Китайские иероглифы , также называемые ханьцзы ( упрощенный китайский :汉字; традиционный китайский :漢字; пиньинь : ханьцзы ; букв. « Ханьские иероглифы»), представляют собой логограммы, разработанные для написания китайского языка . [2] [3] Они были адаптированы для написания других восточноазиатских языков и остаются ключевым компонентом японской системы письма, где они известны как кандзи . Китайские иероглифы - самая старая из постоянно используемых систем письма в мире. [4]Китайские иероглифы в силу их широкого распространения в настоящее время в Восточной Азии и исторического использования во всей синосфере являются одними из наиболее широко применяемых систем письма в мире по количеству пользователей.
Китайские символы | |
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Тип скрипта | |
Временной период | Бронзовый век Китай в настоящее время |
Направление | Слева направо (современные) Сверху вниз, столбцы справа налево ( традиционные ) |
Языки | Китайский , японский , корейский , окинавский , вьетнамский , чжуанский |
Связанные скрипты | |
Родительские системы | Костяной скрипт Oracle
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ISO 15924 | |
ISO 15924 | Хани , 500 , хань (ханзи, кандзи, ханджа) |
Юникод | |
Псевдоним Unicode | Хан |
Китайские символы | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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китайское имя | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Упрощенный китайский | 汉字 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Традиционный китайский | 漢字 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Литературное значение | « Ханьские персонажи» | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Вьетнамское имя | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
вьетнамский | Хан Ту | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Хан-Ном | 漢字 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Имя Чжуан | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Чжуан | 𭨡 倱[1] Ружье | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Корейское имя | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Хангыль | 한자 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Ханджа | 漢字 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Японское имя | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Кандзи | 漢字 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Хирагана | か ん じ | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Общее количество китайских иероглифов, которые когда-либо появлялись в словаре, исчисляется десятками тысяч, хотя большинство из них являются графическими вариантами, или использовались исторически и вышли из употребления, или носят специализированный характер. Выпускник колледжа , который является грамотным в письменном китайском знает , от трех до четырех тысяч символов, хотя и более необходимы для специализированных областей. [5] В Японии 2136 человек учатся в средней школе ( кандзи дзёё ); сотни других находятся в повседневном использовании. Из -за упрощения символов после Второй мировой войны в Японии, а также в Китае , иероглифы, используемые сегодня в Японии, отличаются от китайских упрощенных иероглифов в нескольких отношениях. Существуют различные национальные стандартные списки символов, форм и произношения. Упрощенные формы некоторых символов используются в материковом Китае, Сингапуре и Малайзии; традиционные символы используются в Тайване, Гонконге, Макао и в ограниченной степени в Южной Корее. В Японии обычные иероглифы написаны в упрощенных формах , характерных для Японии после Второй мировой войны , в то время как необычные иероглифы написаны в традиционных японских формах , которые практически идентичны традиционным китайским формам. [ необходима цитата ]
В современном китайском языке, большинство слов соединения , написанные с помощью двух или более символов. [6] В отличие от алфавитной системы, символьная система письма связывает каждую логограмму со всем звуком и, таким образом, может быть сравнена в некоторых аспектах со слоговым письмом. Символ почти всегда соответствует одному слогу, который также является морфемой . [7] Однако есть несколько исключений из этого общего соответствия, включая двусложные морфемы (написанные двумя символами), биморфемные слоги (написанные двумя символами) и случаи, когда один символ представляет многосложное слово или фразу. [8]
У современного китайца много омофонов ; таким образом, один и тот же произносимый слог может быть представлен одним из многих символов, в зависимости от значения. Конкретный символ также может иметь ряд значений, а иногда и совершенно разные значения, которые могут иметь разное произношение. Родословные в нескольких вариантах китайского языка обычно пишутся одним и тем же иероглифом. В других языках, особенно в современном японском, а иногда и в корейском, символы используются для обозначения китайских заимствованных слов или для обозначения родных слов независимо от китайского произношения (например, кун-ёми в японском языке). Некоторые иероглифы сохранили свои фонетические элементы, основанные на их произношении в исторической разновидности китайского языка, из которой они были заимствованы. Эти иностранные приспособления китайского произношения известны как китайско-Xenic произношение и оказались полезным в реконструкции в средние китайцах .
Функция
Когда письменность была впервые использована в конце 2-го тысячелетия до нашей эры, слова древнекитайского языка, как правило, были односложными, и каждый символ обозначал отдельное слово. [9] С периода Западной Чжоу до наших дней в язык вошло все больше многосложных слов . Подсчитано, что около 25–30% лексики классических текстов периода Воюющих царств было многосложным, хотя эти слова использовались гораздо реже, чем односложные, на которые приходилось 80–90% вхождений в этих текстах. [10] Этот процесс ускорился на протяжении веков, поскольку фонетические изменения увеличили количество омофонов. [11] Было подсчитано, что более двух третей из 3000 наиболее распространенных слов в современном стандартном китайском языке являются многосложными, причем подавляющее большинство из них являются двусложными. [12]
The most common process has been to form compounds of existing words, written with the characters of the constituent words. Words have also been created by adding affixes, reduplication and borrowing from other languages.[13] Polysyllabic words are generally written with one character per syllable.[14][a] In most cases the character denotes a morpheme descended from an Old Chinese word.[15]
Many characters have multiple readings, with instances denoting different morphemes, sometimes with different pronunciations. In modern Standard Chinese, one fifth of the 2,400 most common characters have multiple pronunciations. For the 500 most common characters, the proportion rises to 30%.[16] Often these readings are similar in sound and related in meaning. In the Old Chinese period, affixes could be added to a word to form a new word, which was often written with the same character. In many cases the pronunciations diverged due to subsequent sound change. For example, many additional readings have the Middle Chinese departing tone, the major source of the 4th tone in modern Standard Chinese. Scholars now believe that this tone is the reflex of an Old Chinese *-s suffix, with a range of semantic functions.[17] For example,
- 传/傳 has readings OC *drjon > MC drjwen' > Mod. chuán 'to transmit' and *drjons > drjwenH > zhuàn 'a record'.[18] (Middle Chinese forms are given in Baxter's transcription, in which H denotes the departing tone.)
- 磨 has readings *maj > ma > mó 'to grind' and *majs > maH > mò 'grindstone'.[18]
- 宿 has readings *sjuk > sjuwk > sù 'to stay overnight' and *sjuks > sjuwH > xiù 'celestial "mansion"'.[19]
- 说/説 has readings *hljot > sywet > shuō 'speak' and *hljots > sywejH > shuì 'exhort'.[20]
Another common alternation is between voiced and voiceless initials (though the voicing distinction has disappeared on most modern varieties). This is believed to reflect an ancient prefix, but scholars disagree on whether the voiced or voiceless form is the original root. For example,
- 见/見 has readings *kens > kenH > jiàn 'to see' and *gens > henH > xiàn 'to appear'.[21]
- 败/敗 has readings *prats > pæjH > bài 'to defeat' and *brats > bæjH > bài 'to be defeated'.[21] (In this case the pronunciations have converged in Standard Chinese, but not in some other varieties.)
- 折 has readings *tjat > tsyet > zhé 'to bend' and *djat > dzyet > shé 'to break by bending'.[22]
Принципы формирования
Chinese characters represent words of the language using several strategies. A few characters, including some of the most commonly used, were originally pictograms, which depicted the objects denoted, or ideograms, in which meaning was expressed iconically. The vast majority were written using the rebus principle, in which a character for a similarly sounding word was either simply borrowed or (more commonly) extended with a disambiguating semantic marker to form a phono-semantic compound character.[23]
The traditional six-fold classification (liùshū 六书 / 六書 "six writings") was first described by the scholar Xu Shen in the postface of his dictionary Shuowen Jiezi in 100 AD.[24] While this analysis is sometimes problematic and arguably fails to reflect the complete nature of the Chinese writing system, it has been perpetuated by its long history and pervasive use.
Pictograms
- 象形字 xiàngxíngzì
Pictograms are highly stylized and simplified pictures of material objects. Examples of pictograms include 日 rì for "sun", 月 yuè for "moon", and 木 mù for "tree" or "wood". Xu Shen placed approximately 4% of characters in this category. Though few in number and expressing literal objects, pictograms and ideograms are nonetheless the basis on which all the more complex characters such as associative compound characters (会意字/會意字) and phono-semantic characters (形声字/形聲字) are formed.
Pictograms are primary characters in the sense that they, along with ideograms (indicative characters i.e. symbols), are the building blocks of associative compound characters (会意字/會意字) and phono-semantic characters (形声字/形聲字).
Over time pictograms were increasingly standardized, simplified, and stylized to make them easier to write. Furthermore, the same Kangxi radical character element can be used to depict different objects. Thus, the image depicted by most pictograms is not often immediately evident. For example, 口 may indicate the mouth, a window as in 高 which depicts a tall building as a symbol of the idea of "tall" or the lip of a vessel as in 富 a wine jar under a roof as symbol of wealth. That is, pictograms extended from literal objects to take on symbolic or metaphoric meanings; sometimes even displacing the use of the character as a literal term, or creating ambiguity, which was resolved though character determinants, more commonly but less accurately known as "radicals" i.e. concept keys in the phono-semantic characters.
Simple ideograms
- 指事字 zhǐshìzì
Also called simple indicatives, this small category contains characters that are direct iconic illustrations. Examples include 上 shàng "up" and 下 xià "down", originally a dot above and below a line. Indicative characters are symbols for abstract concepts which could not be depicted literally but nonetheless can be expressed as a visual symbol e.g. convex 凸, concave 凹, flat-and-level 平.
Compound ideographs (associative compound characters)
- 会意字 / 會意字 huìyìzì
Also translated as logical aggregates or associative idea characters, these characters have been interpreted as combining two or more pictographic or ideographic characters to suggest a third meaning. The canonical example is 明 bright. 明 is the association of the two brightest objects in the sky the sun 日 and moon 月, brought together to express the idea of "bright". It is canonical because the term 明白 in Chinese (lit. "bright white") means "to understand, understand". Adding the abbreviated radical for grass, cao 艹 above the character, ming, changes it to meng 萌, which means to sprout or bud, alluding to the heliotropic behavior of plant life. Other commonly cited examples include 休 "rest" (composed of the pictograms 人 "person" and 木 "tree") and 好 "good" (composed of 女 "woman" and 子 "child").
Xu Shen placed approximately 13% of characters in this category, but many of his examples are now believed to be phono-semantic compounds whose origin has been obscured by subsequent changes in their form.[25] Peter Boodberg and William Boltz go so far as to deny that any of the compound characters devised in ancient times were of this type, maintaining that now-lost "secondary readings" are responsible for the apparent absence of phonetic indicators,[26] but their arguments have been rejected by other scholars.[27]
In contrast, associative compound characters are common among characters coined in Japan. Also, a few characters coined in China in modern times, such as 鉑 platinum, "white metal" (see chemical elements in East Asian languages) belong to this category.
Rebus
- 假借字 jiǎjièzì
Also called borrowings or phonetic loan characters, the rebus category covers cases where an existing character is used to represent an unrelated word with similar or identical pronunciation; sometimes the old meaning is then lost completely, as with characters such as 自 zì, which has lost its original meaning of "nose" completely and exclusively means "oneself", or 萬 wàn, which originally meant "scorpion" but is now used only in the sense of "ten thousand".
Rebus was pivotal in the history of writing in China insofar as it represented the stage at which logographic writing could become purely phonetic (phonographic). Chinese characters used purely for their sound values are attested in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States period manuscripts, in which zhi 氏 was used to write shi 是 and vice versa, just lines apart; the same happened with shao 勺 for Zhao 趙, with the characters in question being homophonous or nearly homophonous at the time.[28]
Phonetical usage for foreign words
Chinese characters are used rebus-like and exclusively for their phonetic value when transcribing words of foreign origin, such as ancient Buddhist terms or modern foreign names. For example, the word for the country "Romania" is 罗马尼亚/羅馬尼亞 (Luó Mǎ Ní Yà), in which the Chinese characters are only used for their sounds and do not provide any meaning.[29] This usage is similar to that of the Japanese Katakana and Hiragana, although the Kanas use a special set of simplified forms of Chinese characters, in order to advertise their value as purely phonetic symbols. The same rebus principle for names in particular has also been used in Egyptian hieroglyphs and Maya hieroglyphs.[30] In the Chinese usage, in a few instances, the characters used for pronunciation might be carefully chosen in order to connote a specific meaning, as regularly happens for brand names: Coca-Cola is translated phonetically as 可口可乐/可口可樂 (Kěkǒu Kělè), but the characters were carefully selected so as to have the additional meaning of "Delicious and Enjoyable".[29][30]
Phono-semantic compounds (phono-semantic compound characters)
- 形声字 / 形聲字 Mandarin: xíngshēngzì
Semantic-phonetic compounds or pictophonetic compounds are by far the most numerous characters. These characters are composed of at least two parts. The semantic component suggests the general meaning of the compound character. The phonetic component suggests the pronunciation of the compound character. In most cases the semantic indicator is also the 部首 radical under which the character is listed in dictionaries. Because Chinese is replete in homophones phonetic elements may also carry semantic content. In some rare examples phono-semantic characters may also convey pictorial content. Each Chinese character is an attempt to combine sound, image, and idea in a mutually reinforcing fashion.
Examples of phono-semantic characters include 河 hé "river", 湖 hú "lake", 流 liú "stream", 沖 chōng "surge", 滑 huá "slippery". All these characters have on the left a radical of three short strokes (氵), which is a reduced form of the character 水 shuǐ meaning "water", indicating that the character has a semantic connection with water. The right-hand side in each case is a phonetic indicator- for instance: 胡 hú has a very similar pronunciation to 湖 and 可 kě has a similar (though somewhat different) pronunciation to 河. For example, in the case of 沖 chōng (Old Chinese *ɡ-ljuŋ[31]) "surge", the phonetic indicator is 中 zhōng (Old Chinese *k-ljuŋ[32]), which by itself means "middle". In this case it can be seen that the pronunciation of the character is slightly different from that of its phonetic indicator; the effect of historical sound change means that the composition of such characters can sometimes seem arbitrary today.
In general, phonetic components do not determine the exact pronunciation of a character, but only give a clue as to its pronunciation. While some characters take the exact pronunciation of their phonetic component, others take only the initial or final sounds.[33] In fact, some characters' pronunciations may not correspond to the pronunciations of their phonetic parts at all, which is sometimes the case with characters after having undergone simplification. The 8 characters in the following table all take 也 for their phonetic part, however, as it is readily apparent, none of them take the pronunciation of 也, which is yě (Old Chinese *lajʔ). As the table below shows, the sound changes that have taken place since the Shang/Zhou period when most of these characters were created can be dramatic, to the point of not providing any useful hint of the modern pronunciation.
Character | Semantic part | Phonetic part | pinyin | meaning |
---|---|---|---|---|
也 | (originally a pictograph of a vulva)[35] | (none) | yě | grammatical particle; also |
池 | 水(氵)water | 也 | chí | pool |
驰 / 馳 | 马 / 馬 horse | 也 | chí | gallop |
弛 | 弓 bow (bend) | 也 | chí | relaxation |
施 | 㫃 flag | 也 | shī | application |
地 | 土 earth | 也 | dì (de) | ground |
他 | 人 (亻)person | 也 | tā | he |
她 | 女 female | 也 | tā | she |
拖 / 扡 (archaic form) | 手 (扌)hand | 也 | tuō | drag |
Xu Shen (c. 100 AD) placed approximately 82% of characters into this category, while in the Kangxi Dictionary (1716 AD) the number is closer to 90%, due to the extremely productive use of this technique to extend the Chinese vocabulary.[citation needed] The Chu Nom characters of Vietnam were created using this principle.
This method is used to form new characters, for example 钚 / 鈈 bù ("plutonium") is the metal radical 金 jīn plus the phonetic component 不 bù, described in Chinese as "不 gives sound, 金 gives meaning". Many Chinese names of elements in the periodic table and many other chemistry-related characters were formed this way. In fact, it is possible to tell from a Chinese periodic table at a glance which elements are metal (金), solid nonmetal (石, "stone"), liquid (氵), or gas (气) at standard conditions for temperature and pressure.
Occasionally a bisyllabic word is written with two characters that contain the same radical, as in 蝴蝶 húdié "butterfly", where both characters have the insect radical 虫. A notable example is pipa (a Chinese lute, also a fruit, the loquat, of similar shape) – originally written as 批把 with the hand radical (扌), referring to the down and up strokes when playing this instrument, which was then changed to 枇杷 (tree radical 木), which is still used for the fruit, while the character was changed to 琵琶 when referring to the instrument (radical 玨).[36] In other cases a compound word may coincidentally share a radical without this being meaningful.
Derivative cognates
- 转注字 / 轉注字 zhuǎnzhùzì
The smallest category of characters is also the least understood.[37] In the postface to the Shuowen Jiezi, Xu Shen gave as an example the characters 考 kǎo "to verify" and 老 lǎo "old", which had similar Old Chinese pronunciations (*khuʔ and *C-ruʔ respectively[38]) and may once have been the same word, meaning "elderly person", but became lexicalized into two separate words. The term does not appear in the body of the dictionary, and is often omitted from modern systems.[39]
История
Legendary origins
According to legend, Chinese characters were invented by Cangjie, a bureaucrat under the legendary Yellow Emperor. Inspired by his study of the animals of the world, the landscape of the earth and the stars in the sky, Cangjie is said to have invented symbols called zì (字) – the first Chinese characters. The legend relates that on the day the characters were created, grain rained down from the sky and that night the people heard ghosts wailing and demons crying because the human beings could no longer be cheated.[40]
Early sign use
In recent decades, a series of inscribed graphs and pictures have been found at Neolithic sites in China, including Jiahu (c. 6500 BC), Dadiwan and Damaidi from the 6th millennium BC, and Banpo (5th millennium BC). Often these finds are accompanied by media reports that push back the purported beginnings of Chinese writing by thousands of years.[41][42] However, because these marks occur singly, without any implied context, and are made crudely and simply, Qiu Xigui concluded that "we do not have any basis for stating that these constituted writing nor is there reason to conclude that they were ancestral to Shang dynasty Chinese characters."[43] They do however demonstrate a history of sign use in the Yellow River valley during the Neolithic through to the Shang period.[42]
Oracle bone script
The earliest confirmed evidence of the Chinese script yet discovered is the body of inscriptions carved on bronze vessels and oracle bones from the late Shang dynasty (c. 1250–1050 BC).[44][45] The earliest of these is dated to around 1200 BC.[46][47] In 1899, pieces of these bones were being sold as "dragon bones" for medicinal purposes, when scholars identified the symbols on them as Chinese writing. By 1928, the source of the bones had been traced to a village near Anyang in Henan Province, which was excavated by the Academia Sinica between 1928 and 1937. Over 150,000 fragments have been found.[44]
Oracle bone inscriptions are records of divinations performed in communication with royal ancestral spirits.[44] The shortest are only a few characters long, while the longest are thirty to forty characters in length. The Shang king would communicate with his ancestors on topics relating to the royal family, military success, weather forecasting, ritual sacrifices, and related topics by means of scapulimancy, and the answers would be recorded on the divination material itself.[44]
The oracle-bone script is a well-developed writing system,[48][49] suggesting that the Chinese script's origins may lie earlier than the late second millennium BC.[50] Although these divinatory inscriptions are the earliest surviving evidence of ancient Chinese writing, it is widely believed that writing was used for many other non-official purposes, but that the materials upon which non-divinatory writing was done – likely wood and bamboo – were less durable than bone and shell and have since decayed away.[50]
Bronze Age: parallel script forms and gradual evolution
The traditional picture of an orderly series of scripts, each one invented suddenly and then completely displacing the previous one, has been conclusively demonstrated to be fiction by the archaeological finds and scholarly research of the later 20th and early 21st centuries.[51] Gradual evolution and the coexistence of two or more scripts was more often the case. As early as the Shang dynasty, oracle-bone script coexisted as a simplified form alongside the normal script of bamboo books (preserved in typical bronze inscriptions), as well as the extra-elaborate pictorial forms (often clan emblems) found on many bronzes.
Based on studies of these bronze inscriptions, it is clear that, from the Shang dynasty writing to that of the Western Zhou and early Eastern Zhou, the mainstream script evolved in a slow, unbroken fashion, until assuming the form that is now known as seal script in the late Eastern Zhou in the state of Qin, without any clear line of division.[52][53] Meanwhile, other scripts had evolved, especially in the eastern and southern areas during the late Zhou dynasty, including regional forms, such as the gǔwén ("ancient forms") of the eastern Warring States preserved as variant forms in the Han dynasty character dictionary Shuowen Jiezi, as well as decorative forms such as bird and insect scripts.
Unification: seal script, vulgar writing and proto-clerical
Seal script, which had evolved slowly in the state of Qin during the Eastern Zhou dynasty, became standardized and adopted as the formal script for all of China in the Qin dynasty (leading to a popular misconception that it was invented at that time), and was still widely used for decorative engraving and seals (name chops, or signets) in the Han dynasty period. However, despite the Qin script standardization, more than one script remained in use at the time. For example, a little-known, rectilinear and roughly executed kind of common (vulgar) writing had for centuries coexisted with the more formal seal script in the Qin state, and the popularity of this vulgar writing grew as the use of writing itself became more widespread.[54] By the Warring States period, an immature form of clerical script called "early clerical" or "proto-clerical" had already developed in the state of Qin[55] based upon this vulgar writing, and with influence from seal script as well.[56] The coexistence of the three scripts – small seal, vulgar and proto-clerical, with the latter evolving gradually in the Qin to early Han dynasties into clerical script – runs counter to the traditional belief that the Qin dynasty had one script only, and that clerical script was suddenly invented in the early Han dynasty from the small seal script.
Han dynasty
Proto-clerical evolving to clerical
Proto-clerical script, which had emerged by the time of the Warring States period from vulgar Qin writing, matured gradually, and by the early Western Han period, it was little different from that of the Qin.[57] Recently discovered bamboo slips show the script becoming mature clerical script by the middle-to-late reign of Emperor Wu of the Western Han,[58] who ruled from 141 to 87 BC.
Clerical and clerical cursive
Contrary to the popular belief of there being only one script per period, there were in fact multiple scripts in use during the Han period.[59] Although mature clerical script, also called 八分 (bāfēn)[60] script, was dominant at that time, an early type of cursive script was also in use by the Han by at least as early as 24 BC (during the very late Western Han period),[b] incorporating cursive forms popular at the time, well as many elements from the vulgar writing of the Warring State of Qin.[61] By around the time of the Eastern Jin dynasty, this Han cursive became known as 章草 zhāngcǎo (also known as 隶草 / 隸草 lìcǎo today), or in English sometimes clerical cursive, ancient cursive, or draft cursive. Some believe that the name, based on 章 zhāng meaning "orderly", arose because the script was a more orderly form[62] of cursive than the modern form, which emerged during the Eastern Jin dynasty and is still in use today, called 今草 jīncǎo or "modern cursive".[63]
Neo-clerical
Around the mid-Eastern Han period,[62] a simplified and easier-to-write form of clerical script appeared, which Qiu terms "neo-clerical" (新隶体 / 新隸體, xīnlìtǐ).[64] By the late Eastern Han, this had become the dominant daily script,[62] although the formal, mature bāfēn (八分) clerical script remained in use for formal works such as engraved stelae.[62] Qiu describes this neo-clerical script as a transition between clerical and regular script,[62] and it remained in use through the Cao Wei and Jin dynasties.[65]
Semi-cursive
By the late Eastern Han period, an early form of semi-cursive script appeared,[64] developing out of a cursively written form of neo-clerical script[c] and simple cursive.[66] This semi-cursive script was traditionally attributed to Liu Desheng c. 147–188 AD,[65][d] although such attributions refer to early masters of a script rather than to their actual inventors, since the scripts generally evolved into being over time. Qiu gives examples of early semi-cursive script, showing that it had popular origins rather than being purely Liu's invention.[67]
Wei to Jin period
Regular script
Regular script has been attributed to Zhong Yao (c. 151–230 AD), during the period at the end of the Han dynasty in the state of Cao Wei. Zhong Yao has been called the "father of regular script". However, some scholars[68] postulate that one person alone could not have developed a new script which was universally adopted, but could only have been a contributor to its gradual formation. The earliest surviving pieces written in regular script are copies of Zhong Yao's works, including at least one copied by Wang Xizhi. This new script, which is the dominant modern Chinese script, developed out of a neatly written form of early semi-cursive, with addition of the pause (顿/頓 dùn) technique to end horizontal strokes, plus heavy tails on strokes which are written to the downward-right diagonal.[69] Thus, early regular script emerged from a neat, formal form of semi-cursive, which had itself emerged from neo-clerical (a simplified, convenient form of clerical script). It then matured further in the Eastern Jin dynasty in the hands of the "Sage of Calligraphy", Wang Xizhi, and his son Wang Xianzhi. It was not, however, in widespread use at that time, and most writers continued using neo-clerical, or a somewhat semi-cursive form of it, for daily writing,[69] while the conservative bafen clerical script remained in use on some stelae, alongside some semi-cursive, but primarily neo-clerical.[70]
Modern cursive
Meanwhile, modern cursive script slowly emerged from the clerical cursive (zhāngcǎo) script during the Cao Wei to Jin period, under the influence of both semi-cursive and the newly emerged regular script.[71] Cursive was formalized in the hands of a few master calligraphers, the most famous and influential of whom was Wang Xizhi.[e]
Dominance and maturation of regular script
It was not until the Northern and Southern dynasties that regular script rose to dominant status.[72] During that period, regular script continued evolving stylistically, reaching full maturity in the early Tang dynasty. Some call the writing of the early Tang calligrapher Ouyang Xun (557–641) the first mature regular script. After this point, although developments in the art of calligraphy and in character simplification still lay ahead, there were no more major stages of evolution for the mainstream script.
Modern history
Although most simplified Chinese characters in use today are the result of the works moderated by the government of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in the 1950s and 60s, the use of some of these forms predates the PRC's formation in 1949. Caoshu, cursive written text, was the inspiration of some simplified characters, and for others, some are attested as early as the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) as either vulgar variants or original characters.
One of the earliest proponents of character simplification was Lufei Kui, who proposed in 1909 that simplified characters should be used in education. In the years following the May Fourth Movement in 1919, many anti-imperialist Chinese intellectuals sought ways to modernise China as quickly as possible. Traditional culture and values such as Confucianism were challenged and subsequently blamed for their problems. Soon, people in the Movement started to cite the traditional Chinese writing system as an obstacle in modernising China and therefore proposed that a reform be initiated. It was suggested that the Chinese writing system should be either simplified or completely abolished. Lu Xun, a renowned Chinese author in the 20th century, stated that, "If Chinese characters are not destroyed, then China will die" (漢字不滅,中國必亡). Recent commentators have claimed that Chinese characters were blamed for the economic problems in China during that time.[73]
In the 1930s and 1940s, discussions on character simplification took place within the Kuomintang government, and a large number of the intelligentsia maintained that character simplification would help boost literacy in China.[74] In 1935, 324 simplified characters collected by Qian Xuantong were officially introduced as the table of first batch of simplified characters, but they were suspended in 1936 due to fierce opposition within the party.
The People's Republic of China issued its first round of official character simplifications in two documents, the first in 1956 and the second in 1964. In the 1950s and 1960s, while confusion about simplified characters was still rampant, transitional characters that mixed simplified parts with yet-to-be simplified parts of characters together appeared briefly, then disappeared.
"Han unification" was an effort by the authors of Unicode and the Universal Character Set to map multiple character sets of the so-called CJK languages (Chinese/Japanese/Korean) into a single set of unified characters and was completed for the purposes of Unicode in 1991 (Unicode 1.0).
Apart from Chinese ones, Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese normative medium of record-keeping, written historical narratives and official communication are in adaptations and variations of Chinese script.[75]
Адаптация к другим языкам
The Chinese script spread to Korea together with Buddhism from the 2nd century BC to 5th century AD (hanja).[77] This was adopted for recording the Japanese language from the 5th century AD.[f]
Chinese characters were first used in Vietnam during the millennium of Chinese rule starting in 111 BC. They were used to write Classical Chinese and adapted around the 13th century to create the Nôm script to write Vietnamese.
Currently, the only non-Chinese language outside of China that regularly uses the Chinese script is Japanese. Vietnam abandoned their use in the early 20th century in favour of a Latin-based script, and Korea in the late 20th century in favour of its homegrown hangul script, although as Korea switched much more recently, many Koreans still learn them to read texts written before then, or in some cases to disambiguate homophones.[citation needed]
Japanese
Chinese characters adapted to write Japanese words are known as kanji. Chinese words borrowed into Japanese could be written with Chinese characters, while native Japanese words could also be written using the character(s) for a Chinese word of similar meaning. Most kanji have both the native (and often multi-syllabic) Japanese pronunciation, known as kun'yomi, and the (mono-syllabic) Chinese-based pronunciation, known as on'yomi. For example, the native Japanese word katana is written as 刀 in kanji, which uses the native pronunciation since the word is native to Japanese, while the Chinese loanword nihontō (meaning "Japanese sword") is written as 日本刀, which uses the Chinese-based pronunciation. While nowadays loanwords from non-Sinosphere languages are usually just written in katakana, one of the two syllabary systems of Japanese, loanwords that were borrowed into Japanese before the Meiji Period were typically written with Chinese characters whose on'yomi had the same pronunciation as the loanword itself, words like Amerika (kanji: 亜米利加, katakana: アメリカ, meaning: America), karuta (kanji: 歌留多, 加留多, katakana: カルタ, meaning: card, letter), and tenpura (kanji: 天婦羅, 天麩羅, katakana: テンプラ, meaning: tempura), although the meanings of the characters used often had no relation to the words themselves. Only some of the old kanji spellings are in common use, like kan (缶, meaning: can). Kanji that are used to only represent the sounds of a word are called ateji (当て字). Because Chinese words have been borrowed from varying dialects at different times, a single character may have several on'yomi in Japanese.[78]
Written Japanese also includes a pair of syllabaries known as kana, derived by simplifying Chinese characters selected to represent syllables of Japanese. The syllabaries differ because they sometimes selected different characters for a syllable, and because they used different strategies to reduce these characters for easy writing: the angular katakana were obtained by selecting a part of each character, while hiragana were derived from the cursive forms of whole characters.[79] Modern Japanese writing uses a composite system, using kanji for word stems, hiragana for inflectional endings and grammatical words, and katakana to transcribe non-Chinese loanwords as well as serve as a method to emphasize native words (similar to how italics are used in Latin-script languages).[80]
Korean
In times past, until the 15th century, in Korea, Literary Chinese was the dominant form of written communication prior to the creation of hangul, the Korean alphabet. Much of the vocabulary, especially in the realms of science and sociology, comes directly from Chinese, comparable to Latin or Greek root words in European languages. However, due to the lack of tones in Modern Standard Korean,[81] as the words were imported from Chinese, many dissimilar characters and syllables took on identical pronunciations, and subsequently identical spelling in hangul.[citation needed] Chinese characters are sometimes used to this day for either clarification in a practical manner, or to give a distinguished appearance, as knowledge of Chinese characters is considered by many Koreans a high class attribute and an indispensable part of a classical education.[citation needed] It is also observed that the preference for Chinese characters is treated as being conservative and Confucian.
In South Korea, hanja have become a politically contentious issue, with some urging a "purification" of the national language and culture by abandoning their use. Efforts to re-extend Hanja education to elementary schools in the 2015 were met with generally negative reaction from the public and from teachers' organizations.[82]
In South Korea, educational policy on characters has swung back and forth, often swayed by education ministers' personal opinions. At present, middle and high school students (grades 7 to 12) are taught 1,800 characters,[83] albeit with the principal focus on recognition, with the aim of achieving newspaper literacy.
There is a clear trend toward the exclusive use of hangul in day-to-day South Korean society. Hanja are still used to some extent, particularly in newspapers, weddings, place names and calligraphy (although it is nowhere near the extent of kanji use in day-to-day Japanese society). Hanja is also extensively used in situations where ambiguity must be avoided,[citation needed] such as academic papers, high-level corporate reports, government documents, and newspapers; this is due to the large number of homonyms that have resulted from extensive borrowing of Chinese words.
The issue of ambiguity is the main hurdle in any effort to "cleanse" the Korean language of Chinese characters.[citation needed] Characters convey meaning visually, while alphabets convey guidance to pronunciation, which in turn hints at meaning. As an example, in Korean dictionaries, the phonetic entry for 기사 gisa yields more than 30 different entries. In the past, this ambiguity had been efficiently resolved by parenthetically displaying the associated hanja. While hanja is sometimes used for Sino-Korean vocabulary, native Korean words are rarely, if ever, written in hanja.
When learning how to write hanja, students are taught to memorize the native Korean pronunciation for the hanja's meaning and the Sino-Korean pronunciations (the pronunciation based on the Chinese pronunciation of the characters) for each hanja respectively so that students know what the syllable and meaning is for a particular hanja. For example, the name for the hanja 水 is 물 수 (mul-su) in which 물 (mul) is the native Korean pronunciation for "water", while 수 (su) is the Sino-Korean pronunciation of the character. The naming of hanja is similar to if "water" were named "water-aqua", "horse-equus", or "gold-aurum" based on a hybridization of both the English and the Latin names. Other examples include 사람 인 (saram-in) for 人 "person/people", 큰 대 (keun-dae) for 大 "big/large//great", 작을 소 (jakeul-so) for 小 "small/little", 아래 하 (arae-ha) for 下 "underneath/below/low", 아비 부 (abi-bu) for 父 "father", and 나라이름 한 (naraireum-han) for 韓 "Han/Korea".[84]
In North Korea, the hanja system was once completely banned since June 1949 due to fears of collapsed containment of the country; during the 1950s, Kim Il Sung had condemned all sorts of foreign languages (even the newly proposed New Korean Orthography). The ban continued into the 21st century. However, a textbook for university history departments containing 3,323 distinct characters was published in 1971. In the 1990s, school children were still expected to learn 2,000 characters (more than in South Korea or Japan).[85]
After Kim Jong Il, the second ruler of North Korea, died in December 2011, Kim Jong Un stepped up and began mandating the use of Hanja as a source of definition for the Korean language. Currently, it is said that North Korea teaches around 3,000 Hanja characters to North Korean students, and in some cases, the characters appear within advertisements and newspapers. However, it is also said that the authorities implore students not to use the characters in public.[86] Due to North Korea's strict isolationism, accurate reports about hanja use in North Korea are hard to obtain.
Okinawan
Chinese characters are thought to have been first introduced to the Ryukyu Islands in 1265 by a Japanese Buddhist monk.[87] After the Okinawan kingdoms became tributaries of Ming China, especially the Ryukyu Kingdom, Classical Chinese was used in court documents, but hiragana was mostly used for popular writing and poetry. After Ryukyu became a vassal of Japan's Satsuma Domain, Chinese characters became more popular, as well as the use of Kanbun. In modern Okinawan, which is labeled as a Japanese dialect by the Japanese government, katakana and hiragana are mostly used to write Okinawan, but Chinese characters are still used.
Vietnamese
Although Chinese characters (called Hán tự or Chữ Hán in Vietnamese) in Vietnam are now limited to ceremonial uses, they were once in widespread use. Until the early 20th century, Literary Chinese with Hán tự was used in Vietnam for all official and scholarly writing. Around the 13th century, the script is called Chữ Nôm was developed to record folk literature in the Vietnamese language. The script used Chinese characters to represent both borrowed Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary and native words with similar pronunciation or meaning. In addition, thousands of new compound characters were created to write Vietnamese words. This process resulted in a highly complex system that was never mastered by more than 5% of the population.[88] During French colonization in the last 19th and early 20th century, both Hán tự and Chữ Nôm were gradually replaced to Latin-based Vietnamese alphabet called chữ Quốc ngữ by rules of French governors, due to same writing system with French language.[89][90] Currently chữ Quốc ngữ is the de facto main script in Vietnam, but Hán tự and Chữ Nôm still are used in some activities about Vietnamese traditional culture (e.g. writing calligraphy).
Other languages
Several minority languages of south and southwest China were formerly written with scripts based on Hanzi but also including many locally created characters. The most extensive is the sawndip script for the Zhuang language of Guangxi which is still used to this day. Other languages written with such scripts include Miao, Yao, Bouyei, Mulam, Kam, Bai and Hani.[91] All these languages are now officially written using Latin-based scripts, while Chinese characters are still used for the Mulam language.[citation needed] Even today for Zhuang, according to survey, the traditional sawndip script has twice as many users as the official Latin script.[92]
The foreign dynasties that ruled northern China between the 10th and 13th centuries developed scripts that were inspired by Hanzi but did not use them directly: the Khitan large script, Khitan small script, Tangut script and Jurchen script. Other scripts in China that borrowed or adapted a few Chinese characters but are otherwise distinct include Geba script, Sui script, Yi script and the Lisu syllabary.[91]
Transcription of foreign languages
Along with Persian and Arabic, Chinese characters were also used as a foreign script to write the Mongolian language, where characters were used to phonetically transcribe Mongolian sounds. Most notably, the only surviving copies of The Secret History of the Mongols were written in such a manner; the Chinese characters 忙豁侖紐察 脫[卜]察安 (nowadays pronounced "Mánghuōlún niǔchá tuō[bo]cháān" in Chinese) is the rendering of Mongγol-un niγuca tobčiyan, the title in Mongolian.
Hanzi was also used to phonetically transcribe the Manchu language in the Qing dynasty.
According to the Rev. John Gulick: "The inhabitants of other Asiatic nations, who have had occasion to represent the words of their several languages by Chinese characters, have as a rule used unaspirated characters for the sounds, g, d, b. The Muslims from Arabia and Persia have followed this method … The Mongols, Manchu, and Japanese also constantly select unaspirated characters to represent the sounds g, d, b, and j of their languages. These surrounding Asiatic nations, in writing Chinese words in their own alphabets, have uniformly used g, d, b, etc., to represent the unaspirated sounds."[93]
Упрощение
Chinese character simplification is the overall reduction of the number of strokes in the regular script of a set of Chinese characters.
Simplification in China
The use of traditional Chinese characters versus simplified Chinese characters varies greatly, and can depend on both the local customs and the medium. Before the official reform, character simplifications were not officially sanctioned and generally adopted vulgar variants and idiosyncratic substitutions. Orthodox variants were mandatory in printed works, while the (unofficial) simplified characters would be used in everyday writing or quick notes. Since the 1950s, and especially with the publication of the 1964 list, the People's Republic of China has officially adopted simplified Chinese characters for use in mainland China, while Hong Kong, Macau, and the Republic of China (Taiwan) were not affected by the reform. There is no absolute rule for using either system, and often it is determined by what the target audience understands, as well as the upbringing of the writer.
Although most often associated with the People's Republic of China, character simplification predates the 1949 communist victory. Caoshu, cursive written text, are what inspired some simplified characters, and for others, some were already in use in print text, albeit not for most formal works. In the period of Republican China, discussions on character simplification took place within the Kuomintang government and the intelligentsia, in an effort to greatly reduce functional illiteracy among adults, which was a major concern at the time. Indeed, this desire by the Kuomintang to simplify the Chinese writing system (inherited and implemented by the Communist Party of China after its subsequent abandonment) also nursed aspirations of some for the adoption of a phonetic script based on the Latin script, and spawned such inventions as the Gwoyeu Romatzyh.
The People's Republic of China issued its first round of official character simplifications in two documents, the first in 1956 and the second in 1964. A second round of character simplifications (known as erjian, or "second round simplified characters") was promulgated in 1977. It was poorly received, and in 1986 the authorities rescinded the second round completely, while making six revisions to the 1964 list, including the restoration of three traditional characters that had been simplified: 叠 dié, 覆 fù, 像 xiàng.
As opposed to the second round, a majority of simplified characters in the first round were drawn from conventional abbreviated forms, or ancient forms.[94] For example, the orthodox character 來 lái ("come") was written as 来 in the clerical script (隶书 / 隸書, lìshū) of the Han dynasty. This clerical form uses one fewer stroke, and was thus adopted as a simplified form. The character 雲 yún ("cloud") was written with the structure 云 in the oracle bone script of the Shang dynasty, and had remained in use later as a phonetic loan in the meaning of "to say" while the 雨 radical was added a semantic indicator to disambiguate the two. Simplified Chinese simply merges them.
Simplification in Japan
In the years after World War II, the Japanese government also instituted a series of orthographic reforms. Some characters were given simplified forms called shinjitai (新字体, lit. "new character forms"); the older forms were then labelled the kyūjitai (旧字体, lit. "old character forms"). The number of characters in common use was restricted, and formal lists of characters to be learned during each grade of school were established, first the 1850-character tōyō kanji (当用漢字) list in 1945, the 1945-character jōyō kanji (常用漢字) list in 1981, and a 2136-character reformed version of the jōyō kanji in 2010. Many variant forms of characters and obscure alternatives for common characters were officially discouraged. This was done with the goal of facilitating learning for children and simplifying kanji use in literature and periodicals. These are simply guidelines, hence many characters outside these standards are still widely known and commonly used, especially those used for personal and place names (for the latter, see jinmeiyō kanji),[citation needed] as well as for some common words such as "dragon" (竜/龍, tatsu) in which both old and new forms of the character are both acceptable and widely known amongst native Japanese speakers.
Southeast Asian Chinese communities
Singapore underwent three successive rounds of character simplification. These resulted in some simplifications that differed from those used in mainland China. It ultimately adopted the reforms of the People's Republic of China in their entirety as official, and has implemented them in the educational system. However, unlike in China, personal names may still be registered in traditional characters.
Malaysia started teaching a set of simplified characters at schools in 1981, which were also completely identical to the Mainland China simplifications. Chinese newspapers in Malaysia are published in either set of characters, typically with the headlines in traditional Chinese while the body is in simplified Chinese.
Although in both countries the use of simplified characters is universal among the younger Chinese generation, a large majority of the older Chinese literate generation still use the traditional characters. Chinese shop signs are also generally written in traditional characters.
In the Philippines, most Chinese schools and businesses still use the traditional characters and bopomofo, owing from influence from the Republic of China (Taiwan) due to the shared Hokkien heritage. Recently, however, more Chinese schools now use both simplified characters and pinyin. Since most readers of Chinese newspapers in the Philippines belong to the older generation, they are still published largely using traditional characters.
North America
Public and private Chinese signage in the United States and Canada most often use traditional characters.[95] There is some effort to get municipal governments to implement more simplified character signage due to recent immigration from mainland China.[96] Most community newspapers printed in North America are also printed in traditional characters.
Comparisons of traditional Chinese, simplified Chinese, and Japanese
The following is a comparison of Chinese characters in the Standard Form of National Characters, a common traditional Chinese standard used in Taiwan, the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters, the standard for Mainland Chinese jiantizi (simplified), and the jōyō kanji, the standard for Japanese kanji. Generally, the jōyō kanji are more similar to fantizi (traditional) than jiantizi are to fantizi. "Simplified" refers to having significant differences from the Taiwan standard, not necessarily being a newly created character or a newly performed substitution. The characters in the Hong Kong standard and the Kangxi Dictionary are also known as "Traditional," but are not shown.
Chinese | Japanese | Meaning | |
---|---|---|---|
Traditional | Simplified | ||
Simplified in mainland China only, not Japan (Some radicals were simplified) | |||
電 | 电 | 電 | electricity |
買 | 买 | 買 | buy |
車 | 车 | 車 | car, vehicle |
紅 | 红 | 紅 | red |
無 | 无 | 無 | nothing |
東 | 东 | 東 | east |
馬 | 马 | 馬 | horse |
風 | 风 | 風 | wind |
愛 | 爱 | 愛 | love |
時 | 时 | 時 | time |
鳥 | 鸟 | 鳥 | bird |
島 | 岛 | 島 | island |
語 | 语 | 語 | language, word |
頭 | 头 | 頭 | head |
魚 | 鱼 | 魚 | fish |
園 | 园 | 園 | garden |
長 | 长 | 長 | long, grow |
紙 | 纸 | 紙 | paper |
書 | 书 | 書 | book, document |
見 | 见 | 見 | watch, see |
響 | 响 | 響 | echo, sound |
Simplified in Japan, not Mainland China (In some cases this represents the adoption of different variants as standard) | |||
假 | 假 | 仮 | false, day off, borrow |
佛 | 佛 | 仏 | Buddha |
德 | 德 | 徳 | moral, virtue |
拜 | 拜 | 拝 | kowtow, pray to, worship |
黑 | 黑 | 黒 | black |
冰 | 冰 | 氷 | ice |
兔 | 兔 | 兎 | rabbit |
妒 | 妒 | 妬 | jealousy |
每 | 每 | 毎 | every |
壤 | 壤 | 壌 | soil |
步 | 步 | 歩 | step |
巢 | 巢 | 巣 | nest |
惠 | 惠 | 恵 | grace |
莓 | 莓 | 苺 | strawberry |
Simplified differently in Mainland China and Japan | |||
圓 | 圆 | 円 | circle |
聽 | 听 | 聴 | listen |
實 | 实 | 実 | real |
證 | 证 | 証 | certificate, proof |
龍 | 龙 | 竜 | dragon |
賣 | 卖 | 売 | sell |
龜 | 龟 | 亀 | turtle, tortoise |
藝 | 艺 | 芸 | art, arts |
戰 | 战 | 戦 | fight, war |
繩 | 绳 | 縄 | rope, criterion |
繪 | 绘 | 絵 | picture, painting |
鐵 | 铁 | 鉄 | iron, metal |
圖 | 图 | 図 | picture, diagram |
團 | 团 | 団 | group, regiment |
圍 | 围 | 囲 | to surround |
轉 | 转 | 転 | turn |
廣 | 广 | 広 | wide, broad |
惡 | 恶 | 悪 | bad, evil, hate |
豐 | 丰 | 豊 | abundant |
腦 | 脑 | 脳 | brain |
雜 | 杂 | 雑 | miscellaneous |
壓 | 压 | 圧 | pressure, compression |
雞/鷄 | 鸡 | 鶏 | chicken |
總 | 总 | 総 | overall |
價 | 价 | 価 | price |
樂 | 乐 | 楽 | fun, music |
歸 | 归 | 帰 | return, revert |
氣 | 气 | 気 | air |
廳 | 厅 | 庁 | hall, office |
發 | 发 | 発 | emit, send |
澀 | 涩 | 渋 | astringent |
勞 | 劳 | 労 | labour |
劍 | 剑 | 剣 | sword |
歲 | 岁 | 歳 | age, years |
權 | 权 | 権 | authority, right |
燒 | 烧 | 焼 | burn |
贊 | 赞 | 賛 | praise |
兩 | 两 | 両 | two, both |
譯 | 译 | 訳 | translate |
觀 | 观 | 観 | look, watch |
營 | 营 | 営 | camp, battalion |
處 | 处 | 処 | processing |
齒 | 齿 | 歯 | teeth |
驛 | 驿 | 駅 | station |
櫻 | 樱 | 桜 | cherry |
產 | 产 | 産 | production |
藥 | 药 | 薬 | medicine |
嚴 | 严 | 厳 | strict, severe |
讀 | 读 | 読 | read |
顏 | 颜 | 顔 | face |
關 | 关 | 関 | concern, involve, relation |
Simplified (almost) identically in Mainland China and Japan | |||
畫 | 画 | 画 | picture |
聲 | 声 | 声 | sound, voice |
學 | 学 | 学 | learn |
體 | 体 | 体 | body |
點 | 点 | 点 | dot, point |
麥 | 麦 | 麦 | wheat |
蟲 | 虫 | 虫 | insect |
舊 | 旧 | 旧 | old, bygone, past |
會 | 会 | 会 | be able to, meeting |
萬 | 万 | 万 | ten-thousand |
盜 | 盗 | 盗 | thief, steal |
寶 | 宝 | 宝 | treasure |
國 | 国 | 国 | country |
醫 | 医 | 医 | medicine |
雙 | 双 | 双 | pair |
晝 | 昼 | 昼 | noon, day |
觸 | 触 | 触 | contact |
來 | 来 | 来 | come |
黃 | 黄 | 黄 | yellow |
區 | 区 | 区 | ward, district |
Письменные стили
There are numerous styles, or scripts, in which Chinese characters can be written, deriving from various calligraphic and historical models. Most of these originated in China and are now common, with minor variations, in all countries where Chinese characters are used.
The Shang dynasty oracle bone script and the Zhou dynasty scripts found on Chinese bronze inscriptions are no longer used; the oldest script that is still in use today is the Seal Script (篆書(篆书), zhuànshū). It evolved organically out of the Spring and Autumn period Zhou script, and was adopted in a standardized form under the first Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang. The seal script, as the name suggests, is now used only in artistic seals. Few people are still able to read it effortlessly today, although the art of carving a traditional seal in the script remains alive; some calligraphers also work in this style.
Scripts that are still used regularly are the "Clerical Script" (隸書(隶书), lìshū) of the Qin dynasty to the Han dynasty, the Weibei (魏碑, wèibēi), the "Regular Script" (楷書(楷书), kǎishū), which is used mostly for printing, and the "Semi-cursive Script" (行書(行书), xíngshū), used mostly for handwriting.
The cursive script (草書(草书), cǎoshū, literally "grass script") is used informally. The basic character shapes are suggested, rather than explicitly realized, and the abbreviations are sometimes extreme. Despite being cursive to the point where individual strokes are no longer differentiable and the characters often illegible to the untrained eye, this script (also known as draft) is highly revered for the beauty and freedom that it embodies. Some of the simplified Chinese characters adopted by the People's Republic of China, and some simplified characters used in Japan, are derived from the cursive script. The Japanese hiragana script is also derived from this script.
There also exist scripts created outside China, such as the Japanese Edomoji styles; these have tended to remain restricted to their countries of origin, rather than spreading to other countries like the Chinese scripts.
Calligraphy
The art of writing Chinese characters is called Chinese calligraphy. It is usually done with ink brushes. In ancient China, Chinese calligraphy is one of the Four Arts of the Chinese Scholars. There is a minimalist set of rules of Chinese calligraphy. Every character from the Chinese scripts is built into a uniform shape by means of assigning it a geometric area in which the character must occur. Each character has a set number of brushstrokes; none must be added or taken away from the character to enhance it visually, lest the meaning be lost. Finally, strict regularity is not required, meaning the strokes may be accentuated for dramatic effect of individual style. Calligraphy was the means by which scholars could mark their thoughts and teachings for immortality, and as such, represent some of the most precious treasures that can be found from ancient China.
Typography and design
There are three major families of typefaces used in Chinese typography:
- Song/Ming
- Sans-serif
- Regular script
Ming and sans-serif are the most popular in body text and are based on regular script for Chinese characters akin to Western serif and sans-serif typefaces, respectively. Regular script typefaces emulate regular script.
The Song typeface (宋体 / 宋體, sòngtǐ) is known as the Ming typeface (明朝, minchō) in Japan, and it is also somewhat more commonly known as the Ming typeface (明体 / 明體, míngtǐ) than the Song typeface in Taiwan and Hong Kong. The names of these styles come from the Song and Ming dynasties, when block printing flourished in China.
Sans-serif typefaces, called black typeface (黑体 / 黑體, hēitǐ) in Chinese and Gothic typeface (ゴシック体) in Japanese, are characterized by simple lines of even thickness for each stroke, akin to sans-serif styles such as Arial and Helvetica in Western typography.
Regular script typefaces are also commonly used, but not as common as Ming or sans-serif typefaces for body text. Regular script typefaces are often used to teach students Chinese characters, and often aim to match the standard forms of the region where they are meant to be used. Most typefaces in the Song dynasty were regular script typefaces which resembled a particular person's handwriting (e.g. the handwriting of Ouyang Xun, Yan Zhenqing, or Liu Gongquan), while most modern regular script typefaces tend toward anonymity and regularity.
Варианты
Подобно тому, как латинские буквы имеют характерную форму (строчные буквы в основном занимают высоту x , а некоторые буквы имеют восходящие или нисходящие элементы), китайские иероглифы занимают более или менее квадратную область, в которой компоненты каждого символа написаны так, чтобы соответствовать чтобы поддерживать одинаковый размер и форму, особенно с мелкими печатными символами в стилях Мин и без засечек . Из - за этого, новичок часто практикуют писать на квадрате миллиметровой бумаги, и китайцы иногда используют термин «площадь-блочные символы» (方块字/方塊字, fāngkuàizì ), иногда переводятся как тетраграф , [97] со ссылкой на китайские иероглифы.
Несмотря на стандартизацию, часто используются нестандартные формы, особенно рукописные. В более старых источниках, даже в авторитетных, альтернативные символы являются обычным явлением. Например, в предисловии к Имперскому словарю есть 30 вариантов символов, которых нет в самом словаре. [98] Некоторые из них воспроизведены справа.
Региональные стандарты
Природа китайских иероглифов позволяет очень легко создавать аллографы (варианты) для многих иероглифов, и на протяжении всей истории было много попыток орфографической стандартизации. В последнее время широкое использование иероглифов в нескольких странах помешало повсеместному принятию какой-либо конкретной системы, и поэтому стандартная форма многих китайских иероглифов варьируется в разных регионах.
Материковый Китай принял упрощенные китайские иероглифы в 1956 году. Они также используются в Сингапуре и Малайзии . Традиционные китайские иероглифы используются в Гонконге , Макао и Тайване . Послевоенная Япония использовала свои собственные, менее радикально упрощенные символы, Синдзитай , с 1946 года, в то время как Южная Корея ограничила использование китайских иероглифов, а Вьетнам и Северная Корея полностью отменили их использование в пользу вьетнамского алфавита и хангыля соответственно.
Стандартные формы символов каждого региона описаны в:
- Список часто используемых символов в современном китайском для материкового Китая.
- Список форм часто используемые символы для Гонконга.
- Стандартная форма национальных символов на Тайване.
- Список кандзи Дзёё для Японии.
- Хан-Хан Дэ Sajeon ( де - факто ) для Кореи.
В дополнение к строгим размерам и форме символов китайские иероглифы написаны по очень точным правилам. Наиболее важные правила касаются используемых штрихов, их размещения и порядка штрихов . Так же, как каждый регион, в котором используются китайские иероглифы, имеет стандартизованные формы символов, каждый также имеет стандартизованный порядок штрихов, причем каждый стандарт отличается. Большинство символов может быть написано только с одним правильным порядком штрихов, хотя некоторые слова также имеют много допустимого порядка штрихов, что иногда может приводить к разному количеству штрихов. Некоторые символы также написаны с другим порядком штрихов из-за упрощения символов.
Многосложные морфемы
Китайские иероглифы в основном морфосложные , что означает, что большинство китайских морфем односложны и написаны одним символом, хотя в современном китайском языке большинство слов двусложные и диморфемные, состоящие из двух слогов, каждый из которых является морфемой. В современном китайском языке 10% морфем встречаются только как часть данного соединения. Однако некоторые морфемы двусложны, некоторые из них восходят к классическому китайскому языку. [99] За исключением иностранных заимствованных слов, это обычно слова, обозначающие растения и мелких животных. Обычно они пишутся парой фоносемантических составных символов, имеющих общий радикал. Примеры:蝴蝶 húdié «бабочка» и珊瑚 shānhú «коралл». Обратите внимание, что蝴 hú в húdié и瑚 hú в shānhú имеют одинаковое фонетическое значение胡, но разные радикалы («насекомое» и «нефрит», соответственно). Ни одна из них не существует как самостоятельная морфема, за исключением поэтического сокращения двусложного слова.
Многосложные персонажи
В некоторых случаях составные слова и стандартные фразы могут быть сокращены до отдельных символов. Некоторые из них можно рассматривать как логограммы , где символы представляют собой целые слова, а не слоги-морфемы, хотя вместо этого они обычно считаются лигатурами или аббревиатурами (аналогично буквенным аббревиатурам , например & для "et") и нестандартными. Они действительно используются, особенно в почерке или декоре, но в некоторых случаях также и в печати. В китайском языке эти лигатуры называются héwén (合 文), héshū (合or) или hétǐzì (合体 字,合體 字), а в особом случае объединения двух символов они известны как «двусложные китайские иероглифы» (双 音节 汉字,雙 音節 漢字).
Часто встречающийся пример - символ двойного счастья囍, образованный лигатурой喜 喜и обозначаемый его двусложным названием ( упрощенный китайский :双喜; традиционный китайский :雙喜; пиньинь : shuāngxǐ ). В почерке, номера очень часто сжаты в одно пространство или комбинированные - общие лигатуры включают廿 нянь, «двадцать», обычно читается как二十 Ерши, 卅 С.А., «тридцать», обычно читается как三十 санси, и卌Кси «сорок ", обычно читается как四十" шиши ". В календарях часто используются цифровые лигатуры для экономии места; например, «21 марта» можно читать как三月 廿一. [8]
Современные примеры, в частности, включают китайские иероглифы для единиц СИ . В китайском языке эти единицы двусложны и обычно записываются двумя иероглифами, как厘米 límǐ «сантиметр» (厘сантиметр ,米метр) или千瓦 qiānwǎ «киловатт». Тем не менее, в 19 веке они были часто написаны с помощью составных знаков, выраженных disyllabically, таких как瓩для千瓦или糎для厘米- некоторые из этих персонажей были также использованы в Японии, где они были вынесены с заимствованными европейскими чтениями вместо этого. Сейчас они вышли из употребления, но иногда их можно увидеть. Менее систематические примеры включают圕 túshūguǎn «библиотеку», стягивание圖書館. [100] [101] Поскольку многосложные символы часто бывают нестандартными, они часто исключаются в словарях символов.
Использование таких сокращений так же старо, как и сами китайские иероглифы, и они часто используются в религиозных или ритуальных целях. В сценарии Oracle Bone личные имена, ритуальные предметы и даже фразы, такие как受 又(祐) shòu yòu «получать благословения», обычно сокращаются до отдельных символов. Ярким примером является то, что в средневековых рукописях菩薩 púsà «бодхисаттва» (упрощенно:菩萨) иногда записывалось одним символом, образованным сеткой 2 × 2 из четырех十(производных от корня травы над двумя十). [8] Однако в целях согласованности и стандартизации CPC стремится ограничить использование таких многосложных символов в публичной письменной форме, чтобы гарантировать, что каждый символ имеет только один слог. [102]
И наоборот, при слиянии уменьшительное -er суффикс мандарин, некоторые односложные слова даже могут быть написаны с двумя символами, как в花儿,花兒 хуар «цветок», который ранее был двусложный.
В большинстве других языков, которые используют китайское семейство сценариев , особенно корейском, вьетнамском и чжуанском, китайские иероглифы обычно односложны, но в японском языке один символ обычно используется для обозначения заимствованной односложной китайской морфемы ( онъёми ), многосложная исконно японская морфема ( кунъёми ) или даже (в редких случаях) иностранное заимствованное слово. Это совершенно стандартное и безупречное использование.
Редкие и сложные персонажи
Часто нечасто используемый символ («редкий» или «вариантный» символ) появляется в личном имени или названии места на китайском, японском, корейском и вьетнамском языках (см. Китайское имя , японское имя , корейское имя и вьетнамское имя , соответственно ). Это вызвало проблемы, поскольку многие компьютерные системы кодирования включают только наиболее распространенные символы и исключают менее часто используемые символы. Это особенно проблема для личных имен, которые часто содержат редкие или классические, устаревшие символы.
Один человек, столкнувшийся с этой проблемой, - тайваньский политик Ю Шии-кун , из-за редкости последнего символа (堃; пиньинь: кун) в его имени. Газеты решали эту проблему по-разному, в том числе с помощью программного обеспечения для объединения двух существующих похожих персонажей, включая изображение личности, или, особенно, как в случае с Ю Ши-куном, просто заменяя омофоном редкого персонажа в тексте. надежда, что читатель сможет сделать правильный вывод. Тайваньские политические плакаты, плакаты фильмов и т. Д. Часто добавляют фонетические символы бопомофо рядом с таким персонажем. Вместо этого в японских газетах такие имена и слова могут отображаться катаканой , и принято писать имена, для которых они не уверены в правильности кандзи, вместо этого катаканой. [ необходима цитата ]
Есть также очень сложные персонажи, которые по понятным причинам стали довольно редкими. Согласно Джоэлю Беллассену (1989), самый сложный китайский иероглиф - это/ 𪚥 (U + 2A6A5) zhé слушайте ( помощь · информация ) , что означает «подробный» и содержит шестьдесят четыре штриха; этот персонаж выпал из употребления примерно в 5 веке. Однако можно было бы возразить, что, хотя он содержит наибольшее количество штрихов, это не обязательно самый сложный символ (с точки зрения сложности), поскольку он просто требует написания того же шестнадцатиточечного символа龍 lóng(букв. «Дракон») четыре раз в пространстве для одного. Еще один 64-тактный символ -/ 𠔻 (U + 2053B) zhèng состоит из興 xīng / xìng (букв. «Процветать») четыре раза.
Один из самых сложных иероглифов в современных китайских словарях [g] - это齉(U + 9F49) ( nàng ,слушайте ( справка · информация ) , изображено ниже, среднее изображение), что означает «сопение» (то есть произношение, искаженное заложенным носом), с «всего» тридцатью шестью ударами. Другие символы, богатые штрихами, включают 靐 (bìng) с 39 штрихами и 䨻 (bèng) с 52 штрихами, что означает громкий шум грома. Однако они используются нечасто. Самый сложный символ, который можно ввести с помощью Microsoft New Phonetic IME 2002a для традиционного китайского языка, - это龘(dá, «вид летящего дракона»). Он состоит из трехкратного радикала дракона, всего 16 × 3 = 48 ударов. Среди наиболее сложных иероглифов в современных словарях, а такжечасто используемыхвсовременноммире символов :籲(yù, «умолять») с 32 штрихами;鬱(yù, «пышный, пышный; мрачный») с 29 штрихами, как в憂鬱(yōuyù, "депрессия");豔(Yàn, "красочный"), с 28 ударов; и釁(xìn, «ссора») с 25 ударами, как в挑釁(tiǎoxìn, «начатьдраку»). Также изредка в современном употреблении встречается鱻(xiān«свежий»; вариант鮮 xiān) с 33 штрихами.
В японском языке 84-тактный кокудзи существует:, нормально читаю таито . Он состоит из тройного символа «облако» (䨺) поверх вышеупомянутого тройного символа «дракон» (龘). Также означающее «появление дракона в полете», произноситсяお と ど otodo ,た い と taito иだ い と daito . [103] Самый сложный символ в списке кандзи дзёё - это 29- штриховой 鬱, означающий «депрессия» или «меланхолия».
Самым сложным китайским иероглифом, который до сих пор используется, может быть [ по мнению кого? ] / 𰻞 (U + 30EDE) ( biáng , изображенный справа, внизу), с 58 ударов, который относится к biangbiang лапши , типа лапши из Китая «s Шэньси провинции. Этот символ вместе со слогом biáng не встречается в словарях. Тот факт, что он представляет собой слог, которого нет ни в одном стандартном китайском слове, означает, что его можно классифицировать как диалектный символ.
Чже , "многословный"
Чжэн (неизвестное значение)
Nàng , "плохое произношение из-за насморка"
Тайто , «появление дракона в полете»
альтернативная форма Тайто
Бианг , разновидность лапши в Шэньси.
Количество символов
The total number of Chinese characters from past to present remains unknowable because new ones are being developed all the time – for instance, brands may create new characters when none of the existing ones allow for the intended meaning – or they have been invented by whoever wrote them and have never been adopted as official characters. Chinese characters are theoretically an open set and anyone can create new characters, though such inventions are rarely included in official character sets.[104] The number of entries in major Chinese dictionaries is the best means of estimating the historical growth of character inventory.
Year | Name of dictionary | Number of characters |
---|---|---|
100 | Shuowen Jiezi (說文解字) | 9,353[105] |
230 | Shenglei (聲類) | 11,520[105] |
350 | Zilin (字林) | 12,824[105] |
543 | Yupian (玉篇) | 16,917[106][107] |
601 | Qieyun (切韻) | 12,158[108] |
732 | Tangyun (唐韻) | 15,000[105] |
753 | Yunhai jingyuan (韻海鏡源) | 26,911[109] |
997 | Longkan Shoujian (龍龕手鑒) | 26,430[110] |
1011 | Guangyun (廣韻) | 26,194[107][111] |
1066 | Leipian (類篇) | 31,319[109] |
1039 | Jiyun (集韻) | 53,525[112] |
1615 | Zihui (字彙) | 33,179[107][113] |
1675 | Zhengzitong (正字通) | 33,440[114] |
1716 | Kangxi Zidian (康熙字典) | 47,035[107][115] |
1915 | Zhonghua Da Zidian (中華大字典) | 48,000[107] |
1989 | Hanyu Da Zidian (漢語大字典) | 54,678[105] |
1994 | Zhonghua Zihai (中华字海) | 85,568[116] |
2004 | Yitizi Zidian (異體字字典) | 106,230[117] |
Year | Country | Name of dictionary | Number of characters |
---|---|---|---|
2003 | Japan | Dai Kan-Wa Jiten (大漢和辞典) | 50,305 |
2008 | South Korea | Han-Han Dae Sajeon (漢韓大辭典) | 53,667 |
Even the Zhonghua Zihai does not include characters in the Chinese family of scripts created to represent non-Chinese languages, except the unique characters in use in Japan and Korea. Characters formed by Chinese principles in other languages include the roughly 1,500 Japanese-made kokuji given in the Kokuji no Jiten,[118] the Korean-made gukja, the over 10,000 Sawndip characters still in use in Guangxi, and the almost 20,000 Nôm characters formerly used in Vietnam.[citation needed] More divergent descendants of Chinese script include Tangut script, which created over 5,000 characters with similar strokes but different formation principles to Chinese characters.
Modified radicals and new variants are two common reasons for the ever-increasing number of characters. There are about 300 radicals and 100 are in common use. Creating a new character by modifying the radical is an easy way to disambiguate homographs among xíngshēngzì pictophonetic compounds. This practice began long before the standardization of Chinese script by Qin Shi Huang and continues to the present day. The traditional 3rd-person pronoun tā (他 "he, she, it"), which is written with the "person radical", illustrates modifying significs to form new characters. In modern usage, there is a graphic distinction between tā (她 "she") with the "woman radical", tā (牠 "it") with the "animal radical", tā (它 "it") with the "roof radical", and tā (祂 "He") with the "deity radical", One consequence of modifying radicals is the fossilization of rare and obscure variant logographs, some of which are not even used in Classical Chinese. For instance, he 和 "harmony, peace", which combines the "grain radical" with the "mouth radical", has infrequent variants 咊 with the radicals reversed and 龢 with the "flute radical".
Chinese
Chinese characters (Chinese: 字; pinyin: zì, meaning the semiotic sign, symbol, or glyph part) should not be confused with Chinese words (Chinese: 詞; pinyin: cí, meaning phrases or vocabulary words, consisting from a group of characters or possibly a single character), as the majority of modern Chinese words, unlike their Old Chinese and Middle Chinese counterparts, are more frequently written with two or more characters, each character representing one syllable and/or morpheme. Knowing the meanings of the individual characters of a word will often allow the general meaning of the word to be inferred, but this is not always the case.
Studies in China have shown that literate individuals know and use between 3,000 and 4,000 characters. Specialists in classical literature or history, who would often encounter characters no longer in use, are estimated to have a working vocabulary characters between 5,000 and 6,000.[5]
In China, which uses simplified Chinese characters, the Xiàndài Hànyǔ Chángyòng Zìbiǎo (现代汉语常用字表, Chart of Common Characters of Modern Chinese) lists 2,500 common characters and 1,000 less-than-common characters, while the Xiàndài Hànyǔ Tōngyòng Zìbiǎo (现代汉语通用字表, Chart of Generally Utilized Characters of Modern Chinese) lists 7,000 characters, including the 3,500 characters already listed above. In June 2013, the Tōngyòng Guīfàn Hànzì Biǎo (通用规范汉字表, Table of General Standard Chinese Characters) became the current standard, replacing the previous two lists. It includes 8,105 characters, 3,500 as primary, 3,000 as secondary, and 1,605 as tertiary. GB2312, an early version of the national encoding standard used in the People's Republic of China, has 6,763 code points. GB18030, the modern, mandatory standard, has a much higher number. The Hànyǔ Shuǐpíng Kǎoshì (汉语水平考试, Chinese Proficiency Test) after July 2021 would cover 3,000 characters and 11,092 words at its highest level (level nine).[120][121][122]
In Taiwan, which uses traditional Chinese characters, the Ministry of Education's Chángyòng Guózì Biāozhǔn Zìtǐ Biǎo (常用國字標準字體表, Chart of Standard Forms of Common National Characters) lists 4,808 characters; the Cì Chángyòng Guózì Biāozhǔn Zìtǐ Biǎo (次常用國字標準字體表, Chart of Standard Forms of Less-Than-Common National Characters) lists another 6,341 characters. The Chinese Standard Interchange Code (CNS11643)—the official national encoding standard—supports 48,027 characters in its 1992 version (currently over 100,500 characters), while the most widely used encoding scheme, BIG-5, supports only 13,053. The Test of Chinese as a Foreign Language (華語文能力測驗, TOCFL) covers 8,000 words at its highest level (level six). The Taiwan Benchmarks for the Chinese Language (臺灣華語文能力基準, TBCL), a guideline developed to describe levels of Chinese language proficiency, covers 3,100 characters and 14,470 words at its highest level (level seven).[123][124]
In Hong Kong, which uses traditional Chinese characters, the Education and Manpower Bureau's Soengjung Zi Zijing Biu (Chinese: 常用字字形表; Jyutping: soeng4jung6zi6 zi6jing4 biu2), intended for use in elementary and junior secondary education, lists a total of 4,759 characters.
In addition, there are a number of dialect characters (方言字) that are not generally used in formal written Chinese but represent colloquial terms in nonstandard varieties of Chinese. In general, it is common practice to use standard characters to transcribe Chinese dialects when obvious cognates with words in Standard Mandarin exist. However, when no obvious cognate could be found for a word, due to factors like irregular sound change or semantic drift in the meanings of characters, or the word originates from a non-Chinese source like a substratum from an earlier displaced language or a later borrowing from another language family, then characters are borrowed and used according to the rebus principle or invented in an ad hoc manner to transcribe it. These new characters are generally phonosemantic compounds (e.g., 侬, 'person' in Min), although a few are compound ideographs (e.g., 孬, 'bad', in Northeast Mandarin). Except in the case of Written Cantonese, there is no official orthography, and there may be several ways to write a dialectal word, often one that is etymologically correct and one or several that are based on the current pronunciation (e.g., 觸祭 (etymological) vs. 戳鸡/戳雞 (phonetic), 'eat' (low-register) in Shanghainese). Speakers of a dialect will generally recognize a dialectal word if it is transcribed according to phonetic considerations, while the etymologically correct form may be more difficult or impossible to recognize. For example, few Gan speakers would recognize the character meaning 'to lean' in their dialect, because this character (隑) has become archaic in Standard Mandarin. The historically "correct" transcription is often so obscure that it is uncovered only after considerable scholarly research into philology and historical phonology and may be disputed by other researchers.
As an exception, Written Cantonese is in widespread use in Hong Kong, even for certain formal documents, due to the former British colonial administration's recognition of Cantonese for use for official purposes. In Taiwan, there is also a body of semi-official characters used to represent Taiwanese Hokkien and Hakka. For example, the vernacular character 㓾, pronounced cii11 in Hakka, means "to kill".[125] Other varieties of Chinese with a significant number of speakers, like Shanghainese Wu, Gan Chinese, and Sichuanese, also have their own series of characters, but these are not often seen, except on advertising billboards directed toward locals and are not used in formal settings except to give precise transcriptions of witness statements in legal proceedings. Written Standard Mandarin is the preference for all mainland regions.
Japanese
In Japanese there are 2,136 jōyō kanji (常用漢字, lit. "frequently used Chinese characters") designated by the Japanese Ministry of Education; these are taught during primary and secondary school. The list is a recommendation, not a restriction, and many characters missing from it are still in common use.[136]
One area where character usage is officially restricted is in names, which may contain only government-approved characters. Since the jōyō kanji list excludes many characters that have been used in personal and place names for generations, an additional list, referred to as the jinmeiyō kanji (人名用漢字, lit. "kanji for use in personal names"), is published.[137] It currently contains 863 characters.[138]
Today, a well-educated Japanese person may know upwards of 3,500 characters.[citation needed] The kanji kentei (日本漢字能力検定試験, Nihon Kanji Nōryoku Kentei Shiken or Test of Japanese Kanji Aptitude) tests a speaker's ability to read and write kanji. The highest level of the kanji kentei tests on approximately 6,000 kanji (corresponding to the kanji characters list of the JIS X 0208),[139][140] though in practice few people attain (or need to attain) this level.[citation needed]
Korean
Basic Hanja for educational use (漢文敎育用基礎漢字) are a subset of 1,800 Hanja defined in 1972 by a South Korea education standard. 900 characters are expected to be learnt by middle school students and a further 900 at high school.[141]
In March 1991, the Supreme Court of South Korea published the Table of Hanja for Personal Name Use (人名用追加漢字表), which allowed a total of 2,854 hanja in South Korean given names.[142] The list expanded gradually, and until 2015 there are 8,142 hanja (including the set of basic hanja) permitted using in Korean names.[143]
Modern creation
New characters can in principle be coined at any time, just as new words can be, but they may not be adopted. Significant historically recent coinages date to scientific terms of the 19th century. Specifically, Chinese coined new characters for chemical elements – see chemical elements in East Asian languages – which continue to be used and taught in schools in China and Taiwan. In Japan, in the Meiji era (specifically, late 19th century), new characters were coined for some (but not all) SI units, such as 粁 (米 "meter" + 千 "thousand, kilo-") for kilometer. These kokuji (Japanese-coinages) have found use in China as well – see Chinese characters for SI units for details.
While new characters can be easily coined by writing on paper, they are difficult to represent on a computer – they must generally be represented as a picture, rather than as text – which presents a significant barrier to their use or widespread adoption. Compare this with the use of symbols as names in 20th century musical albums such as Led Zeppelin IV (1971) and Love Symbol Album (1993); an album cover may potentially contain any graphics, but in writing and other computation these symbols are difficult to use.
Индексирование
Dozens of indexing schemes have been created for arranging Chinese characters in Chinese dictionaries. The great majority of these schemes have appeared in only a single dictionary; only one such system has achieved truly widespread use. This is the system of radicals (see for example, the 214 so-called Kangxi radicals).
Chinese character dictionaries often allow users to locate entries in several ways. Many Chinese, Japanese, and Korean dictionaries of Chinese characters list characters in radical order: characters are grouped together by radical, and radicals containing fewer strokes come before radicals containing more strokes (radical-and-stroke sorting). Under each radical, characters are listed by their total number of strokes. It is often also possible to search for characters by sound, using pinyin (in Chinese dictionaries), zhuyin (in Taiwanese dictionaries), kana (in Japanese dictionaries) or hangul (in Korean dictionaries). Most dictionaries also allow searches by total number of strokes, and individual dictionaries often allow other search methods as well.
For instance, to look up the character where the sound is not known, e.g., 松 (pine tree), the user first determines which part of the character is the radical (here 木), then counts the number of strokes in the radical (four), and turns to the radical index (usually located on the inside front or back cover of the dictionary). Under the number "4" for radical stroke count, the user locates 木, then turns to the page number listed, which is the start of the listing of all the characters containing this radical. This page will have a sub-index giving remainder stroke numbers (for the non-radical portions of characters) and page numbers. The right half of the character also contains four strokes, so the user locates the number 4, and turns to the page number given. From there, the user must scan the entries to locate the character he or she is seeking. Some dictionaries have a sub-index which lists every character containing each radical, and if the user knows the number of strokes in the non-radical portion of the character, he or she can locate the correct page directly.
Another dictionary system is the four corner method, where characters are classified according to the shape of each of the four corners.
Most modern Chinese dictionaries and Chinese dictionaries sold to English speakers use the traditional radical-based character index in a section at the front, while the main body of the dictionary arranges the main character entries alphabetically according to their pinyin spelling.[citation needed] To find a character with unknown sound using one of these dictionaries, the reader finds the radical and stroke number of the character, as before, and locates the character in the radical index. The character's entry will have the character's pronunciation in pinyin written down; the reader then turns to the main dictionary section and looks up the pinyin spelling alphabetically.
Смотрите также
- Adoption of Chinese literary culture
- Character amnesia
- Chinese character encoding
- Chinese family of scripts
- Chinese input methods for computers
- Chinese numerals, or how to write numbers with Chinese characters
- Chinese punctuation
- Eight Principles of Yong
- Horizontal and vertical writing in East Asian scripts
- List of languages written in Chinese characters and derivatives of Chinese characters
- Romanization of Chinese
- Stroke order
- Transcription into Chinese characters
Заметки
- ^ Abbreviations are occasionally used – see § Polysyllabic characters.
- ^ Qiu 2000, pp. 132–133 provides archaeological evidence for this dating, in contrast to unsubstantiated claims dating the beginning of cursive anywhere from the Qin to the Eastern Han.
- ^ Qiu 2000, pp. 140–141 mentions examples of neo-clerical with "strong overtones of cursive script" from the late Eastern Han.
- ^ Liu is said to have taught Zhong Yao and Wang Xizhi.
- ^ Wáng Xīzhī is so credited in essays by other calligraphers in the 6th to early 7th centuries, and most of his extant pieces are in modern cursive script.[71]
- ^ cf. Inariyama Sword
- ^ (U+9F49) nàng is found, for instance, on p. 707 of 漢英辭典(修訂版) A Chinese–English Dictionary, (Revised Edition) Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, Beijing, 1995. ISBN 978-7-5600-0739-7.
- ^ Jiàndào is the pronunciation of the Modern Standard Chinese, deriving from the Beijing Mandarin. There are other pronunciations of the varieties of Chinese, deriving its pronunciation from the Middle Chinese, as like:
- Southern Min (Taiwan): kiàm-tō (Pe̍h-ōe-jī / kiàm-tō (Tâi-uân Lô-má-jī Phing-im Hong-àn)[126][127]
- Hakka Chinese (Sixian dialect): kiam-tho (Pha̍k-fa-sṳ) / giam-to (Taiwanese Hakka Romanization System)[128][129]
- Yue Chinese (Hong Kong): gim3-dou6 (Jyutping)[130][131]
- Wu Chinese: ji(T2)-dau(T3) (Romanization of Wu Chinese); Shanghainese pronunciation[132][133] and Suzhou dialect pronunciation[134][135]
Рекомендации
Citations
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Often, the Chinese character can function as an independent unit in sentences, but sometimes it must be paired with another character or more to form a word. [...] Most words consist of two or more characters, and more than 80 per cent make use of lexical compounding of morphemes (Packard, 2000).
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- ^ Hanyu Da Cidian
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- ^ Chén Zhāoróng 2003.
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- ^ Qiu 2000, p. 130.
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- ^ Transcript of lecture 《楷法無欺》 by 田英章[https://web.archive.org/web/20110711134656/http://www.guoyiguan.com/cgi-bin/topic.cgi?forum=8&topic=1 Archived 2011-07-11 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2010-05-22.
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- ^ "...East Asia had been among the first regions of the world to produce written records of the past. Well into modern times Chinese script, the common script across East Asia, served—with local adaptations and variations—as the normative medium of record-keeping and written historical narrative, as well as official communication. This was true, not only in China itself, but in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam." The Oxford History of Historical Writing. Volume 3. Jose Rabasa, Masayuki Sato, Edoardo Tortarolo, Daniel Woolf – 1400–1800, p. 2.
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日前,《国际中文教育中文水平等级标准》(GF0025-2021)(下称《标准》)由教育部、国家语言文字工作委员会发布,作为国家语委语言文字规范自2021年7月1日起正式实施。……汉语水平考试(HSK)自1984年开创以来已走过37年,经历了基础、初中等、高等“3等11级”的HSK1.0和“一级到六级”6个级别的HSK2.0两个阶段,即将迎来“三等九级”的HSK3.0新阶段。
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- ^ "Taiwan Benchmarks for the Chinese Language". 華語文語料庫與標準體系整合應用系統. 國家教育研究院.
The TBCL sets out seven levels of Chinese language proficiency in the five skills: listening, speaking, reading, writing and translating. It also includes lists which contains 3,100 Chinese characters, 14,470 words, and 496 grammar points for leaners of level 1 to 5.
- ^ 林, 慶隆 (1 August 2020). 遣辭用「據」:臺灣華語文能力第一套標準 (PDF). 國家教育研究院.
本字表各級收錄字數:第1級246個字、第2級258個字、第3級297個字;第4級499個字、第5級600個字;第6級600個字、第7級600個字,共計3,100個字。
- ^ "Hakka Dictionary".
- ^ "臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典 - 劍".
- ^ "臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典 - 道".
- ^ "臺灣客家語常用詞辭典 - 劍".
- ^ "臺灣客家語常用詞辭典 - 道".
- ^ "香港小學習字表 - 劍".
- ^ "香港小學習字表 - 道".
- ^ "吴音小字典·吴语小词典 - 劍 (上海話)".
- ^ "吴音小字典·吴语小词典 - 道 (上海話)".
- ^ "吴音小字典·吴语小词典 - 劍 (蘇州話)".
- ^ "吴音小字典·吴语小词典 - 道 (蘇州話)".
- ^ "What are the Jōyō Kanji?". sci.lang.japan FAQ. Retrieved 11 November 2015.
- ^ "What are the Jinmeiyō Kanji?". sci.lang.japan FAQ. Retrieved 11 November 2015.
- ^ "人名用漢字に「渾」追加 司法判断を受け法務省 改正戸籍法施行規則を施行、計863字に". 日本経済新聞. 25 September 2017.
- ^ "Kanji Kentei". sci.lang.japan FAQ. Retrieved 11 November 2015.
- ^ Koichi (6 April 2011). "The Ultimate Kanji Test: Kanji Kentei". Tofugu. Retrieved 11 November 2015.
- ^ Lunde, Ken (2008). CJKV Information Processing. O'Reilly Media. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-596-51447-1.
- ^ National Academy of the Korean Language (1991) Archived March 19, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ '인명용(人名用)' 한자 5761→8142자로 대폭 확대. Chosun Ilbo (in Korean). 20 October 2014. Retrieved 23 August 2017.
Works cited
This article incorporates text from The Chinese recorder and missionary journal, Volume 3, a publication from 1871, now in the public domain in the United States.
- Baxter, William H. (1992). A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-012324-1.
- Boltz, William G. (1986). "Early Chinese Writing". World Archaeology. 17 (3): 420–436. doi:10.1080/00438243.1986.9979980. JSTOR 124705.
- ——— (1994). The origin and early development of the Chinese writing system. New Haven: American Oriental Society. ISBN 978-0-940490-78-9.
- Coulmas, Florian (1991). The writing systems of the world. Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-18028-9.
- Hannas, Wm. C. (1997). Asia's Orthographic Dilemma. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1892-0.
- Keightley, David (1978). Sources of Shang history: the oracle-bone inscriptions of bronze-age China. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-02969-9.
- ——— (1996). "Art, Ancestors, and the Origins of Writing in China". Representations. 56 (56): 68–95. doi:10.1525/rep.1996.56.1.99p0343q. JSTOR 2928708.
- Kern, Martin (2010). "Early Chinese literature, beginnings through Western Han". In Owen, Stephen (ed.). The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature, vol. 1: To 1375. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–115. ISBN 978-0-521-85558-7.
- Norman, Jerry (1988). Chinese. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29653-3.
- Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (1984). Middle Chinese: a study in historical phonology. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-0192-8.
- Qiu, Xigui (2000). Chinese writing. Translated by Gilbert L. Mattos; Jerry Norman. Berkeley: Society for the Study of Early China and The Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California. ISBN 978-1-55729-071-7. (English translation of Wénzìxué Gàiyào 文字學概要, Shangwu, 1988.)
- Ramsey, S. Robert (1987). The Languages of China. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01468-5.
- Sampson, Geoffrey; Chen, Zhiqun (2013). "The reality of compound ideographs". Journal of Chinese Linguistics. 41 (2): 255–272. JSTOR 23754815. (preprint)
- Wilkinson, Endymion (2012). Chinese History: A New Manual. Harvard-Yenching Institute Monograph Series 84. Cambridge, MA: Harvard-Yenching Institute; Harvard University Asia Center. ISBN 978-0-674-06715-8.
- Williams, C. H. Semantic vs. phonetic decoding strategies in non-native readers of Chinese (PDF) (Ph.D. thesis).
- Yip, Po-ching (2000). The Chinese Lexicon: A Comprehensive Survey. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-15174-0.
- Yong, Heming; Peng, Jing (2008). Chinese Lexicography: A History from 1046 BC to AD 1911. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-156167-2.
- Zhou, Youguang (2003). The Historical Evolution of Chinese Languages and Scripts. Translated by Zhang Liqing. Columbus: National East Asian Languages Resource Center, Ohio State University. ISBN 978-0-87415-349-1.
дальнейшее чтение
- Galambos, Imre (2006). Orthography of Early Chinese Writing: Evidence from Newly Excavated Manuscripts (PDF). Budapest: Eötvös Loránd University. ISBN 978-963-463-811-7.
- Early works of historical interest
- Samuel Wells Williams (1842). Easy lessons in Chinese: or progressive exercises to facilitate the study of that language. Printed at the Office of the Chinese Repository.
- Herbert Allen Giles (1892). A Chinese-English dictionary, Volume 1. B. Quaritch. p. 1415.
- P. Poletti (1896). A Chinese and English dictionary, arranged according to radicals and sub-radicals. Printed at the American Presbyterian mission press.
- William Edward Soothill (1900). The student's four thousand [characters] and general pocket dictionary (2 ed.). American Presbyterian Mission Press.
- John Chalmers (1882). An account of the structure of Chinese characters under 300 primary forms: after the Shwoh-wan, 100 A.D., and the phonetic Shwoh-wan, 1833. Trübner & co.
- Chinese and English dictionary: compiled from reliable authors. American Tract Society. 1893.
- Joseph Edkins (1876). Introduction to the study of the Chinese characters. Trübner & co. p. 314.
- Walter Henry Medhurst (1842). Chinese and English dictionary: containing all the words in the Chinese imperial dictionary; arranged according to the radicals. 2 volumes. Parapattan: Walter Henry Medhurst.
- Tai Tung (Dai Tong 戴侗) (1954). The Six Scripts Or the Principles of Chinese Writing. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-60515-2. Translated by L.C. Hopkins with a Memoir of the Translator by W. Perceval Yetts
Внешние ссылки
- History and construction of Chinese characters
- Excerpt from Visible Speech: The Diverse Oneness of Writing Systems by John DeFrancis, © 1989 by the University of Hawai`i Press. Used by permission of the University of Hawai`i Press.
- Online dictionaries and character reference
- Chinese Text Project Dictionary Comprehensive character dictionary including data for all Chinese characters in Unicode, and exemplary usage from early Chinese texts.
- Evolution of Chinese Characters
- Richard Sears, Chinese Etymology.
- Da, Jun, Chinese text computing – statistics on use of Chinese characters
- Chinese characters in computing
- Unihan Database: Chinese, Japanese, and Korean references, readings, and meanings for all the Chinese and Chinese-derived characters in the Unicode character set
- Daoulagad Han – Mobile OCR hanzi dictionary, OCR interface to the UniHan database
- Early works of historical interest
- Chinese and English dictionary: compiled from reliable authors. American Tract Society. 1893. Retrieved 15 May 2011.
- Kangxi (Emperor of China) (1842). Chinese and English dictionary: containing all the words in the Chinese imperial dictionary; arranged according to the radicals, Volume 1. Printed at Parapattan. Retrieved 15 May 2011.