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Теория разбитых окон - это криминологическая теория, согласно которой видимые признаки преступности , антиобщественного поведения и гражданских беспорядков создают городскую среду, которая способствует дальнейшим преступлениям и беспорядкам, включая серьезные преступления. [1] Теория предполагает, что методы охраны правопорядка, направленные на выявление мелких преступлений, таких как вандализм , праздношатание , употребление алкоголя в общественных местах , пешеходная прогулка и уклонение от платы за проезд , помогают создать атмосферу порядка и законности.

Эта теория была представлена ​​в статье 1982 года социологов Джеймса К. Уилсона и Джорджа Л. Келлинга . [1] Это было далее популяризировано в 1990-х годах комиссаром полиции Нью-Йорка Уильямом Браттоном и мэром Руди Джулиани , на политику которых повлияла эта теория.

Теория стала предметом больших споров как в социальных науках, так и в общественной сфере. Работа полиции с разбитыми окнами стала ассоциироваться с противоречивой полицейской практикой, такой как частое использование остановок и обысков в Нью-Йорке в течение десятилетия до 2013 года. В ответ Браттон и Келлинг написали, что охрана разбитых окон не должна рассматриваться как « нулевая терпимость » или «фанатизм», но как метод, требующий «тщательного обучения, руководящих указаний и контроля» и позитивных отношений с сообществами, таким образом связывая его с деятельностью полиции в сообществе .

Статьи и предупреждение преступлений [ править ]

Джеймс К. Уилсон и Джордж Л. Келлинг впервые представили теорию разбитых окон в статье под названием «Разбитые окна» в мартовском выпуске The Atlantic Monthly за 1982 год .

Социальные психологи и полицейские сходятся во мнении, что если в здании разбить окно и оставить без ремонта, то вскоре будут выбиты все остальные окна. Это так же верно как в хороших кварталах, так и в убогих. Разбивание окон не обязательно происходит в больших масштабах, потому что одни районы населены определенными «разбойниками», тогда как другие населены любителями окон; скорее, одно не отремонтированное разбитое окно - это сигнал о том, что никому нет дела, и разбивать больше окон ничего не стоит. (Это всегда было весело.) [1]

Статья привлекла большое внимание и очень широко цитировалась. Книга Джорджа Л. Келлинга и Кэтрин Коулз по криминологии и городской социологии « Устранение разбитых окон: восстановление порядка и сокращение преступности в наших сообществах » в 1996 году основана на этой статье, но развивает аргументы более подробно. В нем обсуждается теория преступности и стратегии сдерживания или искоренения преступности в городских районах. [2]

По мнению авторов книги, успешной стратегией предотвращения вандализма является устранение небольших проблем. Отремонтируйте разбитые окна за короткое время, скажем, за день или неделю, и тенденция такова, что вандалы с гораздо меньшей вероятностью выбьют больше окон или нанесут дальнейший ущерб. Убирайте тротуар каждый день, и, как правило, мусор не накапливается (или уровень мусора значительно снижается). Проблемы реже обостряются, и поэтому «респектабельные» жители не покидают окрестности.

Оскар Ньюман представил теорию защищаемого пространства в своей книге 1972 года Defensible Space.. Он утверждал, что, хотя работа полиции имеет решающее значение для предотвращения преступности, ее полномочий недостаточно для поддержания безопасности в городе, свободного от преступности. Люди в сообществе помогают в предупреждении преступности. Ньюман предложил людям заботиться о пространствах, в которые они чувствуют себя вложенными, и защищать их, аргументируя это тем, что район в конечном итоге станет более безопасным, если люди будут чувствовать причастность и ответственность по отношению к нему. Разбитые окна и вандализм по-прежнему распространены, потому что общинам просто наплевать на ущерб. Независимо от того, сколько раз ремонтировали окна, община все равно должна уделять некоторое время тому, чтобы сохранить его в безопасности. Пренебрежение жителями к разрушению разбитых окон свидетельствует об отсутствии заботы о сообществе.Ньюман говорит, что это явный признак того, что общество смирилось с этим расстройством - позволяя неотремонтированным окнам демонстрировать уязвимость и отсутствие защиты.[3] Малькольм Гладуэлл также связывает эту теорию с реальностью Нью-Йорка в своей книге «Переломный момент» . [4]

Таким образом, теория выдвигает несколько основных заявлений: улучшение качества окружающей среды снижает уровень мелких преступлений, антиобщественного поведения и беспорядков низкого уровня, и что в результате также предотвращаются серьезные преступления. Критика теории имела тенденцию сосредотачиваться на последнем утверждении. [5]

Теоретическое объяснение [ править ]

Причина, по которой состояние городской среды может влиять на преступность, состоит из трех факторов: социальных норм и соответствия ; наличие или отсутствие рутинного мониторинга ; и социальная сигнализация и сигнализация о преступности .

В анонимной городской среде, когда вокруг мало или совсем нет людей, социальные нормы и мониторинг четко не известны. Таким образом, люди ищут в окружающей среде сигналы относительно социальных норм в обстановке и риска быть уличенными в нарушении этих норм; один из сигналов - общий вид местности.

Согласно теории разбитых окон, упорядоченная и чистая среда, которая поддерживается, посылает сигнал о том, что территория находится под наблюдением и что преступное поведение недопустимо. И наоборот, неупорядоченная среда, которая не поддерживается (разбитые окна, граффити, чрезмерное количество мусора), посылает сигнал о том, что за данной территорией не ведется наблюдение и что преступное поведение имеет небольшой риск обнаружения.

Теория предполагает, что пейзаж «общается» с людьми. Разбитое окно передает преступникам сообщение о том, что сообщество демонстрирует отсутствие неформального социального контроля и поэтому не может или не желает защищаться от преступного вторжения. Важно не столько само разбитое окно, сколько сообщение, которое разбитое окно посылает людям. Он символизирует беззащитность и уязвимость сообщества и представляет собой отсутствие сплоченности людей внутри. Соседи с сильным чувством сплоченности ремонтируют разбитые окна и берут на себя социальную ответственность, фактически давая себе контроль над своим пространством.

Теория подчеркивает искусственную среду, но также должна учитывать человеческое поведение. [6]

Под впечатлением того, что неустановленное разбитое окно приводит к более серьезным проблемам, жители начинают менять свое видение своего сообщества. В попытке оставаться в безопасности сплоченное сообщество начинает распадаться, поскольку люди начинают проводить меньше времени в общем пространстве, чтобы избежать возможных насильственных нападений со стороны незнакомцев. [1]Медленное разрушение сообщества в результате разбитых окон изменяет поведение людей, когда дело доходит до их общего пространства, что, в свою очередь, нарушает контроль сообщества. По мере того, как хулиганские подростки, попрошайки, наркоманы и проститутки медленно проникают в сообщество, это означает, что сообщество не может утверждать неформальный социальный контроль, и граждане опасаются, что могут случиться худшие вещи. В результате они проводят меньше времени на улицах, избегая этих тем, и чувствуют себя все менее и менее связанными со своим сообществом, если проблемы не исчезнут.

Иногда жители терпят «разбитые окна», потому что чувствуют, что принадлежат к сообществу и «знают свое место». Однако проблемы возникают, когда посторонние начинают разрушать культурную ткань сообщества. В этом разница между «завсегдатаями» и «чужаками» в сообществе. То, как действуют «завсегдатаи», представляет внутреннюю культуру, но незнакомцы - это «посторонние», которым не место. [6]

Следовательно, повседневная деятельность, считающаяся «нормальной» для жителей, теперь становится неудобной, поскольку культура сообщества несет в себе иное ощущение, чем когда-то.

Что касается социальной географии, теория разбитых окон - это способ объяснить людей и их взаимодействие с пространством. Культура сообщества может ухудшаться и меняться со временем под влиянием нежелательных людей и поведения, меняющих ландшафт. Теорию можно рассматривать как людей, формирующих пространство, так как вежливость и отношение сообщества создают пространства, используемые жителями для определенных целей. С другой стороны, это также можно рассматривать как пространство, формирующее людей, с элементами окружающей среды, влияющими на повседневное принятие решений и ограничивающими их.

Тем не менее, с усилиями полиции по устранению нежелательных беспорядочных людей, вызывающих страх в глазах общественности, аргумент, похоже, был бы в пользу «людей, формирующих пространство», поскольку государственная политика вводится в действие и помогает определить, как человек должен себя вести. У всех мест есть свои правила поведения, и то, что считается правильным и нормальным, будет варьироваться от места к месту.

Концепция также принимает во внимание пространственную изоляцию и социальное разделение, поскольку определенные люди, ведущие себя определенным образом, считаются деструктивными и, следовательно, нежелательными. Он исключает людей из определенных пространств, потому что их поведение не соответствует классовому уровню сообщества и его окружения. Сообщество имеет свои собственные стандарты и посредством социального контроля сообщает преступникам о том, что их район не терпит их поведения. Однако, если община не в состоянии самостоятельно отразить потенциальных преступников, усилия полиции помогают.

Убирая с улиц ненужных людей, жители чувствуют себя в большей безопасности и с большим уважением относятся к тем, кто их защищает. Согласно теории, менее вежливые люди, которые пытаются оставить след в обществе, удаляются. [6] Исключение неуправляемых людей и людей определенного социального статуса - это попытка сохранить баланс и сплоченность сообщества.

Концепции [ править ]

Неофициальный социальный контроль [ править ]

Многие утверждают, что неформальный социальный контроль может быть эффективной стратегией по сокращению неуправляемого поведения. Гарланд (2001) отмечает, что «меры по охране общественного порядка в понимании того, что неформальный социальный контроль, осуществляемый через повседневные отношения и институты, более эффективен, чем правовые санкции». [7] Неформальные методы социального контроля продемонстрировали «жесткое» отношение активных граждан и выражают мнение, что хулиганство недопустимо. Согласно Уилсону и Келлингу, существует два типа групп, участвующих в поддержании порядка: «общественные сторожа» и « дружинники ». [1]Соединенные Штаты во многих отношениях приняли стратегии полицейской деятельности старых европейских времен, и в то время неформальный социальный контроль был нормой, что привело к современной формальной полицейской деятельности. Хотя в прежние времена, поскольку не было никаких юридических санкций, неформальная полицейская деятельность была в первую очередь «объективной», как утверждали Уилсон и Келлинг (1982).

Wilcox et al. 2004 утверждают, что ненадлежащее использование земли может вызвать беспорядки, и чем больше площадь государственной земли, тем больше подверженности преступным отклонениям. [8] Следовательно, нежилые помещения, такие как предприятия, могут взять на себя ответственность за неформальный социальный контроль «в форме наблюдения , общения, надзора и вмешательства». [9] Ожидается, что большее количество незнакомцев, занимающих общественные земли, повышает вероятность беспорядков. Джейн Джейкобс можно считать одним из первооткрывателей концепции разбитых окон . Большая часть ее книги "Смерть и жизнь великих американских городов", фокусируется на вкладе жителей и нерезидентов в поддержание порядка на улице и объясняет, как местные предприятия, учреждения и круглосуточные магазины создают ощущение, что они «смотрят на улицу». [10]

Напротив, многие жители считают, что регулирование расстройства - не их ответственность. Уилсон и Келлинг обнаружили, что исследования, проведенные психологами, показывают, что люди часто отказываются идти на помощь тем, кто обращается за помощью, не из-за отсутствия заботы или эгоизма, «а из-за отсутствия некоторых веских оснований для ощущения, что человек должен лично принять на себя ответственность». [1] С другой стороны, другие прямо отказываются подвергать себя опасности, в зависимости от того, насколько серьезным они считают причинение вреда; исследование 2004 года показало, что «большинство исследований беспорядков основано на индивидуальном уровне восприятия, не связанном с систематической заботой о среде, порождающей беспорядки». [11] Essentially, everyone perceives disorder differently, and can contemplate seriousness of a crime based on those perceptions. However, Wilson and Kelling feel that although community involvement can make a difference, “the police are plainly the key to order maintenance.”[1]

Role of fear[edit]

Ranasinghe argues that the concept of fear is a crucial element of broken windows theory, because it is the foundation of the theory.[12] She also adds that public disorder is "... unequivocally constructed as problematic because it is a source of fear".[13] Fear is elevated as perception of disorder rises; creating a social pattern that tears the social fabric of a community, and leaves the residents feeling hopeless and disconnected. Wilson and Kelling hint at the idea, but do not focus on its central importance. They indicate that fear was a product of incivility, not crime, and that people avoid one another in response to fear, weakening controls.[1] Hinkle and Weisburd found that police interventions to combat minor offenses, as per the broken windows model, "significantly increased the probability of feeling unsafe," suggesting that such interventions might offset any benefits of broken windows policing in terms of fear reduction.[14]

Difference with "zero tolerance"[edit]

Broken windows policing is sometimes described as a "zero tolerance" policing style,[15] including in some academic studies.[16] However, several key proponents, such as Bratton and Kelling, argue that there is a key difference. In 2014, they outlined a difference between "broken windows policing" and "zero tolerance":

Critics use the term "zero tolerance" in a pejorative sense to suggest that Broken Windows policing is a form of zealotry—the imposition of rigid, moralistic standards of behavior on diverse populations. It is not. Broken Windows is a highly discretionary police activity that requires careful training, guidelines, and supervision, as well as an ongoing dialogue with neighborhoods and communities to ensure that it is properly conducted.[17]

Bratton and Kelling advocate that authorities should be effective at catching minor offenders while also giving them lenient punishment. Citing fare evasion, as an example, they argue that the police should attempt to catch fare evaders, and that the vast majority should be summoned to court rather than arrested and given a punishment other than jail. The goal is to deter minor offenders from committing more serious crimes in the future and reduce the prison population in the long run.[17]

Critical developments[edit]

In an earlier publication of The Atlantic released March, 1982, Wilson wrote an article indicating that police efforts had gradually shifted from maintaining order to fighting crime.[1] This indicated that order maintenance was something of the past, and soon it would seem as it has been put on the back burner. The shift was attributed to the rise of the social urban riots of the 1960s, and "social scientists began to explore carefully the order maintenance function of the police, and to suggest ways of improving it—not to make streets safer (its original function) but to reduce the incidence of mass violence".[1] Other criminologists argue between similar disconnections, for example, Garland argues that throughout the early and mid 20th century, police in American cities strived to keep away from the neighborhoods under their jurisdiction.[7] This is a possible indicator of the out-of-control social riots that were prevalent at that time.[citation needed] Still many would agree that reducing crime and violence begins with maintaining social control/order.[citation needed]

Jane Jacobs' The Death and Life of Great American Cities is discussed in detail by Ranasinghe, and its importance to the early workings of broken windows, and claims that Kelling's original interest in "minor offences and disorderly behaviour and conditions" was inspired by Jacobs' work.[18] Ranasinghe includes that Jacobs' approach toward social disorganization was centralized on the "streets and their sidewalks, the main public places of a city" and that they "are its most vital organs, because they provide the principal visual scenes".[19] Wilson and Kelling, as well as Jacobs, argue on the concept of civility (or the lack thereof) and how it creates lasting distortions between crime and disorder. Ranasinghe explains that the common framework of both set of authors is to narrate the problem facing urban public places. Jacobs, according to Ranasinghe, maintains that "Civility functions as a means of informal social control, subject little to institutionalized norms and processes, such as the law" 'but rather maintained through an' "intricate, almost unconscious, network of voluntary controls and standards among people... and enforced by the people themselves".[20]

Case studies[edit]

Precursor experiments[edit]

Before the introduction of this theory by Wilson and Kelling, Philip Zimbardo, a Stanford psychologist, arranged an experiment testing the broken-window theory in 1969. Zimbardo arranged for an automobile with no license plates and the hood up to be parked idle in a Bronx neighbourhood and a second automobile, in the same condition, to be set up in Palo Alto, California. The car in the Bronx was attacked within minutes of its abandonment. Zimbardo noted that the first "vandals" to arrive were a family – a father, mother, and a young son – who removed the radiator and battery. Within twenty-four hours of its abandonment, everything of value had been stripped from the vehicle. After that, the car's windows were smashed in, parts torn, upholstery ripped, and children were using the car as a playground. At the same time, the vehicle sitting idle in Palo Alto sat untouched for more than a week until Zimbardo himself went up to the vehicle and deliberately smashed it with a sledgehammer. Soon after, people joined in for the destruction. Zimbardo observed that a majority of the adult "vandals" in both cases were primarily well dressed, Caucasian, clean-cut and seemingly respectable individuals. It is believed that, in a neighborhood such as the Bronx where the history of abandoned property and theft are more prevalent, vandalism occurs much more quickly, as the community generally seems apathetic. Similar events can occur in any civilized community when communal barriers—the sense of mutual regard and obligations of civility—are lowered by actions that suggest apathy.[1][21]

New York City[edit]

Graffiti in the New York City Subway system in the early 1980s

In 1985, the New York City Transit Authority hired George L. Kelling, the author of Broken Windows, as a consultant.[22] Kelling was later hired as a consultant to the Boston and the Los Angeles police departments.

One of Kelling's adherents, David L. Gunn, implemented policies and procedures based on the Broken Windows Theory, during his tenure as President of the New York City Transit Authority. One of his major efforts was to lead a campaign from 1984 to 1990 to rid graffiti from New York's subway system.

In 1990, William J. Bratton became head of the New York City Transit Police. Bratton was influenced by Kelling, describing him as his "intellectual mentor". In his role, he implemented a tougher stance on fare evasion, faster arrestee processing methods, and background checks on all those arrested.

After being elected Mayor of New York City in 1993, as a Republican, Rudy Giuliani hired Bratton as his police commissioner to implement similar policies and practices throughout the city. Giuliani heavily subscribed to Kelling and Wilson's theories. Such policies emphasized addressing crimes that negatively affect quality of life. In particular, Bratton directed the police to more strictly enforce laws against subway fare evasion, public drinking, public urination, and graffiti. Bratton also revived the New York City Cabaret Law, a previously dormant Prohibition era ban on dancing in unlicensed establishments. Throughout the late 1990s, NYPD shut down many of the city's acclaimed night spots for illegal dancing.

New York City Police Department officers circa 2005

According to a 2001 study of crime trends in New York City by Kelling and William Sousa, rates of both petty and serious crime fell significantly after the aforementioned policies were implemented. Furthermore, crime continued to decline for the following ten years. Such declines suggested that policies based on the Broken Windows Theory were effective.[23]

However, other studies do not find a cause and effect relationship between the adoption of such policies and decreases in crime.[5][24] The decrease may have been part of a broader trend across the United States. Other cities also experienced less crime, even though they had different police policies. Other factors, such as the 39% drop in New York City's unemployment rate, could also explain the decrease reported by Kelling and Sousa.[25]

A 2017 study found that when the New York Police Department (NYPD) stopped aggressively enforcing minor legal statutes in late 2014 and early 2015 that civilian complaints of three major crimes (burglary, felony assault, and grand larceny) decreased (slightly with large error bars) during and shortly after sharp reductions in proactive policing. There was no statistically significant effect on other major crimes such as murder, rape, robbery, or grand theft auto. These results are touted as challenging prevailing scholarship as well as conventional wisdom on authority and legal compliance by implying that aggressively enforcing minor legal statutes incites more severe criminal acts.[26]

Albuquerque[edit]

Albuquerque, New Mexico, instituted the Safe Streets Program in the late 1990s based on the Broken Windows Theory. The Safe Streets Program sought to deter and reduce unsafe driving and incidence of crime by saturating areas where high crime and crash rates were prevalent with law enforcement officers. Operating under the theory that American Westerners use roadways much in the same way that American Easterners use subways, the developers of the program reasoned that lawlessness on the roadways had much the same effect as it did on the New York City Subway. Effects of the program were reviewed by the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and were published in a case study.[27] The methodology behind the program demonstrates the use of deterrence theory in preventing crime.[28]

Lowell, Massachusetts[edit]

In 2005, Harvard University and Suffolk University researchers worked with local police to identify 34 "crime hot spots" in Lowell, Massachusetts. In half of the spots, authorities cleared trash, fixed streetlights, enforced building codes, discouraged loiterers, made more misdemeanor arrests, and expanded mental health services and aid for the homeless. In the other half of the identified locations, there was no change to routine police service.

The areas that received additional attention experienced a 20% reduction in calls to the police. The study concluded that cleaning up the physical environment was more effective than misdemeanor arrests and that increasing social services had no effect.[29][30]

Netherlands[edit]

In 2007 and 2008, Kees Keizer and colleagues from the University of Groningen conducted a series of controlled experiments to determine if the effect of existing visible disorder (such as litter or graffiti) increased other crime such as theft, littering, or other antisocial behavior. They selected several urban locations, which they arranged in two different ways, at different times. In each experiment, there was a "disorder" condition in which violations of social norms as prescribed by signage or national custom, such as graffiti and littering, were clearly visible as well as a control condition where no violations of norms had taken place. The researchers then secretly monitored the locations to observe if people behaved differently when the environment was "disordered". Their observations supported the theory. The conclusion was published in the journal Science: "One example of disorder, like graffiti or littering, can indeed encourage another, like stealing."[31][32]

Other effects[edit]

Real estate[edit]

Other side effects of better monitoring and cleaned up streets may well be desired by governments or housing agencies and the population of a neighborhood: broken windows can count as an indicator of low real estate value and may deter investors. It is recommended that real estate consider adopting the "Broken Windows Theory", because if they monitor the amount of minor transgressions in a specific area, they are most likely to experience a reduction in major transgressions as well. This may actually increase or decrease value in a house or apartment, depending on the area.[33] Fixing windows is therefore also a step of real estate development, which may lead, whether it is desired or not, to gentrification. By reducing the amount of broken windows in the community, the inner cities would appear to be attractive to consumers with more capital. Ridding spaces like downtown New York and Chicago, notably notorious for criminal activity, of danger would draw in investment from consumers, increasing the city's economic status, providing a safe and pleasant image for present and future inhabitants.[24]

Education[edit]

In education, the broken windows theory is used to promote order in classrooms and school cultures. The belief is that students are signaled by disorder or rule-breaking and that they in turn imitate the disorder. Several school movements encourage strict paternalistic practices to enforce student discipline. Such practices include language codes (governing slang, curse words, or speaking out of turn), classroom etiquette (sitting up straight, tracking the speaker), personal dress (uniforms, little or no jewelry), and behavioral codes (walking in lines, specified bathroom times).

From 2004 to 2006, Stephen B. Plank and colleagues from Johns Hopkins University conducted a correlational study to determine the degree to which the physical appearance of the school and classroom setting influence student behavior, particularly in respect to the variables concerned in their study: fear, social disorder, and collective efficacy.[34] They collected survey data administered to 6th-8th students by 33 public schools in a large mid-Atlantic city. From analyses of the survey data, the researchers determined that the variables in their study are statistically significant to the physical conditions of the school and classroom setting. The conclusion, published in the American Journal of Education, was

...the findings of the current study suggest that educators and researchers should be vigilant about factors that influence student perceptions of climate and safety. Fixing broken windows and attending to the physical appearance of a school cannot alone guarantee productive teaching and learning, but ignoring them likely greatly increases the chances of a troubling downward spiral.[34]

Statistical evidence[edit]

A 2015 meta-analysis of broken windows policing implementations found that disorder policing strategies, such as "hot spots policing" or problem-oriented policing, result in "consistent crime reduction effects across a variety of violent, property, drug, and disorder outcome measures".[35] However, the authors noted that "aggressive order maintenance strategies that target individual disorderly behaviors do not generate significant crime reductions," pointing specifically to zero tolerance policing models that target singular behaviors such as public intoxication and remove disorderly individuals from the street via arrest. The authors recommend that police develop "community co-production" policing strategies instead of merely committing to increasing misdemeanor arrests.[35]

Criticism[edit]

Other factors[edit]

Several studies have argued that many of the apparent successes of broken windows policing (such as New York City in the 1990s) were the result of other factors.[36] They claim that the "broken windows theory" closely relates correlation with causality, a reasoning prone to fallacy. David Thacher, assistant professor of public policy and urban planning at the University of Michigan, stated in a 2004 paper:[36]

[S]ocial science has not been kind to the broken windows theory. A number of scholars reanalyzed the initial studies that appeared to support it.... Others pressed forward with new, more sophisticated studies of the relationship between disorder and crime. The most prominent among them concluded that the relationship between disorder and serious crime is modest, and even that relationship is largely an artifact of more fundamental social forces.

C. R. Sridhar, in his article in the Economic and Political Weekly, also challenges the theory behind broken windows policing and the idea that the policies of William Bratton and the New York Police Department was the cause of the decrease of crime rates in New York City.[16] The policy targeted people in areas with a significant amount of physical disorder and there appeared to be a causal relationship between the adoption of broken windows policing and the decrease in crime rate. Sridhar, however, discusses other trends (such as New York City's economic boom in the late 1990s) that created a "perfect storm" that contributed to the decrease of crime rate much more significantly than the application of the broken windows policy. Sridhar also compares this decrease of crime rate with other major cities that adopted other various policies and determined that the broken windows policy is not as effective.

In a 2007 study called "Reefer Madness" in the journal Criminology and Public Policy, Harcourt and Ludwig found further evidence confirming that mean reversion fully explained the changes in crime rates in the different precincts in New York in the 1990s.[37] Further alternative explanations that have been put forward include the waning of the crack epidemic,[38] unrelated growth in the prison population by the Rockefeller drug laws,[38] and that the number of males from 16 to 24 was dropping regardless of the shape of the US population pyramid.[39]

It has also been argued that rates of major crimes also dropped in many other US cities during the 1990s, both those that had adopted broken windows policing and those that had not.[40] In the winter 2006 edition of the University of Chicago Law Review, Bernard Harcourt and Jens Ludwig looked at the later Department of Housing and Urban Development program that rehoused inner-city project tenants in New York into more-orderly neighborhoods.[24] The broken windows theory would suggest that these tenants would commit less crime once moved because of the more stable conditions on the streets. However, Harcourt and Ludwig found that the tenants continued to commit crime at the same rate.

Baltimore criminologist Ralph B. Taylor argues in his book that fixing windows is only a partial and short-term solution. His data supports a materialist view: changes in levels of physical decay, superficial social disorder, and racial composition do not lead to higher crime, but economic decline does. He contends that the example shows that real, long-term reductions in crime require that urban politicians, businesses, and community leaders work together to improve the economic fortunes of residents in high-crime areas.[41]

Relationship between crime and disorder[edit]

According to a study by Robert J. Sampson and Stephen Raudenbush, the premise on which the theory operates, that social disorder and crime are connected as part of a causal chain, is faulty. They argue that a third factor, collective efficacy, "defined as cohesion among residents combined with shared expectations for the social control of public space," is the actual cause of varying crime rates that are observed in an altered neighborhood environment. They also argue that the relationship between public disorder and crime rate is weak.[42]

Another tack was taken by a 2010 study questioning the legitimacy of the theory concerning the subjectivity of disorder as perceived by persons living in neighborhoods. It concentrated on whether citizens view disorder as a separate issue from crime or as identical to it. The study noted that crime cannot be the result of disorder if the two are identical, agreed that disorder provided evidence of "convergent validity" and concluded that broken windows theory misinterprets the relationship between disorder and crime.[43]

Racial bias[edit]

Man getting arrested

Broken windows policing has sometimes become associated with zealotry, which has led to critics suggesting that it encourages discriminatory behaviour. Some campaigns such as Black Lives Matter have called for an end to broken windows policing.[44] In 2016, a Department of Justice report argued that it had led the Baltimore Police Department discriminating against and alienating minority groups.[45]

A central argument is that the concept of disorder is vague, and giving the police broad discretion to decide what disorder is will lead to discrimination. In Dorothy Roberts's article, "Foreword: Race, Vagueness, and the Social Meaning of Order Maintenance and Policing", she says that broken windows theory in practice leads to the criminalization of communities of color, who are typically disfranchised.[46] She underscores the dangers of vaguely written ordinances that allows for law enforcers to determine who engages in disorderly acts, which, in turn, produce a racially skewed outcome in crime statistics.[47] Similarly, Gary Stewart wrote, "The central drawback of the approaches advanced by Wilson, Kelling, and Kennedy rests in their shared blindness to the potentially harmful impact of broad police discretion on minority communities."[48] It was seen by the authors, who worried that people would be arrested "for the 'crime' of being undesirable". According to Stewart, arguments for low-level police intervention, including the broken windows hypothesis, often act "as cover for racist behavior".[48]

The theory has also been criticized for its unsound methodology and its manipulation of racialized tropes. Specifically, Bench Ansfield has shown that in their 1982 article, Wilson and Kelling cited only one source to prove their central contention that disorder leads to crime: the Philip Zimbardo vandalism study (see Precursor Experiments above).[49] But Wilson and Kelling misrepresented Zimbardo's procedure and conclusions, dispensing with Zimbardo's critique of inequality and community anonymity in favor of the oversimplified claim that one broken window gives rise to "a thousand broken windows". Ansfield argues that Wilson and Kelling used the image of the crisis-ridden 1970s Bronx to stoke fears that "all cities would go the way of the Bronx if they didn't embrace their new regime of policing."[50] Wilson and Kelling manipulated the Zimbardo experiment to avail themselves of the racialized symbolism found in the broken windows of the Bronx.[49]

Robert J. Sampson argues that based on common misconceptions by the masses, it is clearly implied that those who commit disorder and crime have a clear tie to groups suffering from financial instability and may be of minority status: "The use of racial context to encode disorder does not necessarily mean that people are racially prejudiced in the sense of personal hostility." He notes that residents make a clear implication of who they believe is causing the disruption, which has been termed as implicit bias.[51] He further states that research conducted on implicit bias and stereotyping of cultures suggests that community members hold unrelenting beliefs of African-Americans and other disadvantaged minority groups, associating them with crime, violence, disorder, welfare, and undesirability as neighbors.[51] A later study indicated that this contradicted Wilson and Kelling's proposition that disorder is an exogenous construct that has independent effects on how people feel about their neighborhoods.[43]

In response, Kelling and Bratton have argued that broken windows policing does not discriminate against law-abiding communities of minority groups if implemented properly.[17] They cited Disorder and Decline: Crime and the Spiral of Decay in American Neighborhoods,[52] a study by Wesley Skogan at the University of California. The study, which surveyed 13,000 residents of large cities, concluded that different ethnic groups have similar ideas as to what they would consider to be "disorder".

Minority groups have tended to be targeted at higher rates by the Broken Windows style of policing. Broken Windows policies have been utilized more heavily in minority neighborhoods where low-income, poor infrastructure, and social disorder were widespread, causing minority groups to perceive that they were being racially profiled under Broken Windows policing.[22][53]

Class bias[edit]

Homeless man talking with a police officer

A common criticism of broken windows policing is the argument that it criminalizes the poor and homeless. That is because the physical signs that characterize a neighborhood with the "disorder" that broken windows policing targets correlate with the socio-economic conditions of its inhabitants. Many of the acts that are considered legal but "disorderly" are often targeted in public settings and are not targeted when they are conducted in private. Therefore, those without access to a private space are often criminalized. Critics, such as Robert J. Sampson and Stephen Raudenbush of Harvard University, see the application of the broken windows theory in policing as a war against the poor, as opposed to a war against more serious crimes.[54] Since minority groups in most cities are more likely to be poorer than the rest of the population, a bias against the poor would be linked to a racial bias.[46]

According to Bruce D. Johnson, Andrew Golub, and James McCabe, the application of the broken windows theory in policing and policymaking can result in development projects that decrease physical disorder but promote undesired gentrification. Often, when a city is so "improved" in this way, the development of an area can cause the cost of living to rise higher than residents can afford, which forces low-income people out of the area. As the space changes, the middle and upper classes, often white, begin to move into the area, resulting in the gentrification of urban, poor areas. The local residents are affected negatively by such an application of the broken windows theory and end up evicted from their homes as if their presence indirectly contributed to the area's problem of "physical disorder".[46]

Popular press[edit]

In More Guns, Less Crime (University of Chicago Press, 2000), economist John Lott, Jr. examined the use of the broken windows approach as well as community- and problem-oriented policing programs in cities over 10,000 in population, over two decades. He found that the impacts of these policing policies were not very consistent across different types of crime. Lott's book has been subject to criticism, but other groups support Lott's conclusions.

In the 2005 book Freakonomics, coauthors Steven D. Levitt and Stephen J. Dubner confirm and question the notion that the broken windows theory was responsible for New York's drop in crime, saying "the pool of potential criminals had dramatically shrunk". Levitt had in the Quarterly Journal of Economics attributed that possibility to the legalization of abortion with Roe v. Wade, which correlated with a decrease, one generation later, in the number of delinquents in the population at large.[55]

In his 2012 book Uncontrolled: The Surprising Payoff of Trial-and-Error for Business, Politics, and Society, Jim Manzi writes that of the randomized field trials conducted in criminology, only nuisance abatement per broken windows theory has been successfully replicated.[56][57]

See also[edit]

  • Anti-social behaviour order
  • Consent search
  • Community Policing
  • Crime in New York City
  • Crime prevention through environmental design
  • Deterrence (penology)
  • Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution
  • Graffiti abatement
  • Legalized abortion and crime effect
  • Bastiat's Parable of the broken window and the law of unintended consequences
  • Racial profiling
  • Safer Cities Initiative
  • Stigmergy
  • Stop-and-frisk in New York City
  • Terry stop
  • Tragedy of the commons
  • William Bratton

References[edit]

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Bibliography[edit]

  • Braga, Anthony A.; Welsh, Brandon C.; Schnell, Cory (June 4, 2015). "Can Policing Disorder Reduce Crime? A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. 52 (4): 567–588. doi:10.1177/0022427815576576. S2CID 76653190.
  • Garland, D (2001), The Culture of Control: Crime and Order in Contemporary Society, Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, ISBN 9780198299370.
  • Herbert, Steve; Brown, Elizabeth (September 2006), "Conceptions of Space and Crime in the Punitive Neoliberal City", Antipode, 38 (4): 755–77, doi:10.1111/j.1467-8330.2006.00475.x.
  • Hinkle, Joshua C.; Weisburd, David (November 2008), "The irony of broken windows policing: A micro-place study of the relationship between disorder, focused police crackdowns and fear of crime", Journal of Criminal Justice, 36 (6): 503–512, doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2008.09.010.
  • Jacobs, Jane (1961), The Death and Life of Great American Cities, New York: Random House, OL 5820238M.
  • Ranasinghe, P (2012), "Jane Jacobs' framing of public disorder and its relation to the 'broken windows' theory", Theoretical Criminology, 16 (1): 63–84, doi:10.1177/1362480611406947, S2CID 144274542.
  • Sampson, RJ; Raudenbush, SW (2004), "Seeing Disorder: Neighborhood Stigma and the Social Construction of "Broken Windows"", Social Psychology Quarterly, 67 (4): 319–42, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.180.2220, doi:10.1177/019027250406700401, S2CID 8626641.
  • Stewart, Gary (May 1998), "Black Codes and Broken Windows: The Legacy of Racial Hegemony in Anti-Gang Civil Injunctions", The Yale Law Journal, 107 (7): 2249–79, doi:10.2307/797421, JSTOR 797421.
  • Wilcox, P; Quisenberry, N; Cabrera, DT; Jones, S (2004), "Busy places & broken windows?: Toward Defining the Role of Physical Structure and Process in Community Crime Models", Sociological Quarterly, 45 (2): 185–207, doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2004.tb00009.x, S2CID 145187908.
  • Wilson, James Q; Kelling, George L (Mar 1982), "Broken Windows: The police and neighborhood safety", The Atlantic, retrieved 2007-09-03 (Broken windows (PDF), Manhattan institute).

Further reading[edit]

  • Bratton, William J (1998), Turnaround: How America's Top Cop Reversed the Crime Epidemic, Random House.
  • Eck, John E; Maguire, Edward R (2006), "Have Changes in Policing Reduced Violent Crime?", in Blumstein, Alfred; Wallman, Joel (eds.), The Crime Drop in America (rev ed.), Cambridge University Press.
  • Gladwell, Malcolm (2002), The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference, Back Bay, ISBN 978-0-316-34662-7.
  • Silman, Eli B (1999), NYPD Battles Crime: Innovative Strategies in Policing, Northeastern University Press.
  • Skogan, Wesley G (1990), Disorder and Decline: Crime and the Spiral of Decay in American Neighborhoods, University of California Press.

External links[edit]

  • "Is Broken Windows Policing Broken?". Debate Club (column). Legal Affairs. A review of the criticisms of the broken windows theory.
  • Shattering 'Broken Windows': An Analysis of San Francisco's Alternative Crime Policies (PDF) (article), Center on Juvenile and Criminal Justice, detailing crime reduction in San Francisco achieved via alternative crime policies.
  • Community Policing Defined (PDF), US: Department of Justice, archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-11-26, an article explaining the philosophy and method of community policing.