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Из Википедии, бесплатной энциклопедии
  (Перенаправлено с шиитов )
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Шиитский ислам или шиизм является одним из двух основных ветвей в исламе . Он утверждает, что исламский пророк Мухаммед назначил Али ибн Аби Талиба своим преемником и имамом (духовным и политическим лидером) после него, [1] в первую очередь на мероприятии Гадир Хумм , но ему помешали сменить Мухаммеда в качестве лидера всех Мусульмане в результате выбора, сделанного другими товарищами Мухаммеда в Сакифе . Этот взгляд в первую очередь контрастирует с суннитским исламом., сторонники которого считают, что Мухаммед не назначал преемника до своей смерти, и считают Абу Бакра , назначенного халифом группой высокопоставленных мусульман в Сакифе, первым законным халифом после Мухаммеда. [2] Человек наблюдения шиитского ислама называется шиитским или шиитами .

Шиитский ислам основан на хадисе Мухаммеда (Гадир Хумм). [3] [4] Шииты считают, что Али был божественно назначен преемником Мухаммеда и первым имамом. Шииты также распространяют этот имам на семью Мухаммада, Ахль аль-Байт («люди / семья Дома») [5], и некоторых лиц из его потомков, известных как имамы , которые, по их мнению, обладают особым духовным и политическим авторитетом. над сообществом, непогрешимостью и другими божественно установленными чертами. [6] Несмотря на то, что существует множество шиитских групп , современный шиитский ислам разделен на две основные группы: двунадесятники.и исмаилиты , причем шииты-двунадесятники являются самой большой и влиятельной группой среди шиитов. [7] [8] [9]

Шиитский ислам - вторая по величине ветвь ислама: на конец первого десятилетия двадцать первого века мусульмане-шииты составляли 10–15% всех мусульман. [10] Шииты- двунадесятники - крупнейшая ветвь шиитского ислама [11], по оценкам 2012 года, 85% шиитов были двунадесятниками. [12]

Терминология

Коллективно, приверженцы шиитского ислама называют шиитами ( арабский : شيعة ; / ʃ ˙I ə / ), что является аббревиатурой Shī'atu'Alī ( арабский язык : شيعة علي ; / ʃiːʕatu ʕaliː / ) , что означает "последователь Али", " фракция Али », или« партия Али »; [13] [14] Shīī ( شِيعِيّ ) обозначает как существительное в единственном числе, так и форму прилагательного, в то время как Shīyāʿ ( شِي refers اع ) относится к существительному множественному числу. [15] шииты, Shia, Shiʻism/Shiʻite or Shiism/Shiite are the forms used in English, for adherents, mosques, and things associated with the religion.[16][17]

The term was first used during Muhammad's life.[18] At present, the word refers to the Muslims who believe that the leadership of the community after Muhammad belongs to Ali and his successors. Nawbakhti states that the term Shia refers to a group of Muslims that at the time of Muhammad and after him regarded Ali as the Imam and Caliph.[19] Al-Shahrastani expresses that the term Shia refers to those who believe that Ali is designated as the Heir, Imam and caliph by Muhammad[20] and that Ali's authority is maintained through his descendants.[21] For the Shia, this conviction is implicit in the Quran and the history of Islam. Shia scholars emphasize that the notion of authority is linked to the family of the prophets as the verses 3:33,34 show: "Indeed, God chose Adam and Noah and the family of Abraham and the family of 'Imran over the worlds – (33) Descendants, some of them from others. And God is Hearing and Knowing. (34)"[22]

History

Succession of Ali

Shia Muslims believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God alone, only God has the prerogative to appoint the successor to his prophet. They believe God chose Ali to be Muhammad's successor, infallible, the first caliph (khalifah, head of state) of Islam. The Shia believe that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor by God's command (Eid Al Ghadir).[23][24]

Ali was Muhammad's first-cousin and closest living male relative as well as his son-in-law, having married Muhammad's daughter Fatimah.[25][26]

The Party of Ali

Даже во времена Мухаммеда среди сподвижников были признаки того, что Салман аль-Фарси , Абу Зарр аль-Гифари , Микдад и Аммар ибн Ясир были одними из самых яростных и преданных сторонников Али. [27] [28]

Событие Зуль Ашира

Во время раскрытия Аш-Поэты , двадцать шестой суры из Корана , в с. 617, [29] Говорят, что Мухаммад получил инструкции предостеречь членов своей семьи от соблюдения их доисламских религиозных обрядов. Существуют разные версии попытки Мухаммеда сделать это, в одной из версий говорится, что он пригласил своих родственников на трапезу (позже названную Праздником Зуль Ашира), во время которой он произнес это заявление. [30] Согласно Ибн Исхаку , он состоял из следующей речи:

Аллах повелел мне пригласить вас в Его религию, сказав: «И предупреди своих ближайших родственников». Поэтому я предупреждаю вас и призываю вас засвидетельствовать, что нет бога, кроме Аллаха, и что я Его посланник. О вы, сыновья Абдула Мутталиба , никто никогда раньше не приходил к вам с чем-то лучшим, чем то, что я принес вам. Если вы примете это, ваше благополучие будет обеспечено в этом мире и в будущей жизни . Кто из вас поддержит меня в выполнении этого важного долга? Кто разделит со мной бремя этой работы? Кто ответит на мой звонок? Кто станет моим наместником, моим заместителем и моим вазиром ? [31]

Among those gathered, only Ali offered his consent. Some sources, such as the Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, do not record Muhammad's reaction to this, though Ibn Ishaq continues that he then declared Ali to be his brother, heir and successor.[32] In another narration, when Muhammad accepted Ali's offer, he "threw up his arms around the generous youth, and pressed him to his bosom" and said, "Behold my brother, my vizir, my vicegerent ... let all listen to his words, and obey him."[33]

Прямое назначение Али наследником в этой версии примечательно тем, что в ней утверждается, что его право на наследование было установлено в самом начале пророческой деятельности Мухаммеда. Связь с откровением аята Корана также служит цели обеспечения подлинности номинации, а также божественного разрешения. [34]

Событие Гадира Хумма

Хадис из Гадир Khumm имеет много различных вариантов и передается обоими суннитскими и шиитскими источников. В повествованиях обычно говорится, что в марте 632 года Мухаммад, возвращаясь из своего прощального паломничества вместе с большим количеством последователей и товарищей, остановился в оазисе Гадир Хумм. Там он взял Али за руку и обратился к собравшимся. Суть разногласий между различными сектами заключается в том, что Мухаммад, произнося свою речь, произнес прокламацию: «Любой, кто имеет меня своей мавлой , имеет Али своей мавлой». Некоторые версии добавляют дополнительное предложение «О Боже, подружись с другом Али». и будь врагом своего врага ". [35]

Mawla has a number of meanings in Arabic, with interpretations of Muhammad's use here being split along sectarian lines between the Sunni and Shia. Among the former group, the word is translated as "friend" or "one who is loyal/close" and that Muhammad was advocating that Ali was deserving of friendship and respect. Conversely, Shi'ites tend to view the meaning as being "master" or "ruler"[36] and that the statement was a clear designation of Ali being Muhammad's appointed successor. Shia sources also record further details of the event, such as stating that those present congratulated Ali and acclaimed him as Amir al-Mu'minin.[35]

Ali's caliphate

Обретение Али в Гадир Хумме ( MS Arab 161 , fol. 162r, 1309/8 AD 1309/8, иллюстрация рукописи Ильханидов )

Когда Мухаммед умер в 632 году н.э., ближайшие родственники Али и Мухаммеда устроили похороны. Пока они готовили его тело, Абу Бакр , Умар и Абу Убайда ибн аль-Джарра встретились с лидерами Медины и избрали Абу Бакра халифом. Али не принял халифат Абу Бакра и отказался присягать ему. Об этом говорится как в суннитском, так и в шиитском сахихе, а также в подлинных хадисах.

Ибн Кутайба , суннитский исламский ученый IX века, рассказывает об Али :

Я слуга Бога и брат Посланника Бога. Таким образом, я более достоин этой должности, чем вы. Я не стану подчиняться тебе [Абу Бакр и Умар], когда тебе будет более уместно дать мне байшат. Вы отобрали эту должность у ансаров, используя свое племенное отношение к Пророку как аргумент против них. Не могли бы вы тогда силой отнять у нас этот офис, ахл аль-байт? Разве вы не заявляли перед ансарами, что вы более достойны, чем они из халифата, потому что Мухаммад происходил из вашей среды (но Мухаммад никогда не был из семьи Абу-Бакра) - и, таким образом, они дали вам руководство и сдались? Теперь я возражаю против вас с тем же аргументом ... Это мы более достойны Посланника Бога, живые или мертвые. Дайте нам должное право, если вы действительно верите в Бога, или же несете ответственность за умышленные поступки неправильно... Умар, я не подчинюсь твоим приказам: я не буду клясться ему в верности ». В конце концов Абу Бакр сказал: «О Али! Если ты не желаешь отдавать свой байат, я не собираюсь принуждать тебя к тому же.

Great Mosque of Kufa, site of Ali's assassination.

Ali's wife, and daughter of Muhammad, Fatimah, refused to pledge allegiance to Abu Bakr and remained angry with him until she died due to the issues of Fadak and her inheritance from her father and the situation of Umar at Fatimah's house. This is stated in sahih Sunni Hadith, Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim. Fatimah did not at all pledge allegiance or acknowledge or accept the caliphate of Abu Bakr.[37] Almost all of Banu Hashim, Muhammad's clan and many of the sahaba, had supported AliДело после кончины пророка, в то время как другие поддержали Абу Бакра . [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46]

Только после убийства третьего халифа Усмана в 657 году н. Э. Мусульмане в Медине в отчаянии пригласили Али стать четвертым халифом в качестве последнего источника [25], и он основал свою столицу в Куфе на территории современного Ирака. . [13]

Ḍarīẖ над Али qabr (могила), Мечеть Али , Наджаф

Правление Али над ранним мусульманским сообществом часто оспаривалось, и против него велись войны. В результате ему приходилось бороться, чтобы сохранить свою власть против групп, которые предали его после того, как приняли его преемственность, или тех, кто хотел занять его позицию. Этот спор в конечном итоге привел к Первой Фитне , которая была первой крупной гражданской войной в Исламском Халифате. Фитна началась как серия восстаний против Али ибн Аби Талиба, вызванных убийством его политического предшественника Усмана ибн Аффана. Хотя повстанцы, обвинявшие Усмана в предвзятости [ необходимо разъяснение ], подтвердили халифа (халиф) Али , позже они повернулись против него и вступили с ним в бой. [25]Али правил с 656 по 661 год нашей эры, [25] когда он был убит [26] во время прострации в молитве ( суджуд ). Главный соперник Али Муавия тогда заявил права на халифат. [47]

Связь между долиной Инда и шиитским исламом была установлена ​​первоначальными мусульманскими миссиями. По словам Деррила Н. Маклина, связь между Синдом и шиитами или прото-шиитами может быть прослежена до Хакима ибн Джабала аль-Абди, сподвижника исламского пророка Мухаммеда , который путешествовал через Синд в Макран в 649 году нашей эры и представил отчет на площади к халифу. Он поддержал Али и погиб в битве на верблюдах вместе с синдхи- джатами . [48] Он также был поэтом, и несколько куплетов его стихотворения, восхваляющего Али ибн Абу Талиба, сохранились, как сообщается в Чачнаме: [49]

( Арабский :

ليس الرزيه بالدينار نفقدة

ان الرزيه فقد العلم والحكم

وأن أشرف من اودي الزمان به

أهل العفاف و أهل الجود والكريم [50]

‎ "Oh Ali, owing to your alliance (with the prophet) you are truly of high birth, and your example is great, and you are wise and excellent, and your advent has made your age an age of generosity and kindness and brotherly love".[51]

During the reign of Ali, many Jats came under the influence of Shi'ism.[52] Harith ibn Murrah Al-abdi and Sayfi ibn Fil' al-Shaybani, both officers of Ali's army, attacked Sindhi bandits and chased them to Al-Qiqan (present-day Quetta) in the year 658.[53] Sayfi was one of the seven Shias who were beheaded alongside Hujr ibn Adi al-Kindi[54] in 660AD, near Damascus.

Hasan ibn Ali

После смерти Али его старший сын Хасан стал лидером мусульман Куфы, и после серии стычек между куфскими мусульманами и армией Муавии Хасан согласился уступить халифат Муавии и сохранить мир между мусульманами при определенных условиях. : [55] [56]

  1. Соблюдение общественного проклиная Али , например , во время молитвы, следует отказаться
  2. Муавия не должен использовать налоговые деньги для личных нужд
  3. Должен быть мир, и последователям Хасана должна быть предоставлена ​​безопасность и их права.
  4. Муавия никогда не примет титул Амира аль-Муминина
  5. Муавия не будет назначать преемника

Затем Хасан удалился в Медину, где в 670 году н.э. он был отравлен своей женой Джадой бинт аль-Ашат ибн Кайс после того, как с ним тайно связался Муавия, который хотел передать халифат своему собственному сыну Язиду и увидел в Хасане препятствие. [ необходима цитата ]

Хусайн ибн Али

Битва при Кербеле, Бруклинский музей .

Хусейн, младший сын Али и брат Хасана, сначала сопротивлялся призывам повести мусульман против Муавии и вернуть себе халифат. В 680 году нашей эры Муавия умер и передал халифат своему сыну Язиду , нарушив договор с Хасаном ибн Али. Язид попросил Хусейна присягнуть на верность ( бай'ах) Для него. Фракция Али, ожидая, что халифат вернется к линии Али после смерти Муавии, увидела в этом предательство мирного договора, и поэтому Хусейн отклонил эту просьбу о верности. В Куфе возникла большая поддержка Хусейну, чтобы тот вернулся туда и занял свое положение халифа и имама, поэтому Хусейн собрал свою семью и последователей в Медине и отправился в Куфу. По пути в Куфу он был заблокирован армией людей Язида (в которую входили люди из Куфы) около Кербелы (современный Ирак), и Хусейн и примерно 72 члена его семьи и последователей были убиты в битве при Кербеле .

Слева: Храм Имама Хусейна ; Справа: Помещение мечети Аль-Хусейн во время Арбаина .

The Shia regard Husayn as a martyr (shahid), and count him as an Imam from the Ahl al-Bayt. They view Husayn as the defender of Islam from annihilation at the hands of Yazid I. Husayn is the last imam following Ali whom all Shiah sub-branches mutually recognize.[57] The Battle of Karbala is often cited as the definitive break between the Shia and Sunni sects of Islam, and is commemorated each year by Shiah Muslims on the Day of Ashura.

Imamate of the Ahl al-Bayt

Зульфикар со щитом и без него. Фатимиды изображение Али меча «s , как вырезанные на воротах Старого Каира, а именно Бабы аль-Наср показано ниже. Два меча были захвачены из храма языческого политеистического бога Маната во время набега Саада ибн Зайда аль-Ашхали . Мухаммед передал их Али, сказав, что одним из них был Зульфикар , который стал знаменитым мечом Али и более поздним символом шиизма. [58]
Изображение меча и щита Али на стене ворот Баб-ан-Наср, Каир

Later most of the Shia, including Twelver and Ismaili, became Imamis. Imami Shia believe that Imams are the spiritual and political successors to Muhammad.[citation needed] Imams are human individuals who not only rule over the community with justice, but also are able to keep and interpret the divine law and its esoteric meaning. The words and deeds of Muhammad and the imams are a guide and model for the community to follow; as a result, they must be free from error and sin, and must be chosen by divine decree, or nass, through Muhammad.[59][60]

Согласно этой точке зрения, всегда есть Имам Века, который является божественно назначенным авторитетом по всем вопросам веры и закона в мусульманском сообществе. Али был первым имамом этой линии, законным преемником Мухаммеда, за которым последовали потомки Мухаммеда мужского пола через его дочь Фатиму. [ необходима цитата ]

Храм Имама Резы

Эта разница между следованием либо Ахль аль-Байту (семья и потомки Мухаммеда), либо халифу Абу Бакру сформировала шиитские и нешиитские взгляды на некоторые стихи Корана, хадисы (повествования от Мухаммеда) и другие области ислама. Например, сборник хадисов, почитаемых мусульманами-шиитами, основан на рассказах членов Ахль аль-Байт и их сторонников, в то время как некоторые хадисы рассказчиков, не принадлежащих или поддерживающих Ахль аль-Байт, не включены. Те из Абу Хурайрынапример, Ибн Асакир в своем «Та'рих Кабир» и Муттаки в своем «Канзу'л-умма» сообщают, что халиф Умар бичевал его, упрекал и запрещал ему рассказывать хадисы от Мухаммеда. Умар сказал: «Поскольку вы в большом количестве рассказываете хадисы от Святого Пророка, вы годны только для того, чтобы приписывать ему ложь (то есть можно ожидать, что такой злой человек, как вы, будет говорить только ложь о Святом Пророке). перестань рассказывать хадисы от Пророка, иначе я пошлю тебя в землю Дуса ». (Клан в Йемене, к которому принадлежал Абу Хурайра.) Согласно суннитам, Али был четвертым преемником Абу Бакра, в то время как шииты утверждают, что Али был первым божественно санкционированным «имамом» или преемником Мухаммеда. Основополагающим событием в истории шиитов является мученичество в 680 г. н.э. в битве при Кербеле при Али.сынХусейн ибн Али , возглавивший движение неприсоединения против непокорного халифа (71 последователь Хусейна также был убит). В шиитском исламе двунадесятников и исмаилитов верят , что акл , божественная мудрость, была источником душ пророков и имамов и давала им эзотерическое знание, называемое шикма, и что их страдания были средством божественной милости для их преданных. [61] [62] Хотя имам не был получателем божественного откровения , у него были тесные отношения с Богом, через которые Бог направляет его, а имам, в свою очередь, направляет людей. Имамат, или вера в божественного наставника, является фундаментальной верой в ветвях шиитов двунадесятников и исмаилитов и основана на концепции, согласно которой Бог не оставит человечество без доступа к божественному руководству. [63]

Имам того времени, последний имам шиитов

The Mahdi is the prophesied redeemer of Islam who will rule for seven, nine or nineteen years (according to differing interpretations) before the Day of Judgment and will rid the world of evil. According to Islamic tradition, the Mahdi's tenure will coincide with the Second Coming of Jesus Christ (Isa), who is to assist the Mahdi against the Masih ad-Dajjal (literally, the "false Messiah" or Antichrist). Jesus, who is considered the Masih (Messiah) in Islam, will descend at the point of a white arcade, east of Damascus, dressed in yellow robes with his head anointed. He will then join the Mahdi in his war against the Dajjal, where Mahdi slay Dajjal and unite mankind.

Ghazan and his brother Öljaitü both were tolerant of sectarian differences within the boundaries of Islam, in contrast to the traditions of Genghis Khan.

Historians dispute the origin of Shia Islam, with many Western scholars positing that Shiism began as a political faction rather than a truly religious movement.[64][65] Other scholars disagree, considering this concept of religious-political separation to be an anachronistic application of a Western concept.[66]

Dynasties

In the century following the Battle of Karbala (680 CE), as various Shia-affiliated groups diffused in the emerging Islamic world, several nations arose based on a Shia leadership or population.

  • Idrisids (788–985 CE): a Zaydi dynasty in what is now Morocco
  • Qarmatians (899–1077 CE): an Ismaili Iranian dynasty. Their headquarters were in East Arabia and Bahrain. It was founded by Abu Sa'id al-Jannabi.
  • Buyids (934–1055 CE): a Twelver Iranian dynasty. at its peak consisted of large portions of modern Iraq and Iran.
  • Укайлиды (990–1096 гг. Н. Э.): Шиитская арабская династия с несколькими линиями, правившими в различных частях Аль-Джазиры , северной Сирии и Ирака.
  • Ильханат (1256–1335): персидское монгольское ханство, основанное в Персии в 13 веке и считающееся частью Монгольской империи . Первоначально Ильханство было основано во время походов Чингисхана в Империю Хорезмидов в 1219–1224 годах и основано внуком Чингиса Хулагу на территориях, которые сегодня включают большую часть Ирана, Ирака, Афганистана, Туркменистана, Армении, Азербайджана и Грузии. , Турция и Пакистан. Первоначально Ильханство исповедовало множество религий, но особенно симпатизировало буддизму и христианству. Позднее правители Ильханства, начиная с Газана в 1295 году, приняли ислам его брата.Олджайту продвигал шиитский ислам. [ требуется разъяснение ]
  • Бахманиды (1347–1527): мусульманское шиитское государство Декан на юге Индии и одно из великих средневековых индийских королевств. [67] Султанат Бахманидов был первым независимым исламским королевством в Южной Индии. [68]
Фатимидов халифата на его пике

Фатимидский халифат

Мечеть Аль-Хаким, Исламский Каир .
  • Фатимидов (909-1171 CE): Контролируемые большую часть Северной Африки, Леванта , части Аравии и Мекке и Медине . Группа берет свое название от Фатимы, дочери Мухаммеда, от которой они заявляют свое происхождение.
  • In 909 CE the Shiite military leader Abu Abdallah al-Shiʻi, overthrew the Sunni ruler in Northern Africa; which began the Fatimid regime.[69]
  • Jawhar (general) (Arabic: جوهر‎; fl. 966–d. 992) was a Fatimid general. Under the command of Caliph Al-Mu'izz, he led the conquest of North Africa and then of Egypt,[70] founded the city of Cairo[71] and the great al-Azhar Mosque. A Greek slave by origin, he was freed by Al-Mu'izz.[72]

Safavid Empire

Одним из первых действий шаха Исмаила I из династии Сефевидов было провозглашение секты двунадесятников шиитского ислама официальной религией его новообразованного государства, что вызвало межконфессиональную напряженность на Ближнем Востоке, когда он разрушил гробницы Абу Ханифы и суфия Абдула. Кадир Гилани в 1508 г. [73] В 1533 г. османы после завоевания Ирака восстановили различные важные суннитские святыни. [74]

Важным поворотным моментом в истории шиитов была династия Сефевидов (1501–1736 гг.) В Персии. Это вызвало ряд изменений в мусульманском мире:

  • Конец относительной взаимной терпимости между суннитами и шиитами, существовавшей со времен монгольских завоеваний, и возрождение антагонизма между двумя группами.
  • Первоначальная зависимость шиитских клерикалов от государства сопровождалась появлением независимого органа улемов, способных занимать политическую позицию, отличную от официальной. [75]
  • Рост значения иранских центров религиозного обучения и переход от двунадесятного шиизма, являющегося преимущественно арабским явлением. [76]
  • Рост школы Ахбари, которая проповедовала, что только Коран и хадисы должны быть основанием для вердиктов, отвергая использование аргументов.

С падением Сефевидов государство в Персии, включая государственную систему судов с судьями, назначаемыми правительством ( кади ), стало намного слабее. Это дало шариатским судам муджтахидов возможность заполнить правовой вакуум и позволило улемам отстоять свою судебную власть. Усульская школа также увеличилась в это время. [77]

  • Объявление шиизма государственной религией династии Сефевидов в Персии .

  • Памятник чалдыранской битвы , где более 7000 мусульман из шиитов и суннитов сект были убиты в бое.

  • Битва при Чалдиране в 1514 году была серьезным сектантским кризисом на Ближнем Востоке .

Убеждения и обычаи

Богословие

The Shia Islamic faith is vast and inclusive of many different groups.[13] Shia Islam embodies a completely independent system of religious interpretation and political authority in the Muslim world.[78][79] The original Shia identity referred to the followers of Imam Ali,[80] and Shia theology was formulated in the 2nd century AH, or after Hijra (8th century CE).[81] The first Shia governments and societies were established by the end of the 3rd century AH/9th century CE. The 4th century AH /10th century CE has been referred to by Louis Massignon as "the Shiite Ismaili century in the history of Islam".[82]

Profession of faith (Shahadah)

Kalema at Qibla of the Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo, Egypt with phrase "Ali-un-Waliullah"

Шиитская версия шахады , исламского исповедания веры, отличается от суннитской. Суннитский Шахада утверждает, что нет бога, кроме Бога, Мухаммад - посланник Бога , но к этому шиитский добавочный Али является вали (хранителем) Бога , علي ولي الله . Эта фраза воплощает шиитский акцент на наследовании власти через линию преемственности Мухаммеда. Таким образом, три статьи Шиитской Шахады обращаются к таухиду (единству Бога ), нубуввах (пророчеству Мухаммада) и имаму (имамату, руководству веры).

Основание Али как «вали» взято из определенного аята Корана. [83] Доступно более подробное обсуждение этого стиха. [84] [ циркулярная ссылка ]

Безошибочность (Исма)

Али считается первым мужчиной, принявшим ислам .

Ismah is the concept of infallibility or "divinely bestowed freedom from error and sin" in Islam.[85] Muslims believe that Muhammad and other prophets in Islam possessed ismah. Twelver and Ismaili Shia Muslims also attribute the quality to Imams as well as to Fatimah, daughter of Muhammad, in contrast to the Zaidi, who do not attribute 'ismah to the Imams.[86] Though initially beginning as a political movement, infallibility and sinlessness of the imams later evolved as a distinct belief of (non-Zaidi) Shiism.[87]

According to Shia theologians, infallibility is considered a rational necessary precondition for spiritual and religious guidance. They argue that since God has commanded absolute obedience from these figures they must only order that which is right. The state of infallibility is based on the Shia interpretation of the verse of purification.[88][89] Thus, they are the most pure ones, the only immaculate ones preserved from, and immune to, all uncleanness.[90] It does not mean that supernatural powers prevent them from committing a sin, but due to the fact that they have absolute belief in God, they refrain from doing anything that is a sin.[91]

They also have a complete knowledge of God's will. They are in possession of all knowledge brought by the angels to the prophets (nabi) and the messengers (rasul). Their knowledge encompasses the totality of all times. They thus act without fault in religious matters.[92] Shias regard Ali as the successor of Muhammad not only ruling over the community in justice, but also interpreting Islamic practices and its esoteric meaning. Hence he was regarded as being free from error and sin (infallible), and appointed by God by divine decree (nass) to be the first Imam.[93] Ali is known as "perfect man" (al-insan al-kamil) подобный Мухаммеду, согласно шиитской точке зрения. [94]

Затмение (Гайба)

Оккультизм - это вера в некоторые формы шиитского ислама, что мессианская фигура , скрытый имам, известный как Махди , однажды вернется и наполнит мир справедливостью. По словам шиитов-двунадесятников, главной целью Махди будет создание исламского государства и применение исламских законов, которые были открыты Мухаммеду. В Коране нет аятов об имамате, который является основной доктриной шиитского ислама. [95]

Некоторые шииты, такие как заиди и низаритские исмаилиты, не верят в идею оккультизма. Группы, которые действительно верят в это, различаются относительно того, какая линия Имамата действительна, и, следовательно, какой человек ушел в оккультацию. Они считают, что есть много знаков, которые укажут время его возвращения.

Мусульмане-шииты-двунадесятники верят, что Махди ( двенадцатый имам , Мухаммад аль-Махди ) уже находится на Земле, находится в затмении и вернется в конце времен. Фатимид / Бора / Давуди Бора верят в то же самое, но для своего 21-го тайиба , тогда как сунниты считают, что будущий Махди еще не прибыл на Землю. [96]

Наследование

It is believed that the armaments and sacred items of all of the Prophets, including Muhammad, were handed down in succession to the Imams of Ahl al-Bayt. In Kitab al-Kafi, Ja'far al-Sadiq mentions that "with me are the arms of the Messenger of Allah. It is not disputable."[97]

Далее он утверждает, что с ним меч Посланника Бога, его герб, его Ламам (вымпел) и его шлем. Кроме того, он упоминает, что с ним - флаг Посланника Бога-победителя. С ним Посох Моисея , кольцо Соломона , сына Давида , и поднос, на котором Моисей совершал приношения. У него есть имя, которое, когда Посланник Бога поместил бы его между мусульманами и язычниками, ни одна стрела язычников не достигла бы мусульман. С ним такой же предмет, который принесли ангелы. [97]

Ас-Садик также сообщает, что передача оружия синонимична получению имамата (руководства), подобно тому, как Ковчег в доме израильтян сигнализировал о пророчестве. [97]

Имам Али ар-Рида повествует, что куда бы ни пошло оружие среди нас, за ним последует и знание, и вооружение никогда не отойдет от тех, кто обладает знанием (имамат). [97]

Хадисная традиция

The Shia believe that the status of Ali is supported by numerous hadith, including the Hadith of the pond of Khumm, Hadith of the two weighty things, Hadith of the pen and paper, Hadith of the invitation of the close families, and Hadith of the Twelve Successors. In particular, the Hadith of the Cloak is often quoted to illustrate Muhammad's feeling towards Ali and his family by both Sunni and Shia scholars. Shias prefer hadith attributed to the Ahl al-Bayt and close associates, and have their own separate hadith canon.[98][99]

Practices

Shia religious practices, such as prayers, differ only slightly from the Sunnis'. While all Muslims pray five times daily, Shias have the option of combining Dhuhr with Asr and Maghrib with Isha', as there are three distinct times mentioned in the Quran. The Sunnis tend to combine only under certain circumstances.[100][101]

Community

Demographics

Islam by country     Sunni     Shias   Ibadi
Map of the Muslim world's schools of jurisprudence.[102]

According to Shia Muslims, one of the lingering problems in estimating Shia population is that unless Shia form a significant minority in a Muslim country, the entire population is often listed as Sunni. The reverse, however, has not held true, which may contribute to imprecise estimates of the size of each sect. For example, the 1926 rise of the House of Saud in Arabia brought official discrimination against Shia.[103] Shiites are estimated to be 21% of the Muslim population in South Asia, although the total number is difficult to estimate due to that reason.[104]It is estimated that 15%[105][106][107][108] of the world's Muslims are Shia. They may number up to 200 million as of 2009.[107]

Shias form a majority of the population in Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Iran, and Iraq,[109][110] as well as a plurality in Lebanon. Shias constitute 36.3% of the entire population (and 38.6% of the Muslim population) of the Middle East.[111]

Shia Muslims constitute 27-35% of the population in Lebanon, and as per some estimates from 35%[109][112] to over 35–40% of the population in Yemen,[113] 30%–35% of the citizen population in Kuwait (no figures exist for the non-citizen population),[114][115] over 20% in Turkey,[107][116] 5–20% of the population in Pakistan,[117][107] and 10–19% of Afghanistan's population.[118][119]

Saudi Arabia hosts a number of distinct Shia communities, including the Twelver Baharna in the Eastern Province and Nakhawila of Medina, and the Ismaili Sulaymani and Zaidiyyah of Najran. Estimations put the number of Shiite citizens at 2–4 million, accounting for roughly 15% of the local population.[120][better source needed]

Significant Shia communities exist in the coastal regions of West Sumatra and Aceh in Indonesia (see Tabuik).[121] The Shia presence is negligible elsewhere in Southeast Asia, where Muslims are predominantly Shafi'i Sunnis.

A significant Shia minority is present in Nigeria, made up of modern-era converts to a Shia movement centered around Kano and Sokoto states.[107][108][122] Several African countries like Kenya,[123] South Africa,[124] Somalia,[125] etc. hold small minority populations of various Shia denominations, primarily descendants of immigrants from South Asia during the colonial period, such as the Khoja.[126]

Significant populations worldwide

Distribution of global Shia Muslim population by continent

  Asia (93.3%)
  Africa (4.4%)
  Europe (1.5%)
  Americas (0.7%)
  Australia (0.1%)

Figures indicated in the first three columns below are based on the October 2009 demographic study by the Pew Research Center report, Mapping the Global Muslim Population.[107][108]

Distribution of global Shia Muslim population by country

  Iran (37%)
  Iraq (11%)
  Pakistan (10%)
  India (9%)
  Yemen (5%)
  Turkey (4%)
  Azerbaijan (3%)
  Afghanistan (2%)
  Syria (2%)
  Saudi Arabia (1%)
  Other (16%)

Persecution

The history of Sunni-Shia relations has often involved violence, dating back to the earliest development of the two competing sects. At various times Shia groups have faced persecution.[139][140][141][142][143][144]

Militarily established and holding control over the Umayyad government, many Sunni rulers perceived the Shia as a threat—to both their political and their religious authority.[145] The Sunni rulers under the Umayyads sought to marginalize the Shia minority, and later the Abbasids turned on their Shia allies and imprisoned, persecuted, and killed them. The persecution of the Shia throughout history by Sunni co-religionists has often been characterized by brutal and genocidal acts. Comprising only about 10–15% of the entire Muslim population, the Shia remain a marginalized community to this day in many Sunni Arab dominant countries without the rights to practice their religion and organize.[146]

In 1514 the Ottoman sultan, Selim I, ordered the massacre of 40,000 Anatolian Shia.[147] According to Jalal Al-e-Ahmad, "Sultan Selim I carried things so far that he announced that the killing of one Shiite had as much otherworldly reward as killing 70 Christians."[148]

In 1801 the Al Saud-Wahhabi armies attacked and sacked Karbala, the Shia shrine in eastern Iraq that commemorates the death of Husayn.[149]

Under Saddam Hussein's regime, 1968 to 2003, in Iraq, Shia Muslims were heavily arrested, tortured and killed.[150]

In March 2011, the Malaysian government declared the Shia a "deviant" sect and banned Shia from promoting their faith to other Muslims, but left them free to practice it themselves privately.[151][152]

Holidays

Shias celebrate the following annual holidays:

  • Eid ul-Fitr, which marks the end of fasting during the month of Ramadan
  • Eid al-Adha, which marks the end of the Hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca
  • Eid al-Ghadeer, which is the anniversary of the Ghadir Khum, the occasion when Muhammad announced Ali's Imamate before a multitude of Muslims.[153] Eid al-Ghadeer is held on the 18th of Dhu al-Hijjah.
  • The Mourning of Muharram and the Day of Ashura for Shia commemorates Husayn ibn Ali's martyrdom. Husayn was a grandson of Muhammad who was killed by Yazid ibn Muawiyah. Ashurah is a day of deep mourning which occurs on the 10th of Muharram.
  • Arba'een commemorates the suffering of the women and children of Husayn ibn Ali's household. After Husayn was killed, they were marched over the desert, from Karbala (central Iraq) to Shaam (Damascus, Syria). Many children (some of whom were direct descendants of Muhammad) died of thirst and exposure along the route. Arbaein occurs on the 20th of Safar, 40 days after Ashurah.
  • Mawlid, Muhammad's birth date. Unlike Sunni Muslims, who celebrate the 12th of Rabi' al-awwal as Muhammad's birthday or deathday (because they assert that his birth and death both occur in this week), Shia Muslims celebrate Muhammad's birthday on the 17th of the month, which coincides with the birth date of the sixth imam, Ja'far al-Saadiq.[154] Wahhabis do not celebrate Muhammad's birthday, believing that such celebrations constitute a bidʻah.[155]
  • Fatimah's birthday on 20th of Jumada al-Thani. This day is also considered as the "'women and mothers' day"[156]
  • Ali's birthday on 13th of Rajab.
  • Mid-Sha'ban is the birth date of the 12th and final Twelver imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi. It is celebrated by Shia Muslims on the 15th of Sha'aban.
  • Laylat al-Qadr, anniversary of the night of the revelation of the Quran.
  • Eid al-Mubahila celebrates a meeting between the Ahl al-Bayt (household of Muhammad) and a Christian deputation from Najran. Al-Mubahila is held on the 24th of Dhu al-Hijjah.

Holy sites

The four holiest sites to Muslims are Mecca (Al-Haram Mosque), Medina (Al-Nabbawi Mosque), Jerusalem (Al-Aqsa Mosque), and Kufa (Kufa Mosque). In addition for Shias, the Imam Husayn Shrine, Al Abbas Mosque in Karbala, and Imam Ali Mosque in Najaf are also highly revered.

Other venerated sites include Wadi-us-Salaam cemetery in Najaf, Al-Baqi' cemetery in Medina, Imam Reza shrine in Mashhad, Kadhimiya Mosque in Kadhimiya, Al-Askari Mosque in Samarra, Sahla Mosque and Great Mosque of Kufa in Kufa and several other sites in the cities of Qom, Susa and Damascus.

Most of the Shia holy places in Saudi Arabia have been destroyed by the warriors of the Ikhwan, the most notable being the tombs of the Imams in the Al-Baqi' cemetery in 1925.[157] In 2006, a bomb destroyed the shrine of Al-Askari Mosque.[158]

Branches

The Shia belief throughout its history split over the issue of the Imamate. The largest branch are the Twelvers, followed by the Zaidi, and the Ismaili. All three groups follow a different line of Imamate.

Twelver

Twelver Shia or the Ithnā'ashariyyah' is the largest branch of Shia Islam, and the term Shia Muslim often refers to the Twelvers by default. The term Twelver is derived from the doctrine of believing in twelve divinely ordained leaders, known as The Twelve Imams. Twelver Shia are also known as Imami or Ja'fari, originated from the name of the 6th Imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq, who elaborated the Twelver jurisprudence.[159]

Twelvers constitute the majority of the population in Iran (90%),[160] Azerbaijan (85%),[13][161] Bahrain (70%), Iraq (65%), Lebanon (65% of Muslims).[162][163][164]

Doctrine

Names of all 12 Imams (descendants of Imam Ali) written in the form of Arabic name على 'Ali'

Twelver doctrine is based on five principles.[165] These five principles known as Usul ad-Din are as follow:[166][167]

  1. Monotheism, God is one and unique.
  2. Justice, the concept of moral rightness based on ethics, fairness, and equity, along with the punishment of the breach of these ethics.
  3. Prophethood, the institution by which God sends emissaries, or prophets, to guide mankind.
  4. Leadership, a divine institution which succeeded the institution of Prophethood. Its appointees (imams) are divinely appointed.
  5. Last Judgment, God's final assessment of humanity.

More specifically, these principles are known as Usul al-Madhhab (principles of the Shia sect) according to Twelver Shias which differ from Daruriyat al-Din (Necessities of Religion) which are principles in order for one to be a Muslim. The Necessities of Religion do not include Leadership (Imamah) as it is not a requirement in order for one to be recognized as a Muslim. However, this category, according to Twelver scholars like Ayatollah al-Khoei, does include belief in God, Prophethood, the Day of Resurrection and other "necessities" (like belief in angels). In this regard, Twelver Shias draw a distinction in terms of believing in the main principles of Islam on the one hand, and specifically Shia doctrines like Imamah on the other.

Books

Besides the Quran which is common to all Muslims, the Shia derive guidance from books of traditions ("ḥadīth") attributed to Muhammad and the Twelve Imams. Below is a list of some of the most prominent of these books:

  • Nahj al-Balagha by Ash-Sharif Ar-Radhi[168][169][170] – the most famous collection of sermons, letters & narration attributed to Ali, the first Imam regarded by Shias
  • al-Kafi by Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni[171]
  • Wasa'il al-Shiʻah by al-Hurr al-Amili

The Twelve Imams

The Twelve Imams are the spiritual and political successors to Muhammad for the Twelvers.[citation needed] According to the theology of Twelvers, the successor of Muhammad is an infallible human individual who not only rules over the community with justice but also is able to keep and interpret the divine law and its esoteric meaning. The words and deeds of Muhammad and the imams are a guide and model for the community to follow; as a result, they must be free from error and sin, and Imams must be chosen by divine decree, or nass, through Muhammad.[59][60] Each imam was the son of the previous imam, with the exception of Hussein ibn Ali, who was the brother of Hasan ibn Ali.[citation needed] The twelfth and final imam is Muhammad al-Mahdi, who is believed by Twelvers to be currently alive and in occultation.[63]

Jurisprudence

The Twelver jurisprudence is called Ja'fari jurisprudence. In this jurisprudence Sunnah is considered to be the oral traditions of Muhammad and their implementation and interpretation by the twelve Imams. There are three schools of Ja'fari jurisprudence: Usuli, Akhbari, and Shaykhi. The Usuli school is by far the largest of the three. Twelver groups that do not follow Ja'fari jurisprudence include Alevi, Bektashi, and Qizilbash.

The five primary pillars of Islam to the Ja'fari jurisprudence, known as Usul' ad-Din. They are at variance with the standard Sunni "five pillars of religion". The Shia's primary "pillars" are:

  1. Tawhid or oneness of God.
  2. Nubuwa prophethood of Muhammad.
  3. Mu'ad resurrection.
  4. Adl justice (of God)
  5. Imama the rightful place of the Shia Imams

In Ja'fari jurisprudence, there are eight secondary pillars, known as Furu' ad-Din, which are as follows:[172]

  1. Prayer
  2. Fasting
  3. Pilgrimage to Mecca
  4. Alms giving
  5. Struggle for the righteous cause
  6. Directing others towards good
  7. Directing others away from evil
  8. Khums (20% tax on savings yearly, {after deduction of commercial expenses.})

According to Twelvers, defining and interpretation of Islamic jurisprudence is the responsibility of Muhammad and the twelve Imams. As the 12th Imam is in occultation, it is the duty of clerics to refer to the Islamic literature such as the Quran and hadith and identify legal decisions within the confines of Islamic law to provide means to deal with current issues from an Islamic perspective. In other words, Twelver clerics provide Guardianship of the Islamic Jurisprudence, which was defined by Muhammad and his twelve successors. This process is known as Ijtihad and the clerics are known as Marja', meaning reference. The labels Allamah and Ayatollah are in use for Twelver clerics.

Zaidi (Fiver)

Zaidiyya, Zaidism or Zaydi is a Shia school named after Zayd ibn Ali. Followers of the Zaidi fiqh are called Zaidis (or occasionally Fivers). However, there is also a group called Zaidi Wasītīs who are Twelvers (see below). Zaidis constitute roughly 42–47% of the population of Yemen.[173][174]

Doctrine

The Zaydis, Twelvers, and Ismailis all recognize the same first four Imams; however, the Zaidis consider Zayd ibn Ali as the fifth. After the time of Zayd ibn Ali, the Zaidis believed that any descendant of Hasan ibn Ali or Hussein ibn Ali could be imam after fulfilling certain conditions.[175] Other well-known Zaidi Imams in history were Yahya ibn Zayd, Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya and Ibrahim ibn Abdullah.

The Zaidi doctrine of Imamah does not presuppose the infallibility of the imam nor that the Imams receive divine guidance. Zaidis also do not believe that the Imamate must pass from father to son but believe it can be held by any Sayyid descended from either Hasan ibn Ali or Hussein ibn Ali (as was the case after the death of Hasan ibn Ali). Historically, Zaidis held that Zayd was the rightful successor of the 4th imam since he led a rebellion against the Umayyads in protest of their tyranny and corruption. Muhammad al-Baqir did not engage in political action, and the followers of Zayd believed that a true imam must fight against corrupt rulers.

Jurisprudence

In matters of Islamic jurisprudence, the Zaydis follow Zayd ibn Ali's teachings which are documented in his book Majmu'l Fiqh (in Arabic: مجموع الفِقه). Al-Hadi ila'l-Haqq Yahya, founder of the Zaydi state in Yemen, is seen as the codifier of Zaydi fiqh and as such most Zaydis today are known as Hadawis.

Timeline

The Idrisids (Arabic: الأدارسة‎) were Arab[176] Zaydi Shia[177][178][179][180][181][182] dynasty in the western Maghreb ruling from 788 to 985 CE, named after its first sultan, Idris I.

A Zaydi state was established in Gilan, Deylaman and Tabaristan (northern Iran) in 864 CE by the Alavids;[183] it lasted until the death of its leader at the hand of the Samanids in 928 CE. Roughly forty years later the state was revived in Gilan and survived under Hasanid leaders until 1126 CE. Afterwards, from the 12th to 13th centuries, the Zaydis of Deylaman, Gilan and Tabaristan then acknowledged the Zaydi Imams of Yemen or rival Zaydi Imams within Iran.[184]

The Buyids were initially Zaidi[185] as were the Banu Ukhaidhir rulers of al-Yamama in the 9th and 10th centuries.[186] The leader of the Zaydi community took the title of Caliph. As such, the ruler of Yemen was known as the Caliph, al-Hadi Yahya bin al-Hussain bin al-Qasim ar-Rassi Rassids (a descendant of Hasan ibn Ali the son of Ali) who, at Sa'dah, in 893–7 CE, founded the Zaydi Imamate, and this system continued until the middle of the 20th century, when the revolution of 1962 CE deposed the Zaydi Imam. The founding Zaidism of Yemen was of the Jarudiyya group; however, with increasing interaction with Hanafi and Shafi'i rites of Sunni Islam, there was a shift from the Jarudiyya group to the Sulaimaniyya, Tabiriyya, Butriyya or Salihiyya groups.[187] Zaidis form the second dominant religious group in Yemen. Currently, they constitute about 40–45% of the population in Yemen. Ja'faris and Isma'ilis are 2–5%.[188] In Saudi Arabia, it is estimated that there are over 1 million Zaydis (primarily in the western provinces).

Currently the most prominent Zaydi movement is the Houthis movement, known by the name of Shabab Al Mu'mineen (Believing Youth) or AnsarAllah (Partisans of God). In 2014–2015 Houthis took over the government in Sana'a, which led to the fall of the Saudi Arabian-backed government of Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi.[189] Houthis and their allies gained control of a significant part of Yemen's territory and were resisting the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen seeking to restore Hadi in power. Both the Houthis and the Saudi Arabian-led coalition were being attacked by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant.[190][191]

Ismaili

Ismailis gain their name from their acceptance of Isma'il ibn Jafar as the divinely appointed spiritual successor (Imam) to Ja'far al-Sadiq, wherein they differ from the Twelvers, who accept Musa al-Kadhim, younger brother of Isma'il, as the true Imam.

After the death or Occultation of Muhammad ibn Ismaill in the 8th century, the teachings of Ismailism further transformed into the belief system as it is known today, with an explicit concentration on the deeper, esoteric meaning (bāṭin) of the faith. With the eventual development of Twelverism into the more literalistic (zahir) oriented Akhbari and later Usuli schools of thought, Shi'ism developed in two separate directions: the metaphorical Ismailli group focusing on the mystical path and nature of God and the divine manifestation in the personage of the "Imam of the Time" as the "Face of God", with the more literalistic Twelver group focusing on divine law (sharī'ah) and the deeds and sayings (sunnah) of Muhammad and his successors (the Ahlu l-Bayt), who as A'immah were guides and a light to God.[192]

In the Nizari Ismaili interpretation of Shia Islam, the Imam is the guide and the intercessor between humans and God, and the individual through whom God is recognized. He is also responsible for the interpretation (ta’wil) of the Quran. He is the possessor of divine knowledge and therefore the "Prime Teacher". According to the "Epistle of the Right Path", a Persian Ismaili prose text from the post-Mongol period of Ismaili history, by an anonymous author, there has been a chain of Imams since the beginning of time, and there will continue to be an Imam present on the Earth until the end of time. The worlds would not exist in perfection without this uninterrupted chain of Imamate. The proof (hujja) and gate (bāb) of the Imam are always aware of his presence and are witness to this uninterrupted chain.[193]

Though there are several sub-groupings within the Ismailis, the term in today's vernacular generally refers to the Shia Imami Ismaili Muslim (Nizari community), generally known as the Ismailis, who are followers of the Aga Khan and the largest group among the Ismailiyyah. Another community which falls under the Isma'il's are the Dawoodi Bohras, led by a Da'i al-Mutlaq as representative of a hidden imam. While there are many other branches with extremely differing exterior practices, much of the spiritual theology has remained the same since the days of the faith's early Imams. In recent centuries Ismailis have largely been an Indo-Iranian community,[194] but they are found in India, Pakistan, Syria, Palestine, Saudi Arabia,[195] Yemen, China,[196] Jordan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, East Africa and South Africa, and have in recent years emigrated to Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and North America.[197]

Ismaili imams

After the death of Isma'il ibn Jafar, many Ismailis believed that one day the messianic Mahdi, whom they believed to be Muhammad ibn Ismail, would return and establish an age of justice. One group included the violent Qarmatians, who had a stronghold in Bahrain. In contrast, some Ismailis believed the Imamate did continue, and that the Imams were in occultation and still communicated and taught their followers through a network of dawah "Missionaries".

In 909, Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah, a claimant to the Ismaili Imamate, established the Fatimid Caliphate. During this period, three lineages of imams formed. The first branch, known today as the Druze, began with Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah. Born in 386 AH (985), he ascended as ruler at the age of eleven. The typical religiously tolerant Fatimid Empire saw much persecution under his reign. When in 411 AH (1021) his mule returned without him, soaked in blood, a religious group that was forming in his lifetime broke off from mainstream Ismailism and did not acknowledge his successor. Later to be known as the Druze, they believe al-Hakim to be the incarnation of God and the prophesied Mahdi who would one day return and bring justice to the world.[198] The faith further split from Ismailism as it developed very unusual doctrines which often class it separately from both Ismailiyyah and Islam, and today most Druze do not identify themselves as Muslims.[199][200][201][202]

The second split occurred following the death of Ma'ad al-Mustansir Billah in 487 AH (1094). His rule was the longest of any caliph in any Islamic empire. Upon his passing away, his sons, Nizar the older, and Al-Musta'li, the younger, fought for political and spiritual control of the dynasty. Nizar was defeated and jailed, but according to Nizari tradition, his son escaped to Alamut, where the Iranian Ismaili had accepted his claim.[203] From here on, the Nizari Ismaili community has continued with a present, living Imam.

The Mustaali line split again between the Taiyabi (Dawoodi Bohra is its main branch) and the Hafizi. The former claim that At-Tayyib Abi l-Qasim (son of Al-Amir bi-Ahkami l-Lah) and the imams following him went into a period of anonymity (Dawr-e-Satr) and appointed a Da'i al-Mutlaq to guide the community, in a similar manner as the Ismaili had lived after the death of Muhammad ibn Ismail. The latter (Hafizi) claimed that the ruling Fatimid Caliph was the Imam, and they died out with the fall of the Fatimid Empire.

Pillars

Ismailis have categorized their practices which are known as seven pillars:

The Shahada (profession of faith) of the Shia differs from that of Sunnis due to mention of Ali.[204]

Contemporary leadership

The Nizaris place importance on a scholarly institution because of the existence of a present Imam. The Imam of the Age defines the jurisprudence, and his guidance may differ with Imams previous to him because of different times and circumstances. For Nizari Ismailis, the Imam is Karim al-Husayni Aga Khan IV. The Nizari line of Imams has continued to this day as an unending line.

Divine leadership has continued in the Bohra branch through the institution of the "Unrestricted Missionary" Dai. According to Bohra tradition, before the last Imam, At-Tayyib Abi l-Qasim, went into seclusion, his father, the 20th Al-Amir bi-Ahkami l-Lah, had instructed Al-Hurra Al-Malika the Malika (Queen consort) in Yemen to appoint a vicegerent after the seclusion—the Unrestricted Missionary, who as the Imam's vicegerent has full authority to govern the community in all matters both spiritual and temporal while the lineage of Mustaali-Tayyibi Imams remains in seclusion (Dawr-e-Satr). The three branches of the Mustaali, the Alavi Bohra, Sulaimani Bohra and Dawoodi Bohra, differ on who the current Unrestricted Missionary is.

Other doctrines

Doctrine about necessity of acquiring knowledge

According to Allameh Muzaffar God gives humans the faculty of reason and argument. Also, God orders humans to spend time thinking carefully on creation while he refers to all creations as his signs of power and glory. These signs encompass all of the universe. Furthermore, there is a similarity between humans as the little world and the universe as the large world. God does not accept the faith of those who follow him without thinking and only with imitation, but also God blames them for such actions. In other words, humans have to think about the universe with reason and intellect, a faculty bestowed on us by God. Since there is more insistence on the faculty of intellect among Shia, even evaluating the claims of someone who claims prophecy is on the basis of intellect.[205][206]

Doctrine concerning Du'a

Praying or Duʼa in Shia has an important place as Muhammad described it as a weapon of the believer. In fact, Duʼa considered as something that is a feature of Shia community in a sense. Performing Duʼa in Shia has a special ritual. Because of this, there are many books written on the conditions of praying among Shia. Most of adʼayieh transferred from Muhammad's household and then by many books in which we can observe the authentic teachings of Muhammad and his household according to Shia. The leaderships of Shia always invited their followers to recite Duʼa. For instance, Ali has considered with the subject of Duʼa because of his leadership in monotheism.[207][208]

See also

  • Outline of Islam
  • Glossary of Islam
  • Index of Islam-related articles
  • Alawi Islam
  • Amman Message
  • Anti-Shi'ism
  • Persecution of Muslims
  • Bada'
  • Criticism of Twelver Shia Islam
  • Ibadi Islam
  • Imamate in Twelver doctrine
  • International Islamic Unity Conference (Iran)
  • List of Shia books
  • List of Shia Islamic dynasties
  • List of Shia Muslim scholars of Islam
  • List of Shia Muslims
  • Madhhab
  • Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
  • Shia nations
  • Sahabah
  • Schools of Islamic theology
  • Shia genocide
  • Shia Islam in the Indian subcontinent
  • Shia Rights Watch
  • Shi'a view of Ali
  • Shia view of the Quran
  • Solar Hijri calendar

Notes

  1. ^ A 2019 Council on Foreign Relations article states: "Nobody really knows the size of the Shiite population in Nigeria. Credible estimates that its numbers range between 2 and 3 percent of Nigeria’s population, which would amount to roughly four million."[132] A 2019 BBC News article said that "Estimates of [Nigerian Shia] numbers vary wildly, ranging from less than 5% to 17% of Nigeria's Muslim population of about 100 million."[133]

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General sources

  • Cornell, Vincent J. (2007). Voices of Islam. Westport, Conn.: Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0-275-98732-9.
  • Shii at the Encyclopædia Britannica
  • Encyclopædia Iranica Online. Columbia University Center for Iranian Studies. Retrieved 11 September 2019.
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  • Dakake, Maria Massi (2008). The Charismatic Community: Shiʻite Identity in Early Islam. Suny Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-7033-6.
  • Holt, P. M.; Lewis, Bernard (1977a). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29136-1.
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  • Sachedina, Abdulaziz Abdulhussein (1988). The Just Ruler (al-sultān Al-ʻādil) in Shīʻite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 978-0-19-511915-2.
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  • Vaezi, Ahmad (2004). Shia political thought. London: Islamic Centre of England. ISBN 978-1-904934-01-1. OCLC 59136662.

Further reading

  • Chelkowski, Peter J. (2010). Eternal Performance: Taziyah and Other Shiite Rituals. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-1-906497-51-4.
  • Corbin, Henry (1993). History of Islamic Philosophy, translated by Liadain Sherrard and Philip Sherrard. Kegan Paul International in association with Islamic Publications for The Institute of Ismaili Studies. ISBN 978-0-7103-0416-2.
  • Dabashi, Hamid (2011). Shiʻism: A Religion of Protest. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-06428-7.
  • Halm, Heinz (2004). Shiʻism. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-1888-0.
  • Halm, Heinz (2007). The Shiʻites: A Short History. Markus Wiener Pub. ISBN 978-1-55876-437-8.
  • Lalani, Arzina R. (2000). Early Shiʻi Thought: The Teachings of Imam Muhammad Al-Baqir. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-86064-434-4.
  • Marcinkowski, Christoph (2010). Shiʻite Identities: Community and Culture in Changing Social Contexts. Lit Verlag. ISBN 978-3-643-80049-7.
  • Momen, Moojan (1985). An Introduction to Shiʻi Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shiʻism. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03499-8.
  • Shirazi, Sultanu'l-Wa'izin (2013). Peshawar Nights, A Transcript of a Dialogue between Shia and Sunni scholars. Ansariyan Publications. ISBN 978-964-438-320-5.
  • Nasr, Seyyed Hossein; Hamid Dabashi (1989). Expectation of the Millennium: Shiʻism in History. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-88706-843-0.
  • Rogerson, Barnaby (2007). The Heirs of Muhammad: Islam's First Century and the Origins of the Sunni Shia split. Overlook Press. ISBN 978-1-58567-896-9.
  • Wollaston, Arthur N. (2005). The Sunnis and Shias. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4254-7916-9.
  • Moosa, Matti (1988). Extremist Shiites: The Ghulat Sects. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-2411-0.

External links

  • Shia at Curlie