Китай , официально Китайская Народная Республика ( КНР ), является страной в Восточной Азии . Это самая густонаселенная страна в мире с населением около 1,4 миллиарда человек. Китай занимает площадь около 9,6 миллиона квадратных километров (3,7 миллиона миль 2 ), то есть в мире третий или четвертый по величине страна . [k] Страна официально разделена на 23 провинции , [l] [18] пять автономных областей , четыре непосредственно контролируемых муниципалитета ( Пекин , Тяньцзинь , Шанхай., и Чунцин ), а также два специальных административных района - Гонконг и Макао .
Китайская Народная Республика 中华人民共和国 ( китайский ) Чжунхуа Ренмин Гонхегуо ( Пиньинь ) | |
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Земля, контролируемая Китайской Народной Республикой, выделена темно-зеленым цветом; земля заявленная, но неконтролируемая, выделена светло-зеленым цветом. | |
Столица | Пекин 39 ° 55'N 116 ° 23'E / 39,917 ° с. Ш. 116,383 ° в. |
Крупнейший город | Шанхай |
Официальные языки | Стандартный китайский [a] |
Признанные региональные языки | |
Официальный сценарий | Упрощенный китайский [b] |
Этнические группы |
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Религия (2020) [1] |
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Демоним (ы) | китайский язык |
Правительство | Унитарная марксистско-ленинская [2] однопартийная социалистическая республика [3] |
• Генеральный секретарь КПК , президент [d] и военный председатель [e] | Си Цзиньпин |
• Премьер | Ли Кэцян |
• Председатель Конгресса | Ли Чжаншу |
• Председатель НПКСК [f] | Ван Ян |
• Член 1-го Секретариата ЦК | Ван Хунин |
• Секретарь по дисциплине CCP | Чжао Леджи |
• 1-й вице-премьер | Хан Чжэн |
• Вице-президент | Ван Цишань [г] |
• Директор наблюдательной комиссии | Ян Сяоду |
• Главный судья | Чжоу Цян |
• Генеральный прокурор | Чжан Цзюнь |
Законодательная власть | Всекитайское собрание народных представителей |
Формирование | |
• Первая доимперская династия | c. 2070 г. до н.э. |
• Первая императорская династия | 221 г. до н. Э. |
• Республика создана | 1 января 1912 г. |
• Провозглашение Народной Республики | 1 октября 1949 г. |
• Первая конституция | 20 сентября 1954 г. |
• Действующая конституция | 4 декабря 1982 г. |
• Самые последние полития признали | 20 декабря 1999 г. |
Область | |
• Общее | 9 596 961 км 2 (3 705 407 квадратных миль) [ч] [6] ( 3-я / 4-я ) |
• Воды (%) | 2,8 [i] |
Население | |
• Оценка на 2020 год | 1,41 миллиарда [8] ( 1-й ) |
• Плотность | 145 [9] / км 2 (375,5 / квадратных миль) ( 83-я ) |
ВВП ( ППС ) | Оценка на 2021 год |
• Общее | $ 26,66 трлн [10] ( 1-е место ) |
• На душу населения | 18 931 $ [10] ( 70-е ) |
ВВП (номинальный) | Оценка на 2021 год |
• Общее | 16,64 трлн долл. США [10] ( 2-е место ) |
• На душу населения | $ 11 819 [10] ( 56-е место ) |
Джини (2018) | 46,7 [11] высокий |
ИЧР (2019) | 0,761 [12] высокий · 85-е место |
Валюта | Жэньминьби (юань; ¥) [j] ( CNY-Renminbi) HKD-Гонконг) MOP-Макао ) |
Часовой пояс | UTC +8 ( китайское стандартное время ) |
Формат даты |
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Сторона вождения | право (материк); слева (Гонконг и Макао) |
Телефонный код | +86 (материк); +852 (Гонконг); +853 (Макао) |
Код ISO 3166 | CN |
Интернет-домен |
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Китай возник как одна из первых цивилизаций в мире в плодородном бассейне Желтой реки на Северо-Китайской равнине . Китай был одной из ведущих мировых экономических держав на протяжении большей части двух тысячелетий, с I по XIX век. [19] На протяжении тысячелетий политическая система Китая была основана на абсолютных наследственных монархиях или династиях , начиная с династии Ся в 21 веке до нашей эры . С тех пор Китай много раз расширялся, раскалывался и объединялся. В III веке до нашей эры Цинь воссоединил основной Китай и основал первую Китайскую империю . Последующая династия Хань (206 г. до н.э. - 220 г. н.э.) увидела некоторые из самых передовых технологий того времени, включая производство бумаги и компас , а также сельскохозяйственные и медицинские улучшения. Изобретение пороха и подвижного шрифта в династии Тан (618–907) и династии Северная Сун (960–1127) завершило Четыре великих изобретения . Культура Тан широко распространилась в Азии, поскольку новый Шелковый путь привел торговцев до Месопотамии и Африканского Рога . Империя Цин , последняя династия Китая, составлявшая территориальную основу современного Китая, понесла тяжелые потери от иностранного империализма. Китайская монархия рухнула в 1912 году с революции 1911 года , когда Китайская Республика (РПЦ) заменил династии Цин . Китай вторглись в Империю Японии во время Второй мировой войны . Китайская гражданская война привела в разделении территории в 1949 году , когда Коммунистическая партия Китая (КПК) во главе с Мао Цзэдуном создан Народной Республики Китая на материковом Китае в то время как Гоминьдан -LED правительство РПЦ отошли на остров Тайвань . [m] И КНР, и Китайская Республика в настоящее время заявляют, что являются единственным законным правительством Китая, что приводит к продолжающемуся спору даже после того, как Организация Объединенных Наций признала КНР правительством, представляющим Китай на всех конференциях ООН в 1971 году.
Номинально Китай является унитарной однопартийной социалистической республикой . Страна является постоянным членом Совета Безопасности Организации Объединенных Наций и членом-учредителем нескольких многосторонних и региональных организаций сотрудничества, таких как Азиатский банк инфраструктурных инвестиций , Фонд Шелкового пути , Новый банк развития , Шанхайская организация сотрудничества и Региональная всеобъемлющая организация. Экономическое партнерство и является членом БРИКС , G8 + 5 , G20 , АТЭС и Восточноазиатского саммита . Китайские власти подвергались критике со стороны политических диссидентов и правозащитников за широко распространенные нарушения прав человека , включая политические репрессии , массовую цензуру , массовую слежку за своими гражданами и насильственное подавление протестов.
После экономических реформ в 1978 году и его вступления во Всемирную торговую организацию в 2001 году экономика Китая стала второй по величине страной по номинальному ВВП в 2010 году и выросла до крупнейшей в мире по ППС в 2014 году. Китай является самой быстрорастущей страной в мире. крупная экономика, [20] второе-богатейшее государство в мире , и самый большой в мире производитель и экспортер . У страны самая большая в мире постоянная армия - Народно-освободительная армия - второй по величине оборонный бюджет и признанное государство, обладающее ядерным оружием . Китай был охарактеризован как потенциальная сверхдержава из-за его большой экономики и мощной армии . [21] [22] [23] [24]
Этимология
Китай | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Упрощенный китайский | 中国 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Традиционный китайский | 中國 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Ханю Пиньинь | Чжонго | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Литературное значение | «Среднее царство» или «Центральное царство» | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Слово «Китай» используется в английском языке с 16 века; однако это слово не использовалось самими китайцами в то время. Его происхождение прослеживается через португальский , малайский и персидский языки до санскритского слова Chīna , которое использовалось в древней Индии . [25]
«Китай» фигурирует в переводе Ричарда Идена [n] 1555 года журнала португальского исследователя Дуарте Барбоса за 1516 год . [o] [25] Использование Барбосы произошло от персидского Chīn ( چین ), которое, в свою очередь, произошло от санскритского Cīna ( चीन ). [30] Цина впервые использовалась в ранних индуистских писаниях, включая Махабхарату (5 век до н. Э.) И Законы Ману (2 век до н. Э.). [31] В 1655 году Мартино Мартини предположил, что слово «Китай» происходит от названия династии Цинь (221–206 гг. До н. Э.). [32] [31] Хотя это происхождение все еще приводится в различных источниках, [33] происхождение санскритского слова является предметом споров, согласно Оксфордскому словарю английского языка . [25] Альтернативные предложения включают названия Йеланг и состояния Цзин или Чу. [31] [34]
Официальное название современного государства является «Китайская Народная Республика» ( упрощенный китайский :中华人民共和国; традиционный китайский :中華人民共和國; пиньинь : Чжунхуа Жэньминь Gònghéguó ). Более короткая форма - «Китай» Zhōngguó (中国;中國) от zhōng («центральный») и guó («государство»), [p] термин, появившийся при династии Западная Чжоу в отношении ее королевского владения . [q] Затем он был применен к области вокруг Луойи (современный Лоян) во время Восточного Чжоу, а затем к Центральной равнине Китая, прежде чем использоваться как случайный синоним государства под Цин . [36] Это часто использовалось как культурная концепция, чтобы отличить народ Хуасиа от предполагаемых «варваров» . [36] Имя Чжунго также переводится на английский как «Среднее царство» . [38] Китай (КНР) иногда называют материком, если отличить Китайскую республику от КНР. [39] [40] [41] [42]
История
Предыстория
Археологические данные свидетельствуют о том, что первые гоминиды населяли Китай 2,25 миллиона лет назад. [43] Окаменелости гоминида пекинского человека , человека прямоходящего , использовавшего огонь , [44] были обнаружены в пещере в Чжоукоудяне недалеко от Пекина ; они были датированы между 680 000 и 780 000 лет назад . [45] Окаменелые зубы Homo sapiens (датированные 125 000–80 000 лет назад ) были обнаружены в пещере Фуянь в уезде Дао , провинция Хунань . [46] Китайская прото-письменность существовала в Цзяху около 7000 г. до н.э., [47] в Дамайди около 6000 г. до н.э., [48] в Дадиване с 5800 по 5400 г. до н.э. и Банпо с 5-го тысячелетия до нашей эры. Некоторые ученые предположили, что символы Цзяху (7-е тысячелетие до нашей эры) составляли самую раннюю китайскую систему письма. [47]
Раннее династическое правление
Согласно китайской традиции, первой династией была Ся , которая возникла около 2100 г. до н. Э. [49] Династия Ся положила начало политической системе Китая, основанной на наследственных монархиях или династиях , просуществовавшей тысячелетие. [50] Династия считалась историками мифической до тех пор, пока научные раскопки не обнаружили в Эрлитоу , Хэнань, в 1959 году памятники раннего бронзового века. [51] Остается неясным, являются ли эти памятники останками династии Ся или другой культуры того же периода. [52] Последующая династия Шан является самой ранней, подтвержденной современными записями. [53] Шан правили равниной Желтой реки в восточном Китае с 17 по 11 век до н.э. [54] Их гадательный сценарий (от гр. 1500 г. до н.э.) [55] [56] представляет собой самую старую форму китайской письменности еще не нашли [57] и является прямым предком современных китайских иероглифов . [58]
Шан был завоеван Чжоу , правившим между 11 и 5 веками до н.э., хотя централизованная власть постепенно ослаблялась феодальными военачальниками. Некоторые княжества в конечном итоге вышли из ослабленного Чжоу, больше не полностью подчинялись королю Чжоу и постоянно вели войны друг с другом в течение 300-летнего периода Весны и Осени . Ко времени периода Сражающихся царств V – III вв. До н.э. осталось всего семь могущественных государств. [59]
Императорский Китай
Период Воюющих царств закончился в 221 г. до н. Э. После того, как государство Цинь завоевало шесть других королевств, воссоединило Китай и установило господствующий порядок автократии . Король Чжэн Цинь провозгласил себя первым императором из династии Цинь . Он провел законнические реформы Цинь по всему Китаю, в частности, принудительную стандартизацию китайских иероглифов , размеров , ширины дороги (то есть длины осей тележек) и валюты . Его династия также покорила племена юэ в Гуанси , Гуандуне и Вьетнаме . [60] Династия Цинь просуществовала всего пятнадцать лет и пала вскоре после смерти Первого Императора, поскольку его жесткая авторитарная политика привела к повсеместному восстанию. [61] [62]
После широко распространенную гражданской войны , во время которого императорской библиотека в Xianyang была сожжена , [г] династия Хань появилась править Китай между 206 г. до н.э. и CE 220, создание культурной идентичности среди ее населения все еще помнили в этнонима Хань китайцев . [61] [62] Ханьцы значительно расширили территорию империи , военными кампаниями достигнув Средней Азии, Монголии , Южной Кореи и Юньнани , а также отвоевав Гуандун и северный Вьетнам из Наньюэ . Участие ханьцев в Центральной Азии и Согдиане помогло проложить сухопутный маршрут Шелкового пути , заменив более ранний путь через Гималаи в Индию. Ханьский Китай постепенно стал крупнейшей экономикой древнего мира. [64] Несмотря на первоначальную децентрализацию Хань и официальный отказ от философии Цинь легализма в пользу конфуцианства , законнические институты и политика Цинь продолжали использоваться правительством Хань и его преемниками. [65]
После окончания династии Хань , период волнений , известных как Троецарствие последовал, [66] , чьи центральные фигуры позже были увековечены в одном из четырех Classics из китайской литературы . В конце концов, Вэй был быстро свергнут династией Цзинь . Цзинь попал в гражданскую войну после прихода на престол императора, отсталого в развитии ; в пять Варвары затем вторглись и правили северный Китай как Шестнадцать государств . Xianbei объединил их как Северная Вэй , которого император Xiaowen отменил апартеид политики своих предшественников и в жизни радикальной китаизации на свои подданных , в значительной степени их интеграции в китайскую культуру. На юге генерал Лю Ю добился отречения от Цзинь в пользу Лю Сун . Различные правопреемники этих государств стали известны как Северная и Южная династии , при этом две области, наконец, воссоединились Суй в 581 году. Суй восстановил власть Хань через Китай, реформировал его сельское хозяйство, экономику и систему имперских экзаменов , построил Великую Канал и покровительствовал буддизму . Однако они быстро пали, когда их призыв на общественные работы и неудавшаяся война в Северной Корее спровоцировали массовые беспорядки. [67] [68]
При последующих династиях Тан и Сун китайская экономика, технологии и культура вступили в золотой век. [69] Империя Тан сохранила контроль над Западными регионами и Шелковым путем, [70] который привел торговцев до Месопотамии и Африканского Рога , [71] и сделал столицу Чанъань космополитическим городским центром. Однако он был опустошен и ослаблен восстанием Ань Лушань в 8 веке. [72] В 907 году Тан полностью распался, когда местные военные губернаторы стали неуправляемыми. Династия Сун положила конец сепаратистской ситуации в 960 году, что привело к балансу сил между Сун и Кидань Ляо . Песня была первым правительством в мировой истории, выпустившим бумажные деньги, и первым китайским государством, создавшим постоянно действующий военно-морской флот, который опирался на развитую судостроительную промышленность и морскую торговлю. [73]
Между 10-м и 11-м веками население Китая увеличилось вдвое и составило около 100 миллионов человек, в основном из-за расширения выращивания риса в центральном и южном Китае и производства обильных излишков продуктов питания. В династии Сун также произошло возрождение конфуцианства в ответ на рост буддизма во времена Тан [74] и расцвет философии и искусства, когда ландшафтное искусство и фарфор были выведены на новый уровень зрелости и сложности. [75] [76] Однако династия Чжурчжэнь Цзинь заметила военную слабость армии Сун . В 1127 году император Хуэйцзун из Сун и столица Бяньцзин были захвачены во время Войн Цзинь-Сун . Остатки Песни отступили на юг Китая . [77]
13 век принес монгольское завоевание Китая . В 1271 году монгольский вождь Хубилай-хан основал династию Юань ; Юань завоевал последний остаток династии Сун в 1279 году. До монгольского вторжения население Сунского Китая составляло 120 миллионов граждан; к моменту переписи 1300 года это число сократилось до 60 миллионов [78] . Крестьянин по имени Чжу Юаньчжан сверг Юань в 1368 году и основал династию Мин как император Хуну . При династии Мин Китай пережил новый золотой век, создав один из самых сильных военно-морских сил в мире и богатую и процветающую экономику на фоне расцвета искусства и культуры. Именно в этот период адмирал Чжэн Хэ руководил путешествиями по сокровищам династии Мин через Индийский океан , достигнув Восточной Африки . [79]
В первые годы правления династии Мин столица Китая была перенесена из Нанкина в Пекин. С зарождением капитализма такие философы, как Ван Янмин, продолжили критику и расширили неоконфуцианство с концепциями индивидуализма и равенства четырех профессий . [80] ученый-чиновник прослойка стал второстепенную силу промышленности и торговли в движениях налогового бойкота, которые вместе с голодом и защиту против японских вторжений Кореи (1592-1598) и маньчжуров инвазий привели к истощенной казны. [81]
В 1644 году Пекин был захвачен коалицией крестьянских повстанческих сил во главе с Ли Цзычэном . Чунчжэнь покончил с собой , когда город пал. Маньчжурская династия Цин , в то время объединившаяся с генералом династии Мин У Санги , свергла недолговечную династию Шунь Ли и впоследствии захватила контроль над Пекином, который стал новой столицей династии Цин. [ необходима цитата ]
Поздний имперский
Династия Цин , просуществовавшая с 1644 по 1912 год, была последней императорской династией Китая. Его завоевание Мин (1618–1683) стоило 25 миллионов жизней, а экономика Китая резко сократилась . [82] После того, как Южный Мин закончился, дальнейшее завоевание Джунгарского ханства добавило Монголию, Тибет и Синьцзян к империи. [83] Централизованная автократия была усилена для подавления антицинских настроений с помощью политики оценки сельского хозяйства и сдерживания торговли, Хайцзинь («морской запрет») и идеологического контроля в лице литературной инквизиции , что привело к социальной и технологической стагнации. . [84] [85] В середине 19 века династия испытала западный империализм в Опиумных войнах с Великобританией и Францией . Китай был вынужден выплатить компенсацию, открыть порты по договору, разрешить экстерриториальность для иностранных граждан и уступить Гонконг британцам [86] в соответствии с Нанкинским договором 1842 года , первым из неравноправных договоров . Первый китайско-японской войны (1894-1895) привели к потере Qing влияния Китая на Корейском полуострове , а также уступку Тайваня в Японию . [87]
Династия Цин также начала переживать внутренние беспорядки, в результате которых погибли десятки миллионов людей, особенно во время восстания Белого Лотоса , неудавшегося восстания тайпинов , опустошившего южный Китай в 1850-х и 1860-х годах, и [[Дунганского восстания (1862–1877) в США »). северо-Запад. Первоначальный успех Самоусиливающегося движения 1860-х годов был сорван серией военных поражений 1880-х и 1890-х годов. [ необходима цитата ]
В 19 веке зародилась великая китайская диаспора . Убытки из-за эмиграции были добавлены конфликтами и катастрофами, такими как голод в Северном Китае 1876–1879 годов , в результате которого погибло от 9 до 13 миллионов человек. [88] Гуансюй разработал проект плана реформ в 1898 году , чтобы создать современную конституционную монархию , но эти планы были сорваны императрицей Цыси . Злополучное восстание боксеров против иностранцев 1899–1901 гг. Еще больше ослабило династию. Хотя Цыси спонсировал программу реформ, Синьхайская революция 1911–1912 годов положила конец династии Цин и установила Китайскую Республику . [89] Пуйи , последний император Китая, отрекся от престола в 1912 году. [90]
Республика (1912–1949)
1 января 1912 года была создана Китайская Республика, и Сунь Ятсен из Гоминьдана (Гоминьдана или Националистической партии) был провозглашен временным президентом. [91] Однако позже пост президента перешел к Юань Шикаю , бывшему цинскому генералу, который в 1915 году провозгласил себя императором Китая . Перед лицом общественного осуждения и противодействия со стороны его собственной армии Бэйян он был вынужден отречься от престола и восстановить республику. [92]
После смерти Юань Шикая в 1916 году Китай стал политически раздробленным. Его правительство в Пекине было признано во всем мире, но практически бессильно; региональные полевые командиры контролировали большую часть его территории. [93] [94] В конце 1920-х годов Гоминьдан под руководством Чан Кайши , тогдашнего директора Военной академии Китайской Республики , смог объединить страну под своим собственным контролем с помощью серии ловких военных и политических маневров. , известная под общим названием Северная экспедиция . [95] [96] Гоминьдан перенес столицу страны в Нанкин и осуществил «политическую опеку», промежуточную стадию политического развития, изложенную в программе Сань-миня Сунь Ятсена по преобразованию Китая в современное демократическое государство. [97] [98] политическое разделение в Китае затрудняло Чан в бой коммунистических Народно-освободительной армии Китая (НОАК), в отношении которых Гоминьдан был воюющих с 1927 года в китайской гражданской войны . Эта война продолжалась успешно для Гоминьдана, особенно после отступления НОАК во время Великого похода , пока японская агрессия и сианьский инцидент 1936 года не вынудили Чанга противостоять Императорской Японии . [99]
Второе китайско-японской война (1937-1945), театр из Второй мировой войны , заставила непростой союз между Гоминьданом и PLA. Японские войска совершили многочисленные военные зверства против гражданского населения; всего погибло около 20 миллионов китайских мирных жителей. [100] Приблизительно от 40 000 до 300 000 китайцев были убиты в одном только городе Нанкин во время японской оккупации. [101] Во время войны Китай, наряду с Великобританией, Соединенными Штатами и Советским Союзом , именовался «опекой сильных мира сего» [102] и был признан союзной « большой четверкой » в Декларации. Организация Объединенных Наций . [103] [104] Наряду с тремя другими великими державами, Китай был одним из четырех главных союзников во Второй мировой войне , а позже считался одним из главных победителей войны. [105] [106] После капитуляции Японии в 1945 году Тайвань, включая Пескадорес , был возвращен под контроль Китая . Китай вышел победителем, но опустошенным войной и финансово истощенным. Сохраняющееся недоверие между Гоминьданом и коммунистами привело к возобновлению гражданской войны. Конституционное правление было установлено в 1947 году, но из-за продолжающихся беспорядков многие положения конституции Китайской республики так и не были реализованы в материковом Китае. [107]
Народная Республика (1949-настоящее время)
Крупные боевые действия в гражданской войне в Китае закончились в 1949 году, когда Коммунистическая партия контролировала большую часть материкового Китая , а Гоминьдан отступил от берега , сократив свою территорию до Тайваня , Хайнаня и окружающих их островов. 21 сентября 1949 года председатель Коммунистической партии Мао Цзэдун провозгласил создание Китайской Народной Республики в речи на первом пленарном заседании Китайской народной политической консультативной конференции [108] [109] [110], после чего последовало публичное провозглашение и празднование. на площади Тяньаньмэнь . [111] В 1950 году Народно-освободительная армия захватила Хайнань у КР [112] и включила Тибет . [113] Однако оставшиеся силы Гоминьдана продолжали вести мятеж в западном Китае на протяжении 1950-х годов. [114]
Режим укрепил свою популярность среди крестьян посредством земельной реформы, в ходе которой были казнены от 1 до 2 миллионов помещиков . [115] Китай разработал независимую промышленную систему и собственное ядерное оружие . [116] Население Китая увеличилось с 550 миллионов в 1950 году до 900 миллионов в 1974 году. [117] Однако « Большой скачок вперед» , идеалистический проект масштабных реформ, привел к гибели от 15 до 35 миллионов человек в период с 1958 по 1961 год, в основном из-за голодание. [118] [119] [120] В 1966 году Мао и его союзники начали Культурную революцию , вызвав десятилетие политических взаимных обвинений и социальных потрясений, которые продолжались до смерти Мао в 1976 году. В октябре 1971 года КНР заменила республику в Соединенных Штатах. Наций и занял свое место в качестве постоянного члена Совета Безопасности. [121]
После смерти Мао « Банда четырех» была быстро арестована Хуа Гофэном и признана виновной в бесчинствах Культурной революции. Старейшина Дэн Сяопин пришел к власти в 1978 году и провел важные экономические реформы . Партия ослабила государственный контроль над личной жизнью граждан, и коммуны были постепенно распущены в пользу работы по контракту с домашними хозяйствами. Это ознаменовало переход Китая от плановой экономики к смешанной экономике со все более открытой рыночной средой . [122] Китай принял свою нынешнюю конституцию 4 декабря 1982 г. В 1989 году подавление из студенческих протестов на площади Тяньаньмэнь принес осуждение и санкции против китайского правительства из различных зарубежных стран. [123]
Цзян Цзэминь , Ли Пэн и Чжу Жунцзи возглавляли страну в 1990-х годах. Под их руководством экономические показатели Китая вытащили из бедности около 150 миллионов крестьян и позволили поддерживать среднегодовые темпы роста валового внутреннего продукта на уровне 11,2%. [124] [ нужен лучший источник ] [125] [ нужен лучший источник ] Страна вступила во Всемирную торговую организацию в 2001 году и сохранила высокие темпы экономического роста под руководством Ху Цзиньтао и Вэнь Цзябао в 2000-х годах. Однако рост также серьезно повлиял на ресурсы и окружающую среду страны [126] [127] и вызвал серьезное социальное перемещение . [128] [129]
Генеральный секретарь Коммунистической партии Китая Си Цзиньпин правит с 2012 года и предпринимает масштабные усилия по реформированию экономики Китая [130] [131] (которая страдает от структурной нестабильности и замедления роста), [132] [133] [134] и также реформировала политику одного ребенка и пенитенциарную систему [135], а также ввела масштабные меры по борьбе с коррупцией . [136] В 2013 году Китай выступил с инициативой « Один пояс, один путь» , глобального инвестиционного проекта в области инфраструктуры. [137] COVID-19 пандемии вспыхнули в Ухань, провинция Хубэй в 2019 году [138] [139]
География
Пейзаж Китая обширен и разнообразен: от пустынь Гоби и Такламакан на засушливом севере до субтропических лесов на более влажном юге. В Гималаи , Каракорум , Памир и Тянь - Шаня горные хребты отделяют Китай от большей части Южной и Центральной Азии . Янцзы и Хуанхэ , то третьей и шестой самый длинный в мире, соответственно, работать с Тибетского нагорья на густонаселенном восточном побережье. Береговая линия Китая вдоль Тихого океана составляет 14 500 км (9 000 миль) в длину и ограничена Бохайским , Желтым , Восточно-Китайским и Южно-Китайским морями. Китай соединяется через казахстанскую границу с Евразийской степью, которая была артерией сообщения между Востоком и Западом со времен неолита, через Степной путь - прародитель наземного Шелкового пути (ов). [ необходима цитата ]
Пейзаж и климат
Территории Китая находится между широтами 18 ° и 54 ° N , и долготе 73 ° и 135 ° в.д. . Географический центр Китая отмечен в центре страны Памятник в 35 ° 50′40,9 ″ с.ш., 103 ° 27′7,5 ″ в.д. / 35,844694 ° с.ш.103,452083 ° в. / 35.844694; 103,452083 ( Географический центр Китая ). Пейзажи Китая значительно различаются на его огромной территории. На востоке, вдоль берегов Желтого и Восточно-Китайского морей , расположены обширные и густонаселенные аллювиальные равнины , а на окраинах плато Внутренней Монголии на севере преобладают широкие луга . В Южном Китае преобладают холмы и невысокие горные хребты, в то время как в центрально-восточном районе находятся дельты двух основных рек Китая, Желтой реки и реки Янцзы . Другие крупные реки включают Си , Меконг , Брахмапутру и Амур . На западе расположены крупные горные хребты, в первую очередь Гималаи. Высокие плато выделяются среди более засушливых ландшафтов севера, таких как Такламакан и пустыня Гоби . Самая высокая точка в мире, гора Эверест (8848 м), находится на китайско-непальской границе. [141] Самая низкая точка страны и третья по высоте точка в мире - это высохшее дно озера Айдинг (-154 м) в Турфанской впадине . [142]
В климате Китая преобладают засушливые сезоны и влажные муссоны , что приводит к резкой разнице температур между зимой и летом. Зимой северные ветры, дующие с высокоширотных областей, холодные и сухие; летом южные ветры с прибрежных районов в более низких широтах теплые и влажные. [143]
Серьезной экологической проблемой в Китае является продолжающееся расширение его пустынь , особенно пустыни Гоби. [144] [145] Хотя линии барьерных деревьев, посаженные с 1970-х годов, снизили частоту песчаных бурь , продолжительная засуха и плохие методы ведения сельского хозяйства привели к пыльным бурям, поражающим северный Китай каждую весну, которые затем распространились на другие части Восточной Азии, включая Японию. и Корея. Орган по надзору за окружающей средой Китая, SEPA , заявил в 2007 году, что Китай теряет 4000 км 2 (1500 квадратных миль) в год из-за опустынивания. [146] Качество воды, эрозия и борьба с загрязнением стали важными проблемами в отношениях Китая с другими странами. Таяние ледников в Гималаях потенциально может привести к нехватке воды для сотен миллионов людей. [147] По мнению ученых, чтобы ограничить изменение климата в Китае до 1,5 ° C (2,7 ° F), производство электроэнергии из угля в Китае без улавливания углерода должно быть прекращено к 2045 году. [148] Официальная правительственная статистика о производительности сельского хозяйства Китая считаются ненадежными из-за преувеличения объемов производства на уровне дочерних органов государственного управления. [149] [150] На большей части территории Китая климат, очень подходящий для сельского хозяйства, и страна была крупнейшим в мире производителем риса, пшеницы, помидоров, баклажанов, винограда, арбузов, шпината и многих других культур. [151]
Биоразнообразие
Китай является одной из 17 стран богатым биоразнообразием , [152] , лежащий в двух основных мировых биогеографических царств : Палеарктики и Indomalayan . По некоторым оценкам, в Китае насчитывается более 34 687 видов животных и сосудистых растений, что делает его третьей страной в мире по биологическому разнообразию после Бразилии и Колумбии . [153] Страна подписала Конвенцию Рио-де-Жанейро о биологическом разнообразии 11 июня 1992 года и стала участником конвенции 5 января 1993 года. [154] Позже она разработала Национальную стратегию и план действий по сохранению биоразнообразия с одним пересмотренным вариантом, который был получено конвенцией 21 сентября 2010 г. [155]
В Китае обитает как минимум 551 вид млекопитающих (третье по величине такое количество в мире), [156] 1221 вид птиц (восьмое место), [157] 424 вида рептилий (седьмое) [158] и 333 вида птиц. амфибии (седьмой). [159] Дикие животные в Китае разделяют среду обитания с крупнейшей в мире популяцией людей и испытывают на себе серьезное давление. По меньшей мере 840 видов животных находятся под угрозой, уязвимы или находятся под угрозой местного исчезновения в Китае, в основном из-за человеческой деятельности, такой как разрушение среды обитания, загрязнение окружающей среды и браконьерство в поисках пищи, меха и ингредиентов для традиционной китайской медицины . [160] Находящиеся под угрозой исчезновения дикие животные охраняются законом, и с 2005 г.[Обновить], в стране более 2349 заповедников , общая площадь которых составляет 149,95 миллиона гектаров, что составляет 15 процентов от общей площади Китая. [161] [ нужен лучший источник ] Байджи был подтвержден вымершим 12 декабря 2006 года [162]
В Китае насчитывается более 32 000 видов сосудистых растений [163], и здесь обитают самые разные типы лесов. На севере страны преобладают холодные хвойные леса, в которых обитают такие виды животных, как лось и азиатский черный медведь , а также более 120 видов птиц. [164] подлесок влажных хвойных лес может содержать заросли бамбука . В более высоких гористых стендами можжевельника и тиса , бамбук заменяется рододендронов . Субтропические леса, преобладающие в центральном и южном Китае, поддерживают высокую плотность видов растений, включая многочисленные редкие эндемики. Тропические и сезонные тропические леса , хотя и ограничены Юньнань и островом Хайнань , содержат четверть всех видов животных и растений, встречающихся в Китае. [164] В Китае зарегистрировано более 10 000 видов грибов , [165] из которых почти 6 000 - высшие грибы . [166]
Среда
В последние десятилетия Китай пострадал от серьезного ухудшения состояния окружающей среды и загрязнения . [167] [168] Хотя такие правила, как Закон об охране окружающей среды 1979 г., довольно строги, они плохо соблюдаются, поскольку часто игнорируются местными сообществами и правительственными чиновниками в пользу быстрого экономического развития. [169] Китай занимает второе место по количеству погибших из-за загрязнения воздуха после Индии . Примерно 1 миллион смертей вызваны воздействием загрязненного окружающего воздуха. [170] [171] Китай является крупнейшим в мире эмиттера углекислого газа , [172] и занимает первое место в 13 - м по величине в выбросах на душу населения . [173] Страна также имеет серьезные проблемы с загрязнением воды : 8,2% рек Китая были загрязнены промышленными и сельскохозяйственными отходами в 2019 году и были непригодны для использования. [174] [175] Средний балл по Индексу целостности лесных ландшафтов 2018 г. составил 7,14 из 10, что означает 53-е место в мире из 172 стран. [176]
Тем не менее, Китай является ведущим в мире инвестором в возобновляемые источники энергии и ее коммерциализации , с $ 52 млрд инвестированы только в 2011 году; [177] [178] [179] это крупный производитель технологий возобновляемой энергии и вкладывает значительные средства в проекты использования возобновляемых источников энергии местного масштаба. [180] [181] [182] К 2015 году более 24% энергии Китая было получено из возобновляемых источников, в первую очередь за счет гидроэлектроэнергии : общая установленная мощность в 197 ГВт делает Китай крупнейшим производителем гидроэлектроэнергии в мире. [183] [184] Китай также обладает самой большой в мире мощностью установленной солнечной фотоэлектрической системы и ветроэнергетической системы . [185] [186] Выбросы парниковых газов Китай являются крупнейшим в мире , [173] как использование возобновляемых источников энергии в Китае . [187]
Политическая география
Китайская Народная Республика является второй по величине страной в мире по площади суши [188] после России и третьей по площади страной после России и Канады. [s] Общая площадь Китая обычно составляет приблизительно 9 600 000 км 2 (3 700 000 квадратных миль). [189] [ лучший источник необходимо ] Конкретные цифры площадь в диапазоне от 9,572,900 км 2 (3696100 квадратных миль) в соответствии с Британской энциклопедии , [190] , чтобы 9,596,961 км 2 (3705407 квадратных миль) в соответствии с демографической Ежегодник ООН, [4] и ЦРУ по странам мира . [7]
Китай имеет самую длинную комбинированную сухопутную границу в мире , протяженностью 22 117 км (13 743 миль) от устья реки Ялу (река Амнок) до Тонкинского залива . [7] Китай граничит с 14 странами , больше, чем любая другая страна, кроме России, которая также граничит с 14. [191] Китай простирается через большую часть Восточной Азии, граничит с Вьетнамом , Лаосом и Мьянмой (Бирма) в Юго-Восточной Азии; Индия , Бутан , Непал , Афганистан и Пакистан [t] в Южной Азии; Таджикистан , Кыргызстан и Казахстан в Центральной Азии; и Россия , Монголия и Северная Корея во Внутренней Азии и Северо-Восточной Азии . Кроме того, Китай имеет морские границы с Южной Кореей , Японией , Вьетнамом и Филиппинами . [ необходима цитата ]
Политика
Китайская конституция гласит, что Китайская Народная Республика «является социалистическим государством, управляемым демократической диктатурой народа, возглавляемой рабочим классом и основанной на союзе рабочих и крестьян», и что государственные учреждения «должны практиковать принцип демократический централизм ». [192] КНР - одно из немногих социалистических государств в мире, явно стремящихся к построению коммунизма . Китайское правительство по- разному описывается как коммунистические и социалистические, но и как авторитарные [193] и корпоратистской , [194] с тяжелыми ограничениями во многих областях, в первую очередь против свободного доступа к сети Интернет , свобода прессы , свобода собраний , право иметь детей , свободное создание общественных организаций и свободу вероисповедания . [195] Его нынешняя политическая, идеологическая и экономическая система была названа лидерами как « консультативная демократия », « народная демократическая диктатура », « социализм с китайскими особенностями » (который представляет собой марксизм, адаптированный к китайским условиям) и « социалистическая рыночная экономика». " соответственно. [196] [197]
Коммунистическая партия
С 2018 года основная часть конституции Китая провозглашает, что «определяющей чертой социализма с китайскими особенностями является руководство Коммунистической партией Китая (КПК)». [198] Поправки 2018 года закрепили де-факто статус однопартийного государства Китая, [198] в котором генеральный секретарь ( лидер партии ) обладает высшей властью и властью над государством и правительством и является верховным лидером Китая . [199] В настоящее время Генеральный секретарь Си Цзиньпин , который вступил в должность 15 ноября 2012 года и был переизбран 25 октября 2017. [200] избирательная система является пирамидальная. Местные собрания народных представителей избираются прямым голосованием , а собрания народных представителей более высокого уровня, вплоть до Всекитайского собрания народных представителей (ВНС), избираются косвенно Народным собранием нижестоящего уровня. [192]
Еще восемь политических партий имеют представителей в ВСНП и Народной политической консультативной конференции Китая (НПКСК). [201] [ нужен лучший источник ] Китай поддерживает ленинский принцип « демократического централизма », [192] но критики описывают избранный Всекитайское собрание народных представителей как орган « штампа ». [202]
Правительство
Китай - однопартийное государство, возглавляемое Коммунистической партией Китая (КПК). Всекитайское собрание народных представителей в 2018 году внесло изменения в конституцию страны, сняв ограничение на два срока пребывания на посту президента Китая, что позволило нынешнему лидеру Си Цзиньпину оставаться президентом Китая (и генеральным секретарем Коммунистической партии Китая ) на неограниченный срок. время, управляя как диктатор . [203] [204] Президент является титульным главой государства , избирается на съезде Национальной народной . Премьер является главой правительства , председательствует в Государственный совет , состоящий из четырех вице - премьеров и руководителей министерств и комиссий. Действующий президент - Си Цзиньпин , который также является генеральным секретарем Коммунистической партии Китая и председателем Центральной военной комиссии , что делает его главным лидером Китая . Действующий премьер - Ли Кэцян , который также является высокопоставленным членом Постоянного комитета Политбюро КПК , де-факто высшего руководящего органа Китая . [205] [206]
В 2017 году Си призвал коммунистическую партию еще больше усилить контроль над страной, поддержать единство партийного руководства и осуществить «китайскую мечту о национальном возрождении». [196] [207] Политические опасения в Китае включают растущий разрыв между богатыми и бедными и коррупцию в правительстве. [208] Тем не менее, уровень общественной поддержки правительства и его управления страной высок: по данным опроса 2011 года, 80–95% граждан Китая выражают удовлетворение деятельностью центрального правительства. [209]
административные округи
Китайская Народная Республика разделена на 22 провинции , пять автономных регионов (в каждом из которых есть определенная группа меньшинств) и четыре муниципалитета, которые в совокупности называются « материковым Китаем », а также особые административные районы (САР) Гонконг и Макао . Географически все 31 провинцию материкового Китая можно сгруппировать в шесть регионов: Северный Китай , Северо-Восточный Китай , Восточный Китай , Южно-Центральный Китай , Юго-Западный Китай и Северо-Западный Китай . [210]
Китай считает Тайвань , чтобы быть его двадцать третьей провинцией , хотя Тайвань регулируется Китайская Республика (РПЦ), которая отвергает претензию КНР. И наоборот, Китайская Республика претендует на суверенитет над всеми подразделениями, управляемыми КНР. [ необходима цитата ]
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Иностранные отношения
КНР имеет дипломатические отношения со 175 странами и имеет посольства в 162 странах . В 2019 году у Китая была самая большая дипломатическая сеть в мире. [211] [212] Его легитимность оспаривается Китайской Республикой и некоторыми другими странами; таким образом, это самое крупное и густонаселенное государство с ограниченным признанием . В 1971 году КНР заменила Китайскую Республику в качестве единственного представителя Китая в Организации Объединенных Наций и в качестве одного из пяти постоянных членов Совета Безопасности Организации Объединенных Наций . [213] Китай также был бывшим членом и лидером Движения неприсоединения и до сих пор считает себя защитником развивающихся стран . [214] [ нужен лучший источник ] Наряду с Бразилией, Россией, Индией и Южной Африкой, Китай является членом группы развивающихся крупных экономик БРИКС и провел третий официальный саммит группы в Санье , Хайнань, в апреле 2011 года. [215]
Согласно своей интерпретации политики « одного Китая» , Пекин сделал предварительным условием для установления дипломатических отношений признание другой страной своих притязаний на Тайвань и разрыв официальных связей с правительством Китайской Республики. [ необходима цитата ] Китайские официальные лица неоднократно выражали протест, когда иностранные страны делали дипломатические предложения Тайваню [216], особенно в отношении продажи вооружений. [217]
Much of current Chinese foreign policy is reportedly based on Premier Zhou Enlai's Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and is also driven by the concept of "harmony without uniformity", which encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences.[218] This policy may have led China to support states that are regarded as dangerous or repressive by Western nations, such as Zimbabwe, North Korea and Iran.[219] China has a close economic and military relationship with Russia,[220] and the two states often vote in unison in the UN Security Council.[221][222][223]
Trade relations
China became the world's largest trading nation in 2013, as measured by the sum of imports and exports, as well as the world's biggest commodity importer. comprising roughly 45% of maritime's dry-bulk market.[224][225] By 2016, China was the largest trading partner of 124 other countries.[226] China is the largest trading partner for the ASEAN nations, with a total trade value of $345.8 billion in 2015 accounting for 15.2% of ASEAN's total trade.[227] ASEAN is also China's largest trading partner.[228] In 2020, China became the largest trading partner of the European Union for goods, with the total value of goods trade reaching nearly $700 billion.[229] China, along with ASEAN, Japan, South Korea, Australia and New Zealand, is a member of the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership, the world's largest free-trade area covering 30% of the world's population and economic output.[230] China became a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001. In 2004, it proposed an entirely new East Asia Summit (EAS) framework as a forum for regional security issues.[231] The EAS, which includes ASEAN Plus Three, India, Australia and New Zealand, held its inaugural summit in 2005.[232]
China has had a long and complex trade relationship with the United States. In 2000, the United States Congress approved "permanent normal trade relations" (PNTR) with China, allowing Chinese exports in at the same low tariffs as goods from most other countries.[233] China has a significant trade surplus with the United States, its most important export market.[234] In the early 2010s, US politicians argued that the Chinese yuan was significantly undervalued, giving China an unfair trade advantage.[235][236][237][needs update]
Since the turn of the century, China has followed a policy of engaging with African nations for trade and bilateral co-operation;[238][239][240] in 2019, Sino-African trade totalled $208 billion, having grown 20 times over two decades.[241] According to Madison Condon "China finances more infrastructure projects in Africa than the World Bank and provides billions of dollars in low-interest loans to the continent’s emerging economies."[242] China maintains extensive and highly diversified trade links with the European Union.[229] China has furthermore strengthened its trade ties with major South American economies,[243] and is the largest trading partner of Brazil, Chile, Peru, Uruguay, Argentina, and several others.[244]
China's Belt and Road Initiative has expanded significantly over the last six years and, as of April 2020, includes 138 countries and 30 international organizations. In addition to intensifying foreign policy relations, the focus here is particularly on building efficient transport routes. The focus is particularly on the maritime Silk Road with its connections to East Africa and Europe and there are Chinese investments or related declarations of intent at numerous ports such as Gwadar, Kuantan, Hambantota, Piraeus and Trieste. However many of these loans made under the Belt and Road program are unsustainable and China has faced a number of calls for debt relief from debtor nations.[245][246]
Territorial disputes
Taiwan
Ever since its establishment after the Chinese Civil War, the PRC has claimed the territories governed by the Republic of China (ROC), a separate political entity today commonly known as Taiwan, as a part of its territory. It regards the island of Taiwan as its Taiwan Province, Kinmen and Matsu as a part of Fujian Province and islands the ROC controls in the South China Sea as a part of Hainan Province and Guangdong Province. These claims are controversial because of the complicated Cross-Strait relations, with the PRC treating the One-China policy as one of its most important diplomatic principles.[247][better source needed]
Land border disputes
China has resolved its land borders with 12 out of 14 neighboring countries, having pursued substantial compromises in most of them.[248][249][250] As of 2020, China currently has a disputed land border with only India and Bhutan.[citation needed]
Maritime border disputes
China is additionally involved in maritime disputes with multiple countries over the ownership of several small islands in the East and South China Seas, such as the Senkaku Islands and the Scarborough Shoal.[251][252]
Sociopolitical issues and human rights
China uses a massive espionage network of cameras, facial recognition software, sensors, surveillance of personal technology, and a social credit system as a means of social control of persons living in China.[253] The Chinese democracy movement, social activists, and some members of the Chinese Communist Party believe in the need for social and political reform. While economic and social controls have been significantly relaxed in China since the 1970s, political freedom is still tightly restricted. The Constitution of the People's Republic of China states that the "fundamental rights" of citizens include freedom of speech, freedom of the press, the right to a fair trial, freedom of religion, universal suffrage, and property rights. However, in practice, these provisions do not afford significant protection against criminal prosecution by the state.[254][255] Although some criticisms of government policies and the ruling Communist Party are tolerated, censorship of political speech and information, most notably on the Internet,[256][257] are routinely used to prevent collective action.[258] By 2020, China plans to give all its citizens a personal "Social Credit" score based on how they behave.[259][needs update] The Social Credit System, now being piloted in a number of Chinese cities,[needs update] is considered a form of mass surveillance which uses big data analysis technology.[260][261]
A number of foreign governments, foreign press agencies, and NGOs have criticized China's human rights record, alleging widespread civil rights violations such as detention without trial, forced abortions,[262] forced confessions, torture, restrictions of fundamental rights,[195][263] and excessive use of the death penalty.[264][265] The government suppresses popular protests and demonstrations that it considers a potential threat to "social stability", as was the case with the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989.[266]
The Chinese state is regularly accused of large-scale repression and human rights abuses in Tibet[267] and Xinjiang,[268] including violent police crackdowns and religious suppression throughout the Chinese nation.[269][270] At least one million members of China's Muslim Uyghur minority have been detained in mass detention camps, termed "Vocational Education and Training Centers", aimed at changing the political thinking of detainees, their identities, and their religious beliefs.[271] According to the U.S. Department of State, actions including political indoctrination, torture, physical and psychological abuse, forced sterilization, sexual abuse, and forced labor are common in these facilities.[272] The state has also sought to control offshore reporting of tensions in Xinjiang, intimidating foreign-based reporters by detaining their family members.[273] According to a 2020 report, China's treatment of Uyghurs meets UN definition of genocide,[274] and several groups called for a UN investigation.[275] On 19 January 2021, the United States Secretary of State, Mike Pompeo, announced that the United States Department of State had determined that "genocide and crimes against humanity" had been perpetrated by China against the Uyghurs.[276]
Global studies from Pew Research Center in 2014 and 2017 ranked the Chinese government's restrictions on religion as among the highest in the world, despite low to moderate rankings for religious-related social hostilities in the country.[277][278] The Global Slavery Index estimated that in 2016 more than 3.8 million people were living in "conditions of modern slavery", or 0.25% of the population, including victims of human trafficking, forced labor, forced marriage, child labor, and state-imposed forced labor. The state-imposed forced system was formally abolished in 2013 but it is not clear the extent to which its various practices have stopped.[279] The Chinese penal system includes labor prison factories, detention centers, and re-education camps, which fall under the heading Laogai ("reform through labor"). The Laogai Research Foundation in the United States estimated that there were over a thousand slave labour prisons and camps, known collectively as the Laogai.[280]
In 2019 a study called for the mass retraction of more than 400 scientific papers on organ transplantation, because of fears the organs were obtained unethically from Chinese prisoners. While the government says 10,000 transplants occur each year, hospital data shows between 60,000 and 100,000 organs are transplanted each year. The report provided evidence that this gap is being made up by executed prisoners of conscience.[281]
Военный
With 2.3 million active troops, the People's Liberation Army (PLA) is the largest standing military force in the world, commanded by the Central Military Commission (CMC).[282] China has the second-biggest military reserve force, only behind North Korea. The PLA consists of the Ground Force (PLAGF), the Navy (PLAN), the Air Force (PLAAF), and the People's Liberation Army Rocket Force (PLARF).[citation needed] According to the Chinese government, China's military budget for 2017 totalled US$151.5 billion, constituting the world's second-largest military budget, although the military expenditures-GDP ratio with 1.3% of GDP is below world average.[283] However, many authorities – including SIPRI and the U.S. Office of the Secretary of Defense – argue that China does not report its real level of military spending, which is allegedly much higher than the official budget.[283][284]
Экономика
Since 2010, China had the world's second-largest economy in terms of nominal GDP,[286] totaling approximately US$15.66 trillion (101.6 trillion Yuan) as of 2020.[287][288] In terms of purchasing power parity (PPP GDP), China's economy has been the largest in the world since 2014, according to the World Bank.[289] According to the World Bank, China's GDP grew from $150 billion in 1978 to $14.28 trillion by 2019.[290] China's economic growth has been consistently above 6 percent since the introduction of economic reforms in 1978.[291] China is also the world's largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods.[292] Between 2010 and 2019, China's contribution to global GDP growth has been 25% to 39%.[293][294]
China had the largest economy in the world for most of the past two thousand years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline.[295][296] Since economic reforms began in 1978, China has developed into a highly diversified economy and one of the most consequential players in international trade. Major sectors of competitive strength include manufacturing, retail, mining, steel, textiles, automobiles, energy generation, green energy, banking, electronics, telecommunications, real estate, e-commerce, and tourism. China has three out of the ten largest stock exchanges in the world[297]—Shanghai, Hong Kong and Shenzhen—that together have a market capitalization of over $15.9 trillion, as of October 2020.[298] China has four (Shanghai, Hong Kong, Beijing, and Shenzhen) out of the world's top ten most competitive financial centers, which is more than any country in the 2020 Global Financial Centres Index.[299] By 2035, China's four cities (Shanghai, Beijing, Guangzhou and Shenzhen) are projected to be among the global top ten largest cities by nominal GDP according to a report by Oxford Economics.[300]
China has been the world's No. 1 manufacturer since 2010, after overtaking the US, which had been No. 1 for the previous hundred years.[301][302] China has also been No. 2 in high-tech manufacturing since 2012, according to US National Science Foundation.[303] China is the second largest retail market in the world, next to the United States.[304] China leads the world in e-commerce, accounting for 40% of the global market share in 2016[305] and more than 50% of the global market share in 2019.[306] China is the world's leader in electric vehicles, manufacturing and buying half of all the plug-in electric cars (BEV and PHEV) in the world in 2018.[307] China is also the leading producer of batteries for electric vehicles as well as several key raw materials for batteries.[308] China had 174 GW of installed solar capacity by the end of 2018, which amounts to more than 40% of the global solar capacity.[309][310]
Foreign and Chinese sources have claimed that official Chinese government statistics overstate China's economic growth.[311][312][313][314] However, several Western academics and institutions have stated that China's economic growth is higher than indicated by official figures.[315][316][317][318][319][320]
China has a large informal economy, which arose as a result of the country's economic opening. The informal economy is a source of employment and income for workers, but it is unrecognized and suffers from lower productivity.[321] In 2020, hundreds of individual Chinese drug vendors illegally manufactured synthetic drugs such as fentanyl for export.[322]
Wealth in China
As of 2018, China was first in the world in total number of billionaires and second in millionaires—there were 658 Chinese billionaires[323] and 3.5 million millionaires.[324] In 2019, China overtook the US as the home to the highest number of rich people in the world, according to the global wealth report by Credit Suisse.[325][326] In other words, as of 2019, 100 million Chinese are in the top 10% of the wealthiest individuals in the world—those who have a net personal wealth of at least $110,000.[327] As of October 2020, China has the world's highest number of billionaires with nearly 878, increasing at the rate of roughly five per week.[328][329] According to the Hurun Global Rich List 2020, China is home to five of the world's top ten cities (Beijing, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Shenzhen, and Guangzhou in the 1st, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 10th spots, respectively) by the highest number of billionaires, which is more than any other country.[330][331] China had 85 female billionaires as of January 2021, two-thirds of the global total, and minted 24 new female billionaires in 2020.[332]
However, it ranks behind over 60 countries (out of around 180) in per capita economic output, making it an upper-middle income country.[333] Additionally, its development is highly uneven. Its major cities and coastal areas are far more prosperous compared to rural and interior regions.[334] China brought more people out of extreme poverty than any other country in history[335]—between 1978 and 2018, China reduced extreme poverty by 800 million. China reduced the extreme poverty rate—per international standard, it refers to an income of less than $1.90/day—from 88% in 1981 to 1.85% by 2013.[336] According to the World Bank, the number of Chinese in extreme poverty fell from 756 million to 25 million between 1990 and 2013.[337] The portion of people in China living below the international poverty line of $1.90 per day (2011 PPP) fell to 0.3% in 2018 from 66.3% in 1990. Using the lower-middle income poverty line of $3.20 per day, the portion fell to 2.9% in 2018 from 90.0% in 1990. Using the upper-middle income poverty line of $5.50 per day, the portion fell to 17.0% from 98.3% in 1990.[338]
Economic growth
From its founding in 1949 until late 1978, the People's Republic of China was a Soviet-style centrally planned economy. Following Mao's death in 1976 and the consequent end of the Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping and the new Chinese leadership began to reform the economy and move towards a more market-oriented mixed economy under one-party rule. Agricultural collectivization was dismantled and farmlands privatized, while foreign trade became a major new focus, leading to the creation of Special Economic Zones (SEZs). Inefficient state-owned enterprises (SOEs) were restructured and unprofitable ones were closed outright, resulting in massive job losses.[citation needed] Modern-day China is mainly characterized as having a market economy based on private property ownership,[339] and is one of the leading examples of state capitalism.[340][341] The state still dominates in strategic "pillar" sectors such as energy production and heavy industries, but private enterprise has expanded enormously, with around 30 million private businesses recorded in 2008.[342][343][better source needed][344][345] In 2018, private enterprises in China accounted for 60% of GDP, 80% of urban employment and 90% of new jobs.[346]
In the early 2010s, China's economic growth rate began to slow amid domestic credit troubles, weakening international demand for Chinese exports and fragility in the global economy.[347][348][349] China's GDP was slightly larger than Germany's in 2007; however, by 2017, China's $12.2 trillion-economy became larger than those of Germany, UK, France and Italy combined.[350] In 2018, the IMF reiterated its forecast that China will overtake the US in terms of nominal GDP by the year 2030.[351] Economists also expect China's middle class to expand to 600 million people by 2025.[352]
China in the global economy
Share of world GDP (PPP)[353] | |
---|---|
Year | Share |
1980 | 2.32% |
1990 | 4.11% |
2000 | 7.40% |
2010 | 13.89% |
2018 | 18.72% |
China is a member of the WTO and is the world's largest trading power, with a total international trade value of US$4.62 trillion in 2018.[354] Its foreign exchange reserves reached US$3.1 trillion as of 2019,[355] making its reserves by far the world's largest.[356][357] In 2012, China was the world's largest recipient of inward foreign direct investment (FDI), attracting $253 billion.[358] In 2014, China's foreign exchange remittances were $US64 billion making it the second largest recipient of remittances in the world.[359] China also invests abroad, with a total outward FDI of $62.4 billion in 2012,[358] and a number of major takeovers of foreign firms by Chinese companies.[360] China is a major owner of US public debt, holding trillions of dollars worth of U.S. Treasury bonds.[361][362] China's undervalued exchange rate has caused friction with other major economies,[236][363][better source needed][364] and it has also been widely criticized for manufacturing large quantities of counterfeit goods.[365][366]
Largest economies by nominal GDP in 2018[367] |
Following the 2007–08 financial crisis, Chinese authorities sought to actively wean off of its dependence on the U.S. dollar as a result of perceived weaknesses of the international monetary system.[368] To achieve those ends, China took a series of actions to further the internationalization of the Renminbi. In 2008, China established dim sum bond market and expanded the Cross-Border Trade RMB Settlement Pilot Project, which helps establish pools of offshore RMB liquidity.[369][370] This was followed with bilateral agreements to settle trades directly in renminbi with Russia,[371] Japan,[372] Australia,[373] Singapore,[374] the United Kingdom,[375] and Canada.[376] As a result of the rapid internationalization of the renminbi, it became the eighth-most-traded currency in the world, an emerging international reserve currency,[377] and a component of the IMF's special drawing rights; however, partly due to capital controls that make the renminbi fall short of being a fully convertible currency, it remains far behind the Euro, Dollar and Japanese Yen in international trade volumes.[378]
Class and income inequality
China has had the world's largest middle class population since 2015,[379] and the middle class grew to a size of 400 million by 2018.[380] In 2020, a study by the Brookings Institution forecast that China's middle-class will reach 1.2 billion by 2027 (almost 4 times the entire U.S. population today), making up one fourth of the world total.[381] Wages in China have grown a lot in the last 40 years—real (inflation-adjusted) wages grew seven-fold from 1978 to 2007.[382] By 2018, median wages in Chinese cities such as Shanghai were about the same as or higher than the wages in Eastern European countries.[383] China has the world's highest number of billionaires, with nearly 878 as of October 2020, increasing at the rate of roughly five per week.[328][329][384] China has a high level of economic inequality,[385] which has increased in the past few decades.[386] In 2018 China's GINI index was 0.467, according to the World Bank.[11]
Наука и технология
Historical
China was once a world leader in science and technology up until the Ming dynasty.[387] Ancient Chinese discoveries and inventions, such as papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder (the Four Great Inventions), became widespread across East Asia, the Middle East and later to Europe. Chinese mathematicians were the first to use negative numbers.[388][389] By the 17th century, Europe and the Western world surpassed China in scientific and technological advancement.[390] The causes of this early modern Great Divergence continue to be debated by scholars to this day.[391]
After repeated military defeats by the European colonial powers and Japan in the 19th century, Chinese reformers began promoting modern science and technology as part of the Self-Strengthening Movement. After the Communists came to power in 1949, efforts were made to organize science and technology based on the model of the Soviet Union, in which scientific research was part of central planning.[392] After Mao's death in 1976, science and technology was established as one of the Four Modernizations,[393] and the Soviet-inspired academic system was gradually reformed.[394]
Modern era
Since the end of the Cultural Revolution,[citation needed] China has made significant investments in scientific research[396] and is quickly catching up with the US in R&D spending.[397][398] In 2017, China spent $279 billion on scientific research and development.[399] According to the OECD, China spent 2.11% of its GDP on research and development (R&D) in 2016.[400] Science and technology are seen as vital for achieving China's economic and political goals, and are held as a source of national pride to a degree sometimes described as "techno-nationalism".[401] According to the World Intellectual Property Indicators, China received 1.54 million patent applications in 2018, representing nearly half of patent applications worldwide, more than double the US.[402][403] In 2019, China was No. 1 in international patents application.[404] Chinese tech companies Huawei and ZTE were the top 2 filers of international patents in 2017.[405][406] Chinese-born scientists have won the Nobel Prize in Physics four times, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry and Physiology or Medicine once respectively, though most of these scientists conducted their Nobel-winning research in western nations.[u][improper synthesis?]
China is developing its education system with an emphasis on science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM); in 2009, China graduated over 10,000 PhD engineers, and as many as 500,000 BSc graduates, more than any other country.[412] China also became the world's largest publisher of scientific papers in 2016.[413] Chinese technology companies such as Huawei and Lenovo have become world leaders in telecommunications and personal computing,[414][415][416] and Chinese supercomputers are consistently ranked among the world's most powerful.[417][418] China has been the world's largest market for industrial robots since 2013 and will account for 45% of newly installed robots from 2019 to 2021.[419] China ranks 14th on the Global Innovation Index and is the only middle-income economy, the only emerging country, and the only newly industrialized country in the top 30. China ranks first globally in the important indicators, including patents, utility models, trademarks, industrial designs, and creative goods exports and also has 2 (Shenzhen-Hong Kong-Guangzhou and Beijing in the 2nd and 4th spots respectively) of the global top 5 science and technology clusters, which is more than any country.[420]
The Chinese space program is one of the world's most active. In 1970, China launched its first satellite, Dong Fang Hong I, becoming the fifth country to do so independently.[421] In 2003, China became the third country to independently send humans into space, with Yang Liwei's spaceflight aboard Shenzhou 5; as of 2015[update], ten Chinese nationals have journeyed into space, including two women. In 2011, China's first space station module, Tiangong-1, was launched, marking the first step in a project to assemble a large crewed station by the early 2020s.[422] In 2013, China successfully landed the Chang'e 3 lander and Yutu rover onto the lunar surface.[423] In 2019, China became the first country to land a probe—Chang'e 4—on the far side of the moon.[424] In 2020, Chang'e 5 successfully returned moon samples to the Earth, making China the third country to do so independently after the United States and the Soviet Union.[425] In 2021, China became the second nation in history to independently land a rover (Zhurong) on Mars, joining the United States.[426]
Инфраструктура
After a decades-long infrastructural boom,[427] China has produced numerous world-leading infrastructural projects: China has the world's largest bullet train network,[428] the most supertall skyscrapers in the world,[429] the world's largest power plant (the Three Gorges Dam),[430] the largest energy generation capacity in the world,[431] a global satellite navigation system with the largest number of satellites in the world,[432] and has initiated the Belt and Road Initiative, a large global infrastructure building initiative with funding on the order of $50–100 billion per year.[433] The Belt and Road Initiative could be one of the largest development plans in modern history.[434]
Telecommunications
China is the largest telecom market in the world and currently has the largest number of active cellphones of any country in the world, with over 1.5 billion subscribers, as of 2018.[435] It also has the world's largest number of internet and broadband users, with over 800 million Internet users as of 2018[update]—equivalent to around 60% of its population—and almost all of them being mobile as well.[436] By 2018, China had more than 1 billion 4G users, accounting for 40% of world's total.[437][438][better source needed] China is making rapid advances in 5G—by late 2018, China had started large-scale and commercial 5G trials.[439]
China Mobile, China Unicom and China Telecom, are the three large providers of mobile and internet in China. China Telecom alone served more than 145 million broadband subscribers and 300 million mobile users; China Unicom had about 300 million subscribers; and China Mobile, the biggest of them all, had 925 million users, as of 2018.[440][441][442] Combined, the three operators had over 3.4 million 4G base-stations in China.[443] Several Chinese telecommunications companies, most notably Huawei and ZTE, have been accused of spying for the Chinese military.[444]
China has developed its own satellite navigation system, dubbed Beidou, which began offering commercial navigation services across Asia in 2012[445] as well as global services by the end of 2018.[446][447] The 35th and final satellite of Beidou constellation was launched into orbit on 23 June 2020, thus becoming the 3rd completed global navigation satellite system in service after GPS and GLONASS.[448]
Transport
Since the late 1990s, China's national road network has been significantly expanded through the creation of a network of national highways and expressways. In 2018, China's highways had reached a total length of 142,500 km (88,500 mi), making it the longest highway system in the world.[449] China has the world's largest market for automobiles, having surpassed the United States in both auto sales and production. A side-effect of the rapid growth of China's road network has been a significant rise in traffic accidents,[450] though the number of fatalities in traffic accidents fell by 20% from 2007 to 2017.[451] In urban areas, bicycles remain a common mode of transport, despite the increasing prevalence of automobiles – as of 2012[update], there are approximately 470 million bicycles in China.[452]
China's railways, which are state-owned, are among the busiest in the world, handling a quarter of the world's rail traffic volume on only 6 percent of the world's tracks in 2006.[453][better source needed] As of 2017, the country had 127,000 km (78,914 mi) of railways, the second longest network in the world.[454][455] The railways strain to meet enormous demand particularly during the Chinese New Year holiday, when the world's largest annual human migration takes place.[456]
China's high-speed rail (HSR) system started construction in the early 2000s. By the end of 2019, high speed rail in China had over 35,000 kilometers (21,748 miles) of dedicated lines alone, making it the longest HSR network in the world.[457][458] Services on the Beijing–Shanghai, Beijing–Tianjin, and Chengdu–Chongqing Lines reach up to 350 km/h (217 mph), making them the fastest conventional high speed railway services in the world. With an annual ridership of over 2.29 billion passengers in 2019 it is the world's busiest.[459] The network includes the Beijing–Guangzhou–Shenzhen High-Speed Railway, the single longest HSR line in the world, and the Beijing–Shanghai High-Speed Railway, which has three of longest railroad bridges in the world.[460] The Shanghai Maglev Train, which reaches 431 km/h (268 mph), is the fastest commercial train service in the world.[461]
Since 2000, the growth of rapid transit systems in Chinese cities has accelerated.[462] As of January 2021[update], 44 Chinese cities have urban mass transit systems in operation[463] and 39 more have metro systems approved.[464] As of 2020, China boasts the five longest metro systems in the world with the networks in Shanghai, Beijing, Guangzhou, Chengdu and Shenzhen being the largest.
There were approximately 229 airports in 2017, with around 240 planned by 2020. China has over 2,000 river and seaports, about 130 of which are open to foreign shipping.[citation needed] In 2017, the Ports of Shanghai, Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Ningbo-Zhoushan, Guangzhou, Qingdao and Tianjin ranked in the Top 10 in the world in container traffic and cargo tonnage.[465]
Water supply and sanitation
Water supply and sanitation infrastructure in China is facing challenges such as rapid urbanization, as well as water scarcity, contamination, and pollution.[466] According to data presented by the Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation of WHO and UNICEF in 2015, about 36% of the rural population in China still did not have access to improved sanitation.[467] The ongoing South–North Water Transfer Project intends to abate water shortage in the north.[468]
Демография
The national census of 2010 recorded the population of the People's Republic of China as approximately 1,370,536,875. About 16.60% of the population were 14 years old or younger, 70.14% were between 15 and 59 years old, and 13.26% were over 60 years old.[469] The population growth rate for 2013 is estimated to be 0.46%.[470] China used to make up much of the world's poor; now it makes up much of the world's middle class.[471] Although a middle-income country by Western standards, China's rapid growth has pulled hundreds of millions—800 million, to be more precise[472]—of its people out of poverty since 1978. By 2013, less than 2% of the Chinese population lived below the international poverty line of US$1.9 per day, down from 88% in 1981.[336] China's own standards for poverty are higher and still the country is on its way to eradicate national poverty completely by 2019.[473] From 2009 to 2018, the unemployment rate in China has averaged about 4%.[474]
Given concerns about population growth, China implemented a two-child limit during the 1970s, and, in 1979, began to advocate for an even stricter limit of one child per family. Beginning in the mid 1980s, however, given the unpopularity of the strict limits, China began to allow some major exemptions, particularly in rural areas, resulting in what was actually a "1.5"-child policy from the mid-1980s to 2015 (ethnic minorities were also exempt from one child limits). The next major loosening of the policy was enacted in December 2013, allowing families to have two children if one parent is an only child.[475] In 2016, the one-child policy was replaced in favor of a two-child policy.[476] Data from the 2010 census implies that the total fertility rate may be around 1.4, although due to under-reporting of births it may be closer to 1.5–1.6.[477]
According to one group of scholars, one-child limits had little effect on population growth[478] or the size of the total population.[479] However, these scholars have been challenged. Their own counterfactual model of fertility decline without such restrictions implies that China averted more than 500 million births between 1970 and 2015, a number which may reach one billion by 2060 given all the lost descendants of births averted during the era of fertility restrictions, with one-child restrictions accounting for the great bulk of that reduction.[480]
The policy, along with traditional preference for boys, may have contributed to an imbalance in the sex ratio at birth.[481][482] According to the 2010 census, the sex ratio at birth was 118.06 boys for every 100 girls,[483] which is beyond the normal range of around 105 boys for every 100 girls.[484] The 2010 census found that males accounted for 51.27 percent of the total population.[483] However, China's sex ratio is more balanced than it was in 1953, when males accounted for 51.82 percent of the total population.[483]
Ethnic groups
China legally recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, who altogether comprise the Zhonghua Minzu. The largest of these nationalities are the ethnic Chinese or "Han", who constitute more than 90% of the total population.[485] The Han Chinese – the world's largest single ethnic group[486] – outnumber other ethnic groups in every provincial-level division except Tibet and Xinjiang.[487] Ethnic minorities account for less than 10% of the population of China, according to the 2010 census.[485] Compared with the 2000 population census, the Han population increased by 66,537,177 persons, or 5.74%, while the population of the 55 national minorities combined increased by 7,362,627 persons, or 6.92%.[485] The 2010 census recorded a total of 593,832 foreign nationals living in China. The largest such groups were from South Korea (120,750), the United States (71,493) and Japan (66,159).[488]
Languages
There are as many as 292 living languages in China.[489] The languages most commonly spoken belong to the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family, which contains Mandarin (spoken by 70% of the population),[490] and other varieties of Chinese language: Yue (including Cantonese and Taishanese), Wu (including Shanghainese and Suzhounese), Min (including Fuzhounese, Hokkien and Teochew), Xiang, Gan and Hakka. Languages of the Tibeto-Burman branch, including Tibetan, Qiang, Naxi and Yi, are spoken across the Tibetan and Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau. Other ethnic minority languages in southwest China include Zhuang, Thai, Dong and Sui of the Tai-Kadai family, Miao and Yao of the Hmong–Mien family, and Wa of the Austroasiatic family. Across northeastern and northwestern China, local ethnic groups speak Altaic languages including Manchu, Mongolian and several Turkic languages: Uyghur, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Salar and Western Yugur. Korean is spoken natively along the border with North Korea. Sarikoli, the language of Tajiks in western Xinjiang, is an Indo-European language. Taiwanese aborigines, including a small population on the mainland, speak Austronesian languages.[491]
Standard Mandarin, a variety of Mandarin based on the Beijing dialect, is the official national language of China and is used as a lingua franca in the country between people of different linguistic backgrounds.[492][493] Mongolian, Uyghur, Tibetan, Zhuang and various other languages are also regionally recognized throughout the country.[494]
Chinese characters have been used as the written script for the Sinitic languages for thousands of years. They allow speakers of mutually unintelligible Chinese varieties to communicate with each other through writing. In 1956, the government introduced simplified characters, which have supplanted the older traditional characters in mainland China. Chinese characters are romanized using the Pinyin system. Tibetan uses an alphabet based on an Indic script. Uyghur is most commonly written in Persian alphabet-based Uyghur Arabic alphabet. The Mongolian script used in China and the Manchu script are both derived from the Old Uyghur alphabet. Zhuang uses both an official Latin alphabet script and a traditional Chinese character script.[citation needed]
Urbanization
China has urbanized significantly in recent decades. The percent of the country's population living in urban areas increased from 20% in 1980 to over 60% in 2019.[495][496][497] It is estimated that China's urban population will reach one billion by 2030, potentially equivalent to one-eighth of the world population.[496][497]
China has over 160 cities with a population of over one million,[498] including the 10 megacities[499](cities with a population of over 10 million) of Chongqing, Shanghai, Beijing, Chengdu, Harbin, Guangzhou, Tianjin, Shenzhen, Wuhan, Shijiazhuang and Suzhou.[500][501][502] Shanghai is China's most populous urban area[503][504] while Chongqing is its largest city proper.[505] By 2025, it is estimated that the country will be home to 221 cities with over a million inhabitants.[496] The figures in the table below are from the 2017 census,[506] and are only estimates of the urban populations within administrative city limits; a different ranking exists when considering the total municipal populations (which includes suburban and rural populations). The large "floating populations" of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult;[507] the figures below include only long-term residents.[citation needed]
Education
Since 1986, compulsory education in China comprises primary and junior secondary school, which together last for nine years.[510][better source needed] In 2010, about 82.5 percent of students continued their education at a three-year senior secondary school.[511] The Gaokao, China's national university entrance exam, is a prerequisite for entrance into most higher education institutions. In 2010, 27 percent of secondary school graduates are enrolled in higher education.[512][better source needed] This number increased significantly over the last years, reaching a tertiary school enrolment of 50 percent in 2018.[513] Vocational education is available to students at the secondary and tertiary level.[514][better source needed]
In February 2006, the government pledged to provide completely free nine-year education, including textbooks and fees.[515] Annual education investment went from less than US$50 billion in 2003 to more than US$250 billion in 2011.[516] However, there remains an inequality in education spending. In 2010, the annual education expenditure per secondary school student in Beijing totalled ¥20,023, while in Guizhou, one of the poorest provinces in China, only totalled ¥3,204.[517] Free compulsory education in China consists of primary school and junior secondary school between the ages of 6 and 15. In 2011, around 81.4% of Chinese have received secondary education.[518]
As of 2018[update], 96% of the population over age 15 are literate.[519] In 1949, only 20% of the population could read, compared to 65.5% thirty years later.[520] In 2009, Chinese students from Shanghai achieved the world's best results in mathematics, science and literacy, as tested by the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), a worldwide evaluation of 15-year-old school pupils' scholastic performance.[521] Despite the high results, Chinese education has also faced both native and international criticism for its emphasis on rote memorization and its gap in quality from rural to urban areas.[522]
As of 2020, China had the world's second-highest number of top universities.[523][524][525] Currently, China trails only the United States in terms of representation on lists of top 200 universities according to the Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU).[526] China is home to the two best universities (Tsinghua University and Peking University) in the whole Asia-Oceania region and emerging countries according to the Times Higher Education World University Rankings.[527][528][529] Both are members of the C9 League, an alliance of elite Chinese universities offering comprehensive and leading education.[530]
Health
The National Health and Family Planning Commission, together with its counterparts in the local commissions, oversees the health needs of the Chinese population.[531] An emphasis on public health and preventive medicine has characterized Chinese health policy since the early 1950s. At that time, the Communist Party started the Patriotic Health Campaign, which was aimed at improving sanitation and hygiene, as well as treating and preventing several diseases. Diseases such as cholera, typhoid and scarlet fever, which were previously rife in China, were nearly eradicated by the campaign.[citation needed] After Deng Xiaoping began instituting economic reforms in 1978, the health of the Chinese public improved rapidly because of better nutrition, although many of the free public health services provided in the countryside disappeared along with the People's Communes. Healthcare in China became mostly privatized, and experienced a significant rise in quality. In 2009, the government began a 3-year large-scale healthcare provision initiative worth US$124 billion.[532] By 2011, the campaign resulted in 95% of China's population having basic health insurance coverage.[533] In 2011, China was estimated to be the world's third-largest supplier of pharmaceuticals, but its population has suffered from the development and distribution of counterfeit medications.[534]
As of 2017[update], the average life expectancy at birth in China is 76 years,[535] and the infant mortality rate is 7 per thousand.[536] Both have improved significantly since the 1950s.[v][better source needed] Rates of stunting, a condition caused by malnutrition, have declined from 33.1% in 1990 to 9.9% in 2010.[539] Despite significant improvements in health and the construction of advanced medical facilities, China has several emerging public health problems, such as respiratory illnesses caused by widespread air pollution,[540] hundreds of millions of cigarette smokers,[541] and an increase in obesity among urban youths.[542][543][better source needed] China's large population and densely populated cities have led to serious disease outbreaks in recent years, such as the 2003 outbreak of SARS, although this has since been largely contained.[544] In 2010, air pollution caused 1.2 million premature deaths in China.[545]
The COVID-19 pandemic was first identified in Wuhan in December 2019.[546][547] Despite this, there is no convincing scientific evidence on the virus's origin, and further studies are being carried out around the world on a possible origin for the virus.[548][549] The Chinese government has been criticized for its handling of the epidemic and accused of concealing the extent of the outbreak before it became an international pandemic.[550]
Religion
The government of the People's Republic of China officially espouses state atheism,[555] and has conducted antireligious campaigns to this end.[556] Religious affairs and issues in the country are overseen by the State Administration for Religious Affairs.[557] Freedom of religion is guaranteed by China's constitution, although religious organizations that lack official approval can be subject to state persecution.[263][558]
Over the millennia, Chinese civilization has been influenced by various religious movements. The "three teachings", including Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism (Chinese Buddhism), historically have a significant role in shaping Chinese culture,[559][560] enriching a theological and spiritual framework which harks back to the early Shang and Zhou dynasty. Chinese popular or folk religion, which is framed by the three teachings and other traditions,[561] consists in allegiance to the shen (神), a character that signifies the "energies of generation", who can be deities of the environment or ancestral principles of human groups, concepts of civility, culture heroes, many of whom feature in Chinese mythology and history.[562] Among the most popular cults are those of Mazu (goddess of the seas),[563] Huangdi (one of the two divine patriarchs of the Chinese race),[563][564] Guandi (god of war and business), Caishen (god of prosperity and richness), Pangu and many others. China is home to many of the world's tallest religious statues, including the tallest of all, the Spring Temple Buddha in Henan.[citation needed]
Clear data on religious affiliation in China is difficult to gather due to varying definitions of "religion" and the unorganized, diffusive nature of Chinese religious traditions. Scholars note that in China there is no clear boundary between three teachings religions and local folk religious practice.[559] A 2015 poll conducted by Gallup International found that 61% of Chinese people self-identified as "convinced atheist",[565] though it is worthwhile to note that Chinese religions or some of their strands are definable as non-theistic and humanistic religions, since they do not believe that divine creativity is completely transcendent, but it is inherent in the world and in particular in the human being.[566] According to a 2014 study, approximately 74% are either non-religious or practise Chinese folk belief, 16% are Buddhists, 2% are Christians, 1% are Muslims, and 8% adhere to other religions including Taoists and folk salvationism.[567][568] In addition to Han people's local religious practices, there are also various ethnic minority groups in China who maintain their traditional autochthone religions. The various folk religions today comprise 2–3% of the population, while Confucianism as a religious self-identification is common within the intellectual class. Significant faiths specifically connected to certain ethnic groups include Tibetan Buddhism and the Islamic religion of the Hui, Uyghur, Kazakh, Kyrgyz and other peoples in Northwest China.[citation needed]
Культура
Since ancient times, Chinese culture has been heavily influenced by Confucianism. For much of the country's dynastic era, opportunities for social advancement could be provided by high performance in the prestigious imperial examinations, which have their origins in the Han dynasty.[570] The literary emphasis of the exams affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China, such as the belief that calligraphy, poetry and painting were higher forms of art than dancing or drama. Chinese culture has long emphasized a sense of deep history and a largely inward-looking national perspective.[571] Examinations and a culture of merit remain greatly valued in China today.[572]
The first leaders of the People's Republic of China were born into the traditional imperial order, but were influenced by the May Fourth Movement and reformist ideals. They sought to change some traditional aspects of Chinese culture, such as rural land tenure, sexism, and the Confucian system of education, while preserving others, such as the family structure and culture of obedience to the state. Some observers see the period following the establishment of the PRC in 1949 as a continuation of traditional Chinese dynastic history, while others claim that the Communist Party's rule has damaged the foundations of Chinese culture, especially through political movements such as the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s, where many aspects of traditional culture were destroyed, having been denounced as "regressive and harmful" or "vestiges of feudalism". Many important aspects of traditional Chinese morals and culture, such as Confucianism, art, literature, and performing arts like Peking opera,[573] were altered to conform to government policies and propaganda at the time. Access to foreign media remains heavily restricted.[574]
Today, the Chinese government has accepted numerous elements of traditional Chinese culture as being integral to Chinese society. With the rise of Chinese nationalism and the end of the Cultural Revolution, various forms of traditional Chinese art, literature, music, film, fashion and architecture have seen a vigorous revival,[575][576] and folk and variety art in particular have sparked interest nationally and even worldwide.[577]
Tourism in China
China received 55.7 million inbound international visitors in 2010,[578] and in 2012 was the third-most-visited country in the world.[579] It also experiences an enormous volume of domestic tourism; an estimated 740 million Chinese holidaymakers travelled within the country in October 2012.[580] China hosts the world's largest number of World Heritage Sites (55), and is one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world (first in the Asia-Pacific). It is forecast by Euromonitor International that China will become the world's most popular destination for tourists by 2030.[581]
Literature
Chinese literature is based on the literature of the Zhou dynasty.[582] Concepts covered within the Chinese classic texts present a wide range of thoughts and subjects including calendar, military, astrology, herbology, geography and many others.[583] Some of the most important early texts include the I Ching and the Shujing within the Four Books and Five Classics which served as the Confucian authoritative books for the state-sponsored curriculum in dynastic era.[584] Inherited from the Classic of Poetry, classical Chinese poetry developed to its floruit during the Tang dynasty. Li Bai and Du Fu opened the forking ways for the poetic circles through romanticism and realism respectively.[585] Chinese historiography began with the Shiji, the overall scope of the historiographical tradition in China is termed the Twenty-Four Histories, which set a vast stage for Chinese fictions along with Chinese mythology and folklore.[586] Pushed by a burgeoning citizen class in the Ming dynasty, Chinese classical fiction rose to a boom of the historical, town and gods and demons fictions as represented by the Four Great Classical Novels which include Water Margin, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Journey to the West and Dream of the Red Chamber.[587] Along with the wuxia fictions of Jin Yong and Liang Yusheng,[588] it remains an enduring source of popular culture in the East Asian cultural sphere.[589]
In the wake of the New Culture Movement after the end of the Qing dynasty, Chinese literature embarked on a new era with written vernacular Chinese for ordinary citizens. Hu Shih and Lu Xun were pioneers in modern literature.[590] Various literary genres, such as misty poetry, scar literature, young adult fiction and the xungen literature, which is influenced by magic realism,[591] emerged following the Cultural Revolution. Mo Yan, a xungen literature author, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012.[592]
Cuisine
Chinese cuisine is highly diverse, drawing on several millennia of culinary history and geographical variety, in which the most influential are known as the "Eight Major Cuisines", including Sichuan, Cantonese, Jiangsu, Shandong, Fujian, Hunan, Anhui, and Zhejiang cuisines.[594] All of them are featured by the precise skills of shaping, heating, and flavoring.[595][better source needed] Chinese cuisine is also known for its width of cooking methods and ingredients,[596] as well as food therapy that is emphasized by traditional Chinese medicine.[597][better source needed] Generally, China's staple food is rice in the south, wheat-based breads and noodles in the north. The diet of the common people in pre-modern times was largely grain and simple vegetables, with meat reserved for special occasions. And the bean products, such as tofu and soy milk, remain as a popular source of protein.[598] Pork is now the most popular meat in China, accounting for about three-fourths of the country's total meat consumption.[599] While pork dominates the meat market, there is also the vegetarian Buddhist cuisine and the pork-free Chinese Islamic cuisine. Southern cuisine, due to the area's proximity to the ocean and milder climate, has a wide variety of seafood and vegetables; it differs in many respects from the wheat-based diets across dry northern China. Numerous offshoots of Chinese food, such as Hong Kong cuisine and American Chinese food, have emerged in the nations that play host to the Chinese diaspora.[citation needed]
Music
Chinese music covers a highly diverse range of music from the traditional music to the modern music. Chinese music dates back before the pre-imperial times. Traditional Chinese musical instruments were traditionally grouped into eight categories known as bayin (八音). Traditional Chinese opera is a form of musical theatre in China originating thousands of years and has regional style forms such as Beijing opera and Cantonese opera.[600] Chinese pop (C-Pop) includes mandopop and cantopop. Chinese rap, Chinese hip hop and Hong Kong hip hop have become popular in contemporary times.[citation needed]
Cinema
Cinema was first introduced to China in 1896 and the first Chinese film, Dingjun Mountain, was released in 1905.[601] China has the largest number of movie screens in the world since 2016,[602] China became the largest cinema market in the world in 2020.[603][604] The top 3 highest-grossing films in China currently are Wolf Warrior 2 (2017), Ne Zha (2019), and The Wandering Earth (2019).[605]
Fashion
Hanfu is the historical clothing of the Han people in China. The qipao or cheongsam is a popular Chinese female dress.[606] The hanfu movement has been popular in contemporary times and seeks to revitalize Hanfu clothing.[607]
Sports
China has one of the oldest sporting cultures in the world. There is evidence that archery (shèjiàn) was practiced during the Western Zhou dynasty. Swordplay (jiànshù) and cuju, a sport loosely related to association football[608] date back to China's early dynasties as well.[609]
Physical fitness is widely emphasized in Chinese culture, with morning exercises such as qigong and t'ai chi ch'uan widely practiced,[610] and commercial gyms and private fitness clubs are gaining popularity across the country.[611] Basketball is currently the most popular spectator sport in China.[612] The Chinese Basketball Association and the American National Basketball Association have a huge following among the people, with native or ethnic Chinese players such as Yao Ming and Yi Jianlian held in high esteem.[613] China's professional football league, now known as Chinese Super League, was established in 1994, it is the largest football market in Asia.[614] Other popular sports in the country include martial arts, table tennis, badminton, swimming and snooker. Board games such as go (known as wéiqí in Chinese), xiangqi, mahjong, and more recently chess, are also played at a professional level.[615] In addition, China is home to a huge number of cyclists, with an estimated 470 million bicycles as of 2012[update].[452] Many more traditional sports, such as dragon boat racing, Mongolian-style wrestling and horse racing are also popular.[616]
China has participated in the Olympic Games since 1932, although it has only participated as the PRC since 1952. China hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, where its athletes received 51 gold medals – the highest number of gold medals of any participating nation that year.[617] China also won the most medals of any nation at the 2012 Summer Paralympics, with 231 overall, including 95 gold medals.[618][619] In 2011, Shenzhen in Guangdong, China hosted the 2011 Summer Universiade. China hosted the 2013 East Asian Games in Tianjin and the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics in Nanjing; the first country to host both regular and Youth Olympics. Beijing and its nearby city Zhangjiakou of Hebei province will also collaboratively host the 2022 Olympic Winter Games, which will make Beijing the first city in the world to hold both the Summer Olympics and the Winter Olympics.[620]
Смотрите также
- Outline of China
- Public holidays in China
Заметки
- ^ Portuguese (Macau only), English (Hong Kong only).
- ^ In the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau, Traditional Chinese characters are used. The Mongolian script is used in Inner Mongolia and the Tibetan script is used in the Tibet Autonomous Region, alongside simplified Chinese.
- ^ Ethnic minorities that are recognized officially.
- ^ Although PRC President is head of state, it is a largely ceremonial office with limited power under CCP General Secretary.
- ^ Including both state and party's central military chairs.
- ^ Chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference.
- ^ According to the official orders of precedence in China (i.e. party comes first), the order of Wang would be inferior to the members of the Standing Committee of Politburo of CCP as he was not appointed to office in the 19th Central Committee.
- ^ The area given is the official United Nations figure for the mainland and excludes Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan.[4] It also excludes the Trans-Karakoram Tract (5,800 km2 (2,200 sq mi)), Aksai Chin (37,244 km2 (14,380 sq mi)) and other territories in dispute with India. The total area of China is listed as 9,572,900 km2 (3,696,100 sq mi) by the Encyclopædia Britannica.[5] For further information, see Territorial changes of the People's Republic of China.
- ^ This figure was calculated using data from the CIA World Factbook.[7]
- ^ The Hong Kong dollar is used in Hong Kong and Macau while the Macanese pataca is used in Macau only.
- ^ The total area ranking relative to the United States depends on the measurement of the total areas of both countries. See List of countries and dependencies by area for more information. The following two primary sources (non-mirrored) represent the range (min./max.) of estimates of China's and the United States' total areas. Both sources (1) exclude Taiwan from the area of China; (2) exclude China's coastal and territorial waters. However, the CIA World Factbook includes the United States coastal and territorial waters, while Encyclopædia Britannica excludes the United States coastal and territorial waters.
- The Encyclopædia Britannica lists China as world's third-largest country (after Russia and Canada) with a total area of 9,572,900 km2,[13] and the United States as fourth-largest at 9,525,067 km2.[14]
- The CIA World Factbook lists China as fourth-largest country (after Russia, Canada and the United States) with a total area of 9,596,960 km2,[15] and the United States as the third-largest at 9,833,517 km2.[16]
Notably, Encyclopædia Britannica specifies the United States' area (excluding coastal and territorial waters) as 9,525,067 km2, which is less than either source's figure given for China's area.[14] Therefore, while it can be determined that China has a larger area excluding coastal and territorial waters, it is unclear which country has a larger area including coastal and territorial waters.
United Nations Statistics Division's figure for the United States is 9,833,517 km2 (3,796,742 sq mi) and China is 9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi). These closely match the CIA World Factbook figures and similarly include coastal and territorial waters for the United States, but exclude coastal and territorial waters for China.
Further explanation of disputed ranking: The dispute for world's third-largest country arose from the inclusion of coastal and territorial waters for the United States. This discrepancy was deduced from comparing the CIA World Factbook and its previous iterations[17] against the information for United States in Encyclopædia Britannica, particularly its footnote section.[14] In sum, according to older versions of the CIA World Factbook (from 1982 to 1996), the U.S. was listed as the world's fourth-largest country (after Russia, Canada, and China) with a total area of 9,372,610 km2 (3,618,780 sq mi). However, in the 1997 edition, the U.S. added coastal waters to its total area (increasing it to 9,629,091 km2 (3,717,813 sq mi)). And then again in 2007, U.S. added territorial water to its total area (increasing it to 9,833,517 km2 (3,796,742 sq mi)). During this time, China's total area remained unchanged. In other words, no coastal or territorial water area was added to China's total area figure. The United States has a coastal water area of 109,362 km2 (42,225 sq mi), and a territorial water area of 195,213 km2 (75,372 sq mi), for a total of 304,575 km2 (117,597 sq mi) of additional water space. This is larger than entire countries like Italy, New Zealand] and the United Kingdom. Adding this figure to the U.S. will boost it over China in ranking since China's coastal and territorial water figures are currently unknown (no official publication) and thus cannot be added into China's total area figure.
- ^ The disputed 23rd province of Taiwan is claimed by People's Republic of China but it does not administer it. See § Administrative divisions
- ^ The KMT solely governed the island until its transition to democracy in 1996.
- ^ "[...] Next vnto this, is found the great China, whose kyng is thought to bee the greatest prince in the worlde, and is named Santoa Raia".[26][27]
- ^ "[...] The Very Great Kingdom of China".[28] (Portuguese: ...O Grande Reino da China...).[29]
- ^ Although this is the present meaning of guó, in Old Chinese (when its pronunciation was something like /*qʷˤək/)[35] it meant the walled city of the Chinese and the areas they could control from them.[36]
- ^ Its use is attested from the 6th-century BC Classic of History, which states "Huangtian bestowed the lands and the peoples of the central state to the ancestors" (皇天既付中國民越厥疆土于先王).[37]
- ^ Owing to Qin Shi Huang's earlier policy involving the "burning of books and burying of scholars", the destruction of the confiscated copies at Xianyang was an event similar to the destructions of the Library of Alexandria in the west. Even those texts that did survive had to be painstakingly reconstructed from memory, luck, or forgery.[63] The Old Texts of the Five Classics were said to have been found hidden in a wall at the Kong residence in Qufu. Mei Ze's "rediscovered" edition of the Book of Documents was only shown to be a forgery in the Qing dynasty.
- ^ According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, the total area of the United States, at 9,522,055 km2 (3,676,486 sq mi), is slightly smaller than that of China. Meanwhile, the CIA World Factbook states that China's total area was greater than that of the United States until the coastal waters of the Great Lakes was added to the United States' total area in 1996. From 1989 through 1996, the total area of US was listed as 9,372,610 km2 (3,618,780 sq mi) (land area plus inland water only). The listed total area changed to 9,629,091 km2 (3,717,813 sq mi) in 1997 (with the Great Lakes areas and the coastal waters added), to 9,631,418 km2 (3,718,711 sq mi) in 2004, to 9,631,420 km2 (3,718,710 sq mi) in 2006, and to 9,826,630 km2 (3,794,080 sq mi) in 2007 (territorial waters added).
- ^ China's border with Pakistan and part of its border with India falls in the disputed region of Kashmir. The area under Pakistani administration is claimed by India, while the area under Indian administration is claimed by Pakistan.
- ^ Tsung-Dao Lee,[407] Chen Ning Yang,[407] Daniel C. Tsui,[408] Charles K. Kao,[409] Yuan T. Lee,[410] Tu Youyou[411]
- ^ The national life expectancy at birth rose from about 31 years in 1949 to 75 years in 2008,[537][better source needed] and infant mortality decreased from 300 per thousand in the 1950s to around 33 per thousand in 2001.[538]
Рекомендации
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- ^ "Xi Jinping is making great attempts to 'Sinicize' Marxist–Leninist Thought 'with Chinese characteristics' in the political sphere," states Lutgard Lams, "Examining Strategic Narratives in Chinese Official Discourse under Xi Jinping" Journal of Chinese Political Science (2018) volume 23, pp. 387–411 at p. 395
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The Gini coefficient, a measure of overall income inequality, declined to 0.462 in 2015, and has since risen to 0.467 in 2018 (Figure 27). Higher income inequality is partly driven by unequal regional income distribution. The eastern coastal regions have been the driver of China's rapid growth, due to its geographic location and the early introduction of reforms. As a result, the eastern coastal region is now home to 38% of the population, and its per capita GDP was 77% higher than that of the central, western, and northeastern regions in 2018. This gap widened further in the first three quarters of 2019. This is in part due to a disproportionate slowdown in interior provinces, which are more dependent on commodities and heavy industry. The slowdown has been negatively affected by structural shifts, especially necessary cuts in overcapacity (Figure 28).
- ^ "Human Development Report 2020" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 15 December 2020. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
- ^ "China". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 4 December 2017.
- ^ a b c "United States". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 4 December 2017.
- ^ "China". CIA. Retrieved 3 July 2016.
- ^ "United States". CIA. Retrieved 3 July 2016. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ "31 Years of CIA World Factbook". CIA. Retrieved 31 January 2014. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ China, The Washington Post
- ^ Maddison, Angus (2007). Contours of the World Economy 1-2030 AD: Essays in Macro-Economic History. Oxford University Press. p. 379. ISBN 978-0-191-64758-1.
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- ^ Cordesman, Anthony (1 October 2019). "China and the United States: Cooperation, Competition, and/or Conflict". Center for Strategic and International Studies. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
Seen from this perspective, such trends clearly that show that China already is a true economic superpower with growing resources and a steadily improving technology base. Its military structure is evolving to the point where China can compare or compete with the U.S. — at least in Asia.
- ^ Silver, Laura; Devlin, Kat; Huang, Christine (5 December 2019). "China's Economic Growth Mostly Welcomed in Emerging Markets, but Neighbors Wary of Its Influence". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
China has emerged as a global economic superpower in recent decades. It is not only the world’s second largest economy and the largest exporter by value, but it has also been investing in overseas infrastructure and development at a rapid clip
- ^ Lemahieu, Herve (29 May 2019). "Five big takeaways from the 2019 Asia Power Index". Lowy Institute. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
China, the emerging superpower, netted the highest gains in overall power in 2019, ranking first in half of the eight Index measures. For the first time, China narrowly edged out the United States in the Index’s assessment of economic resources. In absolute terms China’s economy grew by more than the total size of Australia’s economy in 2018. The world’s largest trading nation has also paradoxically seen its GDP become less dependent on exports. This makes China less vulnerable to an escalating trade war than most other Asian economies.
- ^ a b c "China". Oxford English Dictionary.ISBN 0-19-957315-8
- ^ Eden, Richard (1555), Decades of the New World, p. 230.
- ^ Myers, Henry Allen (1984). Western Views of China and the Far East, Volume 1. Asian Research Service. p. 34.
- ^ Dames, Mansel Longworth, ed. (1918), The Book of Duarte Barbosa, Vol. II, London, p. 211, ISBN 978-81-206-0451-3
- ^ Barbosa, Duarte (1946), Livro em que dá Relação do que Viu e Ouviu no Oriente, Lisbon, archived from the original on 22 October 2008. (in Portuguese)
- ^ "China". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (2000). Boston and New York: Houghton-Mifflin.
- ^ a b c Wade, Geoff. "The Polity of Yelang and the Origin of the Name 'China'". Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 188, May 2009, p. 20.
- ^ Martino, Martin, Novus Atlas Sinensis, Vienna 1655, Preface, p. 2.
- ^ Bodde, Derk (1978). Denis Twitchett; Michael Loewe (eds.). The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC – AD 220. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8.
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дальнейшее чтение
- Farah, Paolo (2006). "Five Years of China's WTO Membership: EU and US Perspectives on China's Compliance with Transparency Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism". Legal Issues of Economic Integration. Kluwer Law International. Volume 33, Number 3. pp. 263–304. Abstract.
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- Jacques, Martin (2009).When China Rules the World: The End of the Western World and the Birth of a New Global Order. Penguin Books. Rev. ed. (28 August 2012). ISBN 978-1-59420-185-1
- Jaffe, Amy Myers, "Green Giant: Renewable Energy and Chinese Power", Foreign Affairs, vol. 97, no. 2 (March / April 2018), pp. 83–93.
- Johnson, Ian, "What Holds China Together?", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 14 (26 September 2019), pp. 14, 16, 18. "The Manchus... had [in 1644] conquered the last ethnic Chinese empire, the Ming [and established Imperial China's last dynasty, the Qing]... The Manchus expanded the empire's borders northward to include all of Mongolia, and westward to Tibet and Xinjiang." [p. 16.] "China's rulers have no faith that anything but force can keep this sprawling country intact." [p. 18.]
- Lagerwey, John (2010). China: A Religious State. Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong Press. ISBN 978-988-8028-04-7.
- Meng, Fanhua (2011). Phenomenon of Chinese Culture at the Turn of the 21st century. Singapore: Silkroad Press. ISBN 978-981-4332-35-4.
- Sang Ye (2006). China Candid: The People on the People's Republic. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24514-3.
- Selden, Mark (1979). The People's Republic of China: Documentary History of Revolutionary Change. New York: Monthly Review Press. ISBN 978-0-85345-532-5.
- Shambaugh, David L. (2008). China's Communist Party: Atrophy and Adaptation. Washington, DC; Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25492-3.
Внешние ссылки
Government
- The Central People's Government of People's Republic of China (in English)
General information
- China at a Glance from People's Daily
- BBC News – China Profile
- China. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- China, People's Republic of from UCB Libraries GovPubs
- China at Curlie
- China's Encyclopædia Britannica entry
Maps
- Google Maps—China
- Wikimedia Atlas of the People's Republic of China
- Geographic data related to China at OpenStreetMap
Coordinates: 35°N 103°E / 35°N 103°E / 35; 103