following his performance of eight gold medals at the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, China, swimmer Michael Phelps' contract with Kellogg's was terminated, as Kellogg's did not want to associate with him after he was photographed smoking marijuana.^{[citation needed]} Celebrities such as Britney Spears have advertised for multiple products including Pepsi, Candies from Kohl's, Twister, NASCAR, and Toyota.^{[citation needed]}

Aerial

Using aircraft, balloons or airships to create or display advertising media. Skywriting is a notable example.^{[citation needed]}

New media approaches

A new advertising approach is known as advanced advertising, which is data-driven advertising, using large quantities of data, precise measuring tools and precise targeting.^[67] Advanced advertising also makes it easier for companies which sell ad-space to attribute customer purchases to the ads they display or broadcast.^[68]

Increasingly, other media are overtaking many of the "traditional" media such as television, radio and newspaper because of a shift toward the usage of the Internet for news and music as well as devices like digital video recorders (DVRs) such as TiVo.^[69]

Online advertising began with unsolicited bulk e-mail advertising known as "e-mail spam". Spam has been a problem for e-mail users since 1978.^[70] As new online communication channels became available, advertising followed. The first banner ad appeared on the World Wide Web in 1994.^[71] Prices of Web-based advertising space are dependent on the "relevance" of the surrounding web content and the traffic that the website receives.^{[citation needed]}

In online display advertising, display ads generate awareness quickly. Unlike search, which requires someone to be aware of a need, display advertising can drive awareness of something new and without previous knowledge. Display works well for direct response. Display is not only used for generating awareness, it's used for direct response campaigns that link to a landing page with a clear 'call to action'.^{[citation needed]}

As the mobile phone became a new mass medium in 1998 when the first paid downloadable content appeared on mobile phones in Finland,^{[72][citation needed]} mobile advertising followed, also first launched in Finland in 2000.^{[citation needed]} By 2007 the value of mobile advertising had reached $2 billion and providers such as Admob delivered billions of mobile ads.^{[citation needed]}

More advanced mobile ads include banner ads, coupons, Multimedia Messaging Service picture and video messages, advergames and various engagement marketing campaigns. A particular feature driving mobile ads is the 2D barcode, which replaces the need to do any typing of web addresses, and uses the camera feature of modern phones to gain immediate access to web content. 83 percent of Japanese mobile phone users already are active users of 2D barcodes.^{[citation needed]}

Some companies have proposed placing messages or corporate logos on the side of booster rockets and the International Space Station.^{[citation needed]}

Unpaid advertising (also called "publicity advertising"), can include personal recommendations ("bring a friend", "sell it"), spreading buzz, or achieving the feat of equating a brand with a common noun (in the United States, "Xerox" = "photocopier", "Kleenex" = tissue, "Vaseline" = petroleum jelly, "Hoover" = vacuum cleaner, and "Band-Aid" = adhesive bandage). However, some companies^[which?] oppose the use of their brand name to label an object. Equating a brand with a common noun also risks turning that brand into a generic trademark – turning it into a generic term which means that its legal protection as a trademark is lost.^{[73][disputed – discuss]}

From time to time, The CW Television Network airs short programming breaks called "Content Wraps", to advertise one company's product during an entire commercial break. The CW pioneered "content wraps" and some products featured were Herbal Essences, Crest, Guitar Hero II, CoverGirl, and Toyota.^[74][75]

A new promotion concept has appeared, "ARvertising", advertising on augmented reality technology.^[76]

Controversy exists on the effectiveness of subliminal advertising (see mind control), and the pervasiveness of mass messages (propaganda).

Rise in new media

With the Internet came many new advertising opportunities. Pop-up, Flash, banner, pop-under, advergaming, and email advertisements (all of which are often unwanted or spam in the case of email) are now commonplace. Particularly since the rise of "entertaining" advertising, some people may like an advertisement enough to wish to watch it later or show a friend.^{[citation needed]} In general, the advertising community has not yet made this easy, although some have used the Internet to widely distribute their ads to anyone willing to see or hear them. In the last three quarters of 2009, mobile and Internet advertising grew by 18% and 9% respectively, while older media advertising saw declines: −10.1% (TV), −11.7% (radio), −14.8% (magazines) and −18.7% (newspapers).^{[citation needed]} Between 2008 and 2014, U.S. newspapers lost more than half their print advertising revenue.^[78]

Niche marketing

Another significant trend regarding future of advertising is the growing importance of the niche market using niche or targeted ads. Also brought about by the Internet and the theory of the long tail, advertisers will have an increasing ability to reach specific audiences. In the past, the most efficient way to deliver a message was to blanket the largest mass market audience possible.^{[citation needed]} However, usage tracking, customer profiles and the growing popularity of niche content brought about by everything from blogs to social networking sites, provide advertisers with audiences that are smaller but much better defined,^{[citation needed]} leading to ads that are more relevant to viewers and more effective for companies' marketing products. Among others, Comcast Spotlight is one such advertiser employing this method in their video on demand menus. These advertisements are targeted to a specific group and can be viewed by anyone wishing to find out more about a particular business or practice, from their home. This causes the viewer to become proactive and actually choose what advertisements they want to view.^[79]Niche marketing could also be helped by bringing the issue of colour into advertisements. Different colours play major roles when it comes to marketing strategies, for example, seeing the blue can promote a sense of calmness and gives a sense of security which is why many social networks such as Facebook use blue in their logos. Google AdSense is an example of niche marketing. Google calculates the primary purpose of a website and adjusts ads accordingly; it uses keywords on the page (or even in emails) to find the general ideas of topics disused and places ads that will most likely be clicked on by viewers of the email account or website visitors.

Crowdsourcing

The concept of crowdsourcing has given way to the trend of user-generated advertisements. User-generated ads are created by people, as opposed to an advertising agency or the company themselves, often resulting from brand sponsored advertising competitions. For the 2007 Super Bowl, the Frito-Lays division of PepsiCo held the "Crash the Super Bowl" contest, allowing people to create their own Doritos commercials.^[80] Chevrolet held a similar competition for their Tahoe line of SUVs.^[80] Due to the success of the Doritos user-generated ads in the 2007 Super Bowl, Frito-Lays relaunched the competition for the 2009 and 2010 Super Bowl. The resulting ads were among the most-watched and most-liked Super Bowl ads. In fact, the winning ad that aired in the 2009 Super Bowl was ranked by the USA Today Super Bowl Ad Meter as the top ad for the year while the winning ads that aired in the 2010 Super Bowl were found by Nielsen's BuzzMetrics to be the "most buzzed-about".^[81][82] Another example of companies using crowdsourcing successfully is the beverage company Jones Soda that encourages consumers to participate in the label design themselves.^[83]

This trend has given rise to several online platforms that host user-generated advertising competitions on behalf of a company. Founded in 2007, Zooppa has launched ad competitions for brands such as Google, Nike, Hershey's, General Mills, Microsoft, NBC Universal, Zinio, and Mini Cooper.^[84] Crowdsourcing remains controversial, as the long-term impact on the advertising industry is still unclear.^[85]

Globalization

Advertising has gone through five major stages of development: domestic, export, international, multi-national, and global. For global advertisers, there are four, potentially competing, business objectives that must be balanced when developing worldwide advertising: building a brand while speaking with one voice, developing economies of scale in the creative process, maximising local effectiveness of ads, and increasing the company's speed of implementation. Born from the evolutionary stages of global marketing are the three primary and fundamentally different approaches to the development of global advertising executions: exporting executions, producing local executions, and importing ideas that travel.^[86]

Advertising research is key to determining the success of an ad in any country or region. The ability to identify which elements and/or moments of an ad contribute to its success is how economies of scale are maximized. Once one knows what works in an ad, that idea or ideas can be imported by any other market. Market research measures, such as Flow of Attention, Flow of Emotion and branding moments provide insight into what is working in an ad in any country or region because the measures are based on the visual, not verbal, elements of the ad.^[87]

Foreign public messaging

Foreign governments,^[which?] particularly those that own marketable commercial products or services, often promote their interests and positions through the advertising of those goods because the target audience is not only largely unaware of the forum as a vehicle for foreign messaging but also willing to receive the message while in a mental state of absorbing information from advertisements during television commercial breaks, while reading a periodical, or while passing by billboards in public spaces. A prime example of this messaging technique is advertising campaigns to promote international travel. While advertising foreign destinations and services may stem from the typical goal of increasing revenue by drawing more tourism, some travel campaigns carry the additional or alternative intended purpose of promoting good sentiments or improving existing ones among the target audience towards a given nation or region. It is common for advertising promoting foreign countries to be produced and distributed by the tourism ministries of those countries, so these ads often carry political statements and/or depictions of the foreign government's desired international public perception. Additionally, a wide range of foreign airlines and travel-related services which advertise separately from the destinations, themselves, are owned by their respective governments; examples include, though are not limited to, the Emirates airline (Dubai), Singapore Airlines (Singapore), Qatar Airways (Qatar), China Airlines (Taiwan/Republic of China), and Air China (People's Republic of China). By depicting their destinations, airlines, and other services in a favorable and pleasant light, countries market themselves to populations abroad in a manner that could mitigate prior public impressions.

Diversification

In the realm of advertising agencies, continued industry diversification has seen observers note that "big global clients don't need big global agencies any more".^[88] This is reflected by the growth of non-traditional agencies in various global markets, such as Canadian business TAXI and SMART in Australia and has been referred to as "a revolution in the ad world".^[89]

New technology

The ability to record shows on digital video recorders (such as TiVo) allow watchers to record the programs for later viewing, enabling them to fast forward through commercials. Additionally, as more seasons of pre-recorded box sets are offered for sale of television programs; fewer people watch the shows on TV. However, the fact that these sets are sold, means the company will receive additional profits from these sets.

To counter this effect, a variety of strategies have been employed. Many advertisers have opted for product placement on TV shows like Survivor. Other strategies include integrating advertising with internet-connected program guidess (EPGs), advertising on companion devices (like smartphones and tablets) during the show, and creating mobile apps for TV programs. Additionally, some like brands have opted for social television sponsorship.^[90]

The emerging technology of drone displays has recently been used for advertising purposes.^[91]

Education

In recent years there have been several media literacy initiatives, and more specifically concerning advertising, that seek to empower citizens in the face of media advertising campaigns.^[92]

Advertising education has become popular with bachelor, master and doctorate degrees becoming available in the emphasis.^{[citation needed]} A surge in advertising interest is typically attributed to the strong relationship advertising plays in cultural and technological changes, such as the advance of online social networking.^{[citation needed]} A unique model for teaching advertising is the student-run advertising agency, where advertising students create campaigns for real companies.^[93] Organizations such as the American Advertising Federation establish companies with students to create these campaigns.^{[citation needed]}

Purposes

Advertising is at the front of delivering the proper message to customers and prospective customers. The purpose of advertising is to inform the consumers about their product and convince customers that a company's services or products are the best, enhance the image of the company, point out and create a need for products or services, demonstrate new uses for established products, announce new products and programs, reinforce the salespeople's individual messages, draw customers to the business, and to hold existing customers.^[94]

Sales promotions and brand loyalty

Sales promotions are another way to advertise. Sales promotions are double purposed because they are used to gather information about what type of customers one draws in and where they are, and to jump start sales. Sales promotions include things like contests and games, sweepstakes, product giveaways, samples coupons, loyalty programs, and discounts. The ultimate goal of sales promotions is to stimulate potential customers to action.^[95]

Criticisms

While advertising can be seen as necessary for economic growth,^[28] it is not without social costs. Unsolicited commercial e-mail and other forms of spam have become so prevalent as to have become a major nuisance to users of these services, as well as being a financial burden on internet service providers.^[96] Advertising is increasingly invading public spaces, such as schools, which some critics argue is a form of child exploitation.^[97] This increasing difficulty in limiting exposure to specific audiences can result in negative backlash for advertisers.^[98] In tandem with these criticisms, the advertising industry has seen low approval rates in surveys and negative cultural portrayals.^[99]

One of the most controversial criticisms of advertisement in the present day is that of the predominance of advertising of foods high in sugar, fat, and salt specifically to children. Critics claim that food advertisements targeting children are exploitive and are not sufficiently balanced with proper nutritional education to help children understand the consequences of their food choices. Additionally, children may not understand that they are being sold something, and are therefore more impressionable.^[100] Michelle Obama has criticized large food companies for advertising unhealthy foods largely towards children and has requested that food companies either limit their advertising to children or advertise foods that are more in line with dietary guidelines.^[101] The other criticisms include the change that are brought by those advertisements on the society and also the deceiving ads that are aired and published by the corporations. Cosmetic and health industry are the ones which exploited the highest and created reasons of concern.^[102]

Regulation

There have been increasing efforts to protect the public interest by regulating the content and the influence of advertising. Some examples include restrictions for advertising alcohol, tobacco or gambling imposed in many countries, as well as the bans around advertising to children, which exist in parts of Europe. Advertising regulation focuses heavily on the veracity of the claims and as such, there are often tighter restrictions placed around advertisements for food and healthcare products.^[103]

The advertising industries within some countries rely less on laws and more on systems of self-regulation.^{[103][104][105]} Advertisers and the media agree on a code of advertising standards that they attempt to uphold. The general aim of such codes is to ensure that any advertising is 'legal, decent, honest and truthful'. Some self-regulatory organizations are funded by the industry, but remain independent, with the intent of upholding the standards or codes like the Advertising Standards Authority in the UK.^[106]

In the UK, most forms of outdoor advertising such as the display of billboards is regulated by the UK Town and County Planning system. Currently, the display of an advertisement without consent from the Planning Authority is a criminal offense liable to a fine of £2,500 per offense.^[107] In the US, many communities believe that many forms of outdoor advertising blight the public realm.^[108] As long ago as the 1960s in the US, there were attempts to ban billboard advertising in the open countryside.^[109] Cities such as São Paulo have introduced an outright ban^[110] with London also having specific legislation to control unlawful displays.

Some governments restrict the languages that can be used in advertisements, but advertisers may employ tricks to try avoiding them. In France for instance, advertisers sometimes print English words in bold and French translations in fine print to deal with Article 120 of the 1994 Toubon Law limiting the use of English.^[111]

The advertising of pricing information is another topic of concern for governments. In the United States for instance, it is common for businesses to only mention the existence and amount of applicable taxes at a later stage of a transaction.^[112] In Canada and New Zealand, taxes can be listed as separate items, as long as they are quoted up-front.^[113][114] In most other countries, the advertised price must include all applicable taxes, enabling customers to easily know how much it will cost them.^{[115][116][117]}

Theory

Hierarchy-of-effects models

Various competing models of hierarchies of effects attempt to provide a theoretical underpinning to advertising practice.^{[clarification needed][118]}

• The model of Clow and Baack^[119] clarifies the objectives of an advertising campaign and for each individual advertisement. The model postulates six steps a buyer moves through when making a purchase:
  1. Awareness
  2. Knowledge
  3. Liking
  4. Preference
  5. Conviction
  6. Purchase
• Means-end theory suggests that an advertisement should contain a message or means that leads the consumer to a desired end-state.^[120]
• Leverage points aim to move the consumer from understanding a product's benefits to linking those benefits with personal values.^[121]

Marketing mix

The marketing mix was proposed by professor E. Jerome McCarthy in the 1960s.^[122] It consists of four basic elements called the "four Ps". Product is the first P representing the actual product. Price represents the process of determining the value of a product. Place represents the variables of getting the product to the consumer such as distribution channels, market coverage and movement organization. The last P stands for Promotion which is the process of reaching the target market and convincing them to buy the product.

In the 1990s, the concept of four Cs was introduced as a more customer-driven replacement of four P's.^[123] There are two theories based on four Cs: Lauterborn's four Cs (consumer, cost, communication, convenience)^[124] and Shimizu's four Cs (commodity, cost, communication, channel) in the 7Cs Compass Model (Co-marketing). Communications can include advertising, sales promotion, public relations, publicity, personal selling, corporate identity, internal communication, SNS, and MIS.^{[125][126][127][128]}

Research

Advertising research is a specialized form of research that works to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of advertising. It entails numerous forms of research which employ different methodologies. Advertising research includes pre-testing (also known as copy testing) and post-testing of ads and/or campaigns.

Pre-testing includes a wide range of qualitative and quantitative techniques, including: focus groups, in-depth target audience interviews (one-on-one interviews), small-scale quantitative studies and physiological measurement. The goal of these investigations is to better understand how different groups respond to various messages and visual prompts, thereby providing an assessment of how well the advertisement meets its communications goals.^[129]

Post-testing employs many of the same techniques as pre-testing, usually with a focus on understanding the change in awareness or attitude attributable to the advertisement. With the emergence of digital advertising technologies, many firms have begun to continuously post-test ads using real-time data. This may take the form of A/B split-testing or multivariate testing.

Continuous ad tracking and the Communicus System are competing examples of post-testing advertising research types.^[130]

Semiotics

Meanings between consumers and marketers depict signs and symbols that are encoded in everyday objects.^[131] Semiotics is the study of signs and how they are interpreted. Advertising has many hidden signs and meanings within brand names, logos, package designs, print advertisements, and television advertisements. Semiotics aims to study and interpret the message being conveyed in (for example) advertisements. Logos and advertisements can be interpreted at two levels – known as the surface level and the underlying level. The surface level uses signs creatively to create an image or personality for a product.^{[citation needed]} These signs can be images, words, fonts, colors, or slogans. The underlying level is made up of hidden meanings. The combination of images, words, colors, and slogans must be interpreted by the audience or consumer.^[132] The "key to advertising analysis" is the signifier and the signified. The signifier is the object and the signified is the mental concept.^[133] A product has a signifier and a signified. The signifier is the color, brand name, logo design, and technology. The signified has two meanings known as denotative and connotative. The denotative meaning is the meaning of the product. A television's denotative meaning might be that it is high definition. The connotative meaning is the product's deep and hidden meaning. A connotative meaning of a television would be that it is top-of-the-line.^[134]

Apple's commercials^[when?] used a black silhouette of a person that was the age of Apple's target market. They placed the silhouette in front of a blue screen so that the picture behind the silhouette could be constantly changing. However, the one thing that stays the same in these ads is that there is music in the background and the silhouette is listening to that music on a white iPod through white headphones. Through advertising, the white color on a set of earphones now signifies that the music device is an iPod. The white color signifies almost all of Apple's products.^[135]

The semiotics of gender plays a key influence on the way in which signs are interpreted. When considering gender roles in advertising, individuals are influenced by three categories. Certain characteristics of stimuli may enhance or decrease the elaboration of the message (if the product is perceived as feminine or masculine). Second, the characteristics of individuals can affect attention and elaboration of the message (traditional or non-traditional gender role orientation). Lastly, situational factors may be important to influence the elaboration of the message.^[136]

There are two types of marketing communication claims-objective and subjective.^[137] Objective claims stem from the extent to which the claim associates the brand with a tangible product or service feature. For instance, a camera may have auto-focus features. Subjective claims convey emotional, subjective, impressions of intangible aspects of a product or service. They are non-physical features of a product or service that cannot be directly perceived, as they have no physical reality. For instance the brochure has a beautiful design.^[138] Males tend to respond better to objective marketing-communications claims while females tend to respond better to subjective marketing communications claims.^[139]

Voiceovers are commonly used in advertising. Most voiceovers are done by men, with figures of up to 94% having been reported.^[140] There have been more female voiceovers in recent years,^[when?] but mainly for food, household products, and feminine-care products.^[141]

Gender effects on comprehension

According to a 1977 study by David Statt, females process information comprehensively, while males process information through heuristic devices such as procedures, methods or strategies for solving problems, which could have an effect on how they interpret advertising.^{[142][need quotation to verify]} According to this study, men prefer to have available and apparent cues to interpret the message, whereas females engage in more creative, associative, imagery-laced interpretation. Later research by a Danish team^[143] found that advertising attempts to persuade men to improve their appearance or performance, whereas its approach to women aims at transformation toward an impossible ideal of female presentation. In Paul Suggett's article "The Objectification of Women in Advertising"^[144] he discusses the negative impact that these women in advertisements, who are too perfect to be real, have on women, as well as men, in real life. Advertising's manipulation of women's aspiration to these ideal types as portrayed in film, in erotic art, in advertising, on stage, within music videos, and through other media exposures requires at least a conditioned rejection of female reality, and thereby takes on a highly ideological cast. Studies show that these expectations of women and young girls negatively impact their views about their bodies and appearances. These advertisements are directed towards men. Not everyone agrees: one critic viewed this monologic, gender-specific interpretation of advertising as excessively skewed and politicized.^{[145][need quotation to verify]} There are some companies, however, like Dove and Aerie that are creating commercials to portray more natural women, with less post production manipulation, so more women and young girls are able to relate to them.^{[citation needed]}

More recent research by Martin (2003) reveals that males and females differ in how they react to advertising depending on their mood at the time of exposure to the ads, and on the affective tone of the advertising. When feeling sad, males prefer happy ads to boost their mood. In contrast, females prefer happy ads when they are feeling happy. The television programs in which ads are embedded influence a viewer's mood state.^[146] Susan Wojcicki, author of the article "Ads that Empower Women don’t just Break Stereotypes—They’re also Effective"^[147] discusses how advertising to women has changed since the first Barbie commercial where a little girl tells the doll that, she wants to be just like her. Little girls grow up watching advertisements of scantily clad women advertising things from trucks to burgers, and Wojcicki states that this shows girls that they are either arm candy or eye candy.

Alternatives

Other approaches to revenue include donations, paid subscriptions and microtransactions. Websites and applications are "ad-free" when not using ads at all for revenue. For example, the online encyclopaedia Wikipedia provides free access to its content by receiving funding from charitable donations.^[148]

See also

Influential thinkers in advertising theory and practice

"Fathers" of advertising

• Late 1700s - Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790)- "father of advertising in America"^[149]
• Late 1800s - Thomas J. Barratt (1841-1914) of London - called "the father of modern advertising" by T.F.G. Coates^[150]
• Early 1900s - J. Henry ("Slogan") Smythe, Jr of Philadelphia - "world's best known slogan writer"^[149]
• Early 1900s - Albert Lasker (1880-1952) - the "father of modern advertising"; defined advertising as "salesmanship in print, driven by a reason why"^[151]
• Mid-1900s - David Ogilvy (1911–1999) - advertising tycoon, founder of Ogilvy & Mather, known^{[by whom?]} as the "father of advertising"

References

Notes

Further reading

External links

• Advertising Educational Foundation, archived advertising exhibits and classroom resources
• Hartman Center for Sales, Advertising & Marketing History at Duke University
  • Duke University Libraries Digital Collections:
    • Ad*Access, over 7,000 U.S. and Canadian advertisements, dated 1911–1955, includes World War II propaganda.
    • Emergence of Advertising in America, 9,000 advertising items and publications dating from 1850 to 1940, illustrating the rise of consumer culture and the birth of a professionalized advertising industry in the United States.
    • AdViews, vintage television commercials
    • ROAD 2.0, 30,000 outdoor advertising images
    • Medicine & Madison Avenue, documents advertising of medical and pharmaceutical products
• Art & Copy, a 2009 documentary film about the advertising industry