| Часть серии о |
| Протестантизм |
|---|
 |
 Портал христианства |
Протестантизм является формой христианства , которая возникла с 16-го века Реформации , [а] движение против того, что его последователи воспринимаются как ошибки в католической церкви . [1] протестанты происходящий в Реформации отвергают доктрину римско - католического из папского владычества , но не согласны между собой относительно числа таинств , в реальное присутствие на Христа в Евхаристии , а также вопросы церковной политики и апостольского преемства . [2] [3]Они подчеркивают священство всех верующих ; оправдание верой ( sola fide ), а не добрыми делами ; учение о том, что спасение приходит только по божественной благодати или «незаслуженной милости», а не как нечто заслуженное ( sola gratia ); и либо утверждают, что Библия является единственным высшим авторитетом ( sola scriptura "только Священное Писание") или основным авторитетом ( prima scriptura "сначала Священное Писание") для христианской доктрины, вместо того, чтобы быть наравне со священной традицией . [4] [5] В пять Solaeлютеранского и реформатского христианства резюмируют основные богословские различия в противостоянии католической церкви. [6] [4]
Протестантизм зародился в Германии [b] в 1517 году, когда Мартин Лютер опубликовал свои Девяносто пять тезисов в качестве реакции против злоупотреблений католической церковью при продаже индульгенций , которые предполагали отпущение временного наказания за грехи их покупателям. [7] Термин, однако, вытекает из письма от опротестования от немецких лютеранских князей в 1529 году против эдикта в Сейме Шпейера осуждающего учение Мартина Лютера , как еретические . [8]Хотя и раньше были попытки реформировать католическую церковь - особенно Питером Уолдо , Джоном Уиклиффом и Яном Хусом - только Лютеру удалось вызвать более широкое, прочное и современное движение. [9] В 16 - м века , лютеранство распространилось из Германии [с] в Данию , Норвегию , Швецию , Финляндию , Латвию , Эстонию и Исландию . [10] Кальвинистские церкви распространились в Германии, [d] Венгрии., То Нидерланды , Шотландия , Швейцария и Франция по протестантских реформаторов , таких как Джон Кальвин , Цвингли и Джон Нокс . [11] Политическое отделение англиканской церкви от папы при короле Генрихе VIII положило начало англиканству , в результате чего Англия и Уэльс присоединились к этому широкому движению Реформации. [e]
Сегодня протестантизм представляет собой вторую по величине форму христианства (после католицизма), насчитывающую от 800 миллионов до 1 миллиарда приверженцев во всем мире, или около 37% всех христиан . [12] [13] [f] Протестанты разработали свою собственную культуру , внося значительный вклад в образование, гуманитарные науки, политический и социальный порядок, экономику и искусство и многие другие области. [15] Протестантизм разнообразен, он более разделен богословски и церковно, чем католическая церковь, восточная православная церковь или восточное православие . [16]Без структурного единства или центральной власти человека, [16] протестанты разработали концепцию невидимой церкви , в отличие от католической, православной церкви, Восточными Православными Церквями, Ассирийской Церкви Востока и Древней Церкви Востока , которые все считают себя единственной изначальной церковью - « единой истинной церковью », основанной Иисусом Христом. [15] Некоторые деноминации имеют всемирный охват и распределение членства, в то время как другие ограничены одной страной. [16] Большинство протестантов [g]являются членами нескольких протестантских деноминаций семей: адвентисты , анабаптистов , англикане / епископалов , баптистов , кальвинистской / реформатской , [ч] лютеране , методисты , и пятидесятники . [12] Неконфессиональные , харизматические , евангелические , независимые и другие церкви находятся на подъеме и составляют значительную часть протестантизма. [18] [19]
Терминология
Протестантский
Шесть принцев Священной Римской империи и правители четырнадцати имперских вольных городов , которые выразили протест (или несогласие) против указа Шпейерского сейма (1529 г.) , были первыми людьми, которых назвали протестантами. [20] Указ отменял уступки, сделанные лютеранам с одобрения императора Священной Римской империи Карла V тремя годами ранее . Термин протестант , хотя изначально был чисто политическим по своей природе, позже приобрел более широкий смысл, относясь к члену любой западной церкви, которая придерживалась основных протестантских принципов. [20]Любой западный христианин, не являющийся приверженцем католической церкви или восточной православной церкви, является протестантом. [21] Протестант является приверженцем любого из тех христианских тел, которые отделились от Римской церкви во время Реформации, или какой-либо группы, которая от них произошла. [21]
Во время Реформации термин протестант практически не использовался за пределами немецкой политики. Люди, которые были причастны к религиозному движению, использовали слово евангелический ( немецкий : evangelisch ). Для получения дополнительных сведений см. Раздел ниже. Постепенно протестант стал общим термином, означающим любого приверженца Реформации в немецкоязычном регионе. В конечном итоге это было несколько подхвачено лютеранами , хотя сам Мартин Лютер настаивал на том, чтобы христианские или евангелистские имена были единственными приемлемыми именами для людей, исповедующих Христа. Французский и швейцарскийВместо этого протестанты предпочли слово « реформированный» ( французское : réformé ), которое стало популярным, нейтральным и альтернативным названием кальвинистов .
Евангелический
Слово евангелический ( немецкий : evangelisch ), которое относится к Евангелию , широко использовалось для тех, кто участвовал в религиозном движении в немецкоязычной области, начиная с 1517 года. [22] В настоящее время евангелизм по-прежнему является предпочтительным среди некоторых исторических протестантов. деноминации в лютеранской, кальвинистской и объединенной протестантской (лютеранской и реформатской) традиции в Европе, а также те, которые имеют прочные связи с ними (например, евангелическо-лютеранский синод Висконсина ). Прежде всего, этот термин используется протестантскими организациями в немецкоязычном регионе , такими как Евангелическая церковь в Германии . В континентальной ЕвропеЕвангелист - это либо лютеранец, либо кальвинист, либо объединенный протестант (лютеранский и реформатский). Немецкий слово Evangelisch означает протестант, и отличаются от немецкого evangelikal , которая относится к церквам , сформированным евангеличество . Английское слово евангелический обычно относится к евангелическим протестантским церквям и, следовательно, к определенной части протестантизма, а не к протестантизму в целом. Английское слово восходит к пуританам в Англии, где зародился евангелизм, а затем был принесен в Соединенные Штаты.
Мартин Лютер всегда не любил термин лютеранский , предпочитая термин евангелический , происходящий от греческого слова euangelion , означающего «благая весть», то есть « евангелие ». [23] Последователи Жана Кальвина , Хулдриха Цвингли и других теологов, связанных с реформатской традицией, также начали использовать этот термин. Чтобы различать две евангелические группы, другие начали называть эти две группы евангелическо-лютеранскими и евангелическими реформатами . В настоящее время это слово также относится к некоторым другим основным группам, например, евангелическим методистам.. Со временем слово « евангелический» было опущено. Сами лютеране начали использовать термин лютеране в середине 16 века, чтобы отличить себя от других групп, таких как филипписты и кальвинисты .
Реформаторский
Немецкое слово reformatorisch , что примерно переводится на английский как «реформаторский» или «реформинг», используются в качестве альтернативы для Evangelisch на немецком языке , и отличаются от английского языка реформирована ( немецкий : reformiert ), которая относится к церквам , сформированных идеями Джона Кальвин , Хулдрих Цвингли и другие реформатские богословы. Полученный от слова «Реформация», этот термин возник примерно в то же время, что и евангелический (1517 г.) и протестантский (1529 г.).
Богословие
Основные принципы
Различные эксперты по этому вопросу пытались определить, что делает христианскую конфессию частью протестантизма. По общему мнению, большинство из них считают, что если христианская конфессия должна считаться протестантской, она должна признать следующие три основных принципа протестантизма. [24]
Только Писание
Вера, подчеркнутая Лютером, в Библию как высший источник авторитета для церкви. Ранние церкви Реформации верили в критическое, но серьезное чтение Священных Писаний и считали Библию более авторитетным источником, чем церковные традиции . Множество злоупотреблений, имевших место в Западной церкви до протестантской Реформации, заставили реформаторов отвергнуть большую часть ее традиций. В начале 20 века в Соединенных Штатах развилось менее критическое прочтение Библии, что привело к « фундаменталистскому » прочтению Писания. Христианские фундаменталисты читают Библию как "непогрешимое, непогрешимое " Слово Бога, как и католическая, восточно-православная, англиканская и лютеранская церкви.но интерпретируйте это буквалистоммода без использования историко-критического метода . Методисты и англикане отличаются от лютеран и реформатов в этой доктрине, поскольку они учат prima scriptura , согласно которому Писание является основным источником христианской доктрины, но что «традиция, опыт и разум» могут питать христианскую религию, пока они в гармонии с Библией . [4] [25]
«Библейское христианство», ориентированное на глубокое изучение Библии, характерно для большинства протестантов, в отличие от «церковного христианства», ориентированного на выполнение ритуалов и добрых дел, представленных католическими и православными традициями. Однако квакеры и пятидесятники подчеркивают Святой Дух и личную близость к Богу. [26]
Оправдание только верой
Вера в то, что верующие оправданы или прощены за грех исключительно при условии веры во Христа, а не сочетанием веры и добрых дел . Для протестантов добрые дела - необходимое следствие, а не причина оправдания. [27] Однако, хотя оправдание дается только верой, существует позиция, что вера не nuda fides . [28] Иоанн Кальвин объяснил, что «поэтому только вера оправдывает, и все же вера, которая оправдывает, не одна: точно так же, как только жар солнца согревает землю, и все же в солнце оно не только . " [28]Лютеранские и реформатские христиане отличаются от методистов своим пониманием этого учения. [29]
Всеобщее священство верующих
Универсальное священство верующих подразумевает право и обязанность христианских мирян не только читать Библию на местном языке , но также принимать участие в управлении и всех общественных делах Церкви. Она противоположна иерархической системе, которая помещает сущность и власть Церкви в исключительное священство и которая делает рукоположенных священников необходимыми посредниками между Богом и людьми. [27] Это отличается от концепции священства всех верующих, которая не давала людям права толковать Библию отдельно от христианского сообщества в целом, потому что универсальное священство открыло дверь для такой возможности. [30]Есть ученые, которые ссылаются на то, что это учение имеет тенденцию относить все различия в церкви к единой духовной сущности. [31] Кальвин назвал универсальное священство выражением отношений между верующим и его Богом, включая свободу христианина приходить к Богу через Христа без человеческого посредничества. [32] Он также утверждал, что этот принцип признает Христа пророком , священником и царем и что его священство разделяется с его народом. [32]
Тринити
Протестанты, которые придерживаются Никейского символа веры, верят в трех личностей ( Бога-Отца , Бога-Сына и Бога-Святого Духа ) как единого Бога.
Движения, возникшие примерно во время протестантской Реформации, но не являющиеся частью протестантизма, например унитаризм, также отвергают Троицу. Это часто служит причиной исключения различными наблюдателями унитарного универсализма , пятидесятничества единственников и других движений из протестантизма. Унитаризм по-прежнему присутствует в основном в Трансильвании, Англии и США, а также в других местах.
Five solae
| Пять Solae о Реформации |
|---|
| Sola scriptura |
| Sola fide |
| Sola gratia |
| Солус Кристус |
| Соли Део Глория |
Пять solae - это пять латинских фраз (или лозунгов), которые возникли во время протестантской Реформации и суммируют основные различия реформаторов в богословских верованиях в противоположность учению католической церкви того времени. Латинское слово sola означает «один», «только» или «один».
Использование этих фраз в качестве краткого изложения учения появилось с течением времени во время Реформации, основанное на всеобъемлющем лютеранском и реформатском принципе sola scriptura (только на основе Священного Писания). [4] Эта идея содержит четыре основных учения о Библии: ее учение необходимо для спасения (необходимость); что вся необходимая для спасения доктрина исходит только из Библии (достаточность); что все, чему учит Библия, верно (безошибочность); и что благодаря тому, что Святой Дух преодолевает грех, верующие могут читать и понимать истину из самой Библии, хотя понимание является трудным, поэтому средством, используемым для руководства отдельными верующими к истинному учению, часто является взаимное обсуждение в церкви (ясность).
Необходимость и безошибочность были устоявшимися идеями, мало подвергавшимися критике, хотя позже они стали предметом дебатов извне в эпоху Просвещения. Однако самой спорной идеей в то время было представление о том, что любой может просто взять Библию и узнать достаточно, чтобы обрести спасение. Хотя реформаторов интересовала экклезиология (учение о том, как работает церковь как единое целое), у них было иное понимание процесса, в котором истины Священных Писаний применялись к жизни верующих, по сравнению с идеей католиков о том, что определенные люди внутри Церковь или идеи, которые были достаточно древними, имели особый статус в понимании текста.
Второй главный принцип, sola fide (только верой), гласит, что одной веры во Христа достаточно для вечного спасения и оправдания. Хотя это доказывается на основании Священного Писания и, следовательно, логически вытекает из sola scriptura , это руководящий принцип работы Лютера и более поздних реформаторов. Поскольку sola scriptura рассматривает Библию как единственный источник обучения, sola fide воплощает главную идею учения, к которому реформаторы хотели вернуться, а именно прямую, тесную, личную связь между Христом и верующим, отсюда и утверждение реформаторов о том, что их работа была христоцентричной.
Другие слова, как утверждения, появились позже, но образ мышления, который они представляют, также был частью ранней Реформации.
- Solus Christus :только Христос
- Протестанты характеризуют догмат о Папе как представителе Христа для главы Церкви на земле, концепцию дел, заслуженных Христом, и католическую идею сокровищницы заслуг Христа и его святых как отрицание того, что Христос есть единственный посредник между Богом и человеком. Католики, с другой стороны, придерживались традиционного понимания иудаизма по этим вопросам и апеллировали к всеобщему консенсусу христианской традиции. [33]
- Сола Грация :одна Грейс
- Протестанты считали католическое спасение зависимым от благодати Божьей и достоинств собственных дел. Реформаторы постулировали, что спасение - это дар Божий (то есть Божий акт свободной благодати), дарованный Святым Духом только благодаря искупительной работе Иисуса Христа. Следовательно, они утверждали, что грешник не принимается Богом из-за изменения, произведенного в верующем по Божьей благодати, и что верующий принимается без учета заслуг его дел, поскольку никто не заслуживает спасения. [Мэтт. 7:21]
- Соли Део Глория :Слава Богу одному
- Вся слава благодаря Богу , так как спасение совершается исключительно через его волю и действия, причем не только даром вседостаточного искупление от Иисуса на кресте , но и дар веры в этом искуплении, созданный в сердце верующего от Святого Духа . Реформаторы считали, что люди - даже святые, канонизированные католической церковью, папами и церковной иерархией - не достойны славы.
Присутствие Христа в Евхаристии
Протестантское движение начало разделяться на несколько отдельных ветвей в середине - конце 16 века. Одним из центральных пунктов разногласий было разногласие по поводу Евхаристии . Ранние протестанты отвергли католический догмат о пресуществлении , которая учит , что хлеб и вино используется в жертвенном обряде Месс теряют свою природную субстанцию превращаются в теле, кровь, душу и божественность Христа. Они не соглашались друг с другом относительно присутствия Христа, Его тела и крови в Святом Причастии.
- Лютеране считают, что в Вечере Господней освященные элементы хлеба и вина являются истинным телом и кровью Христа «в хлебе и вине и в форме» хлеба и вина для всех тех, кто ест и пьет их, [1Кор 10:16 ] [11: 20,27] [34] доктрина, которую Формула Согласия называет Таинственным союзом . [35] Бог искренне предлагает всем, кто принимает причастие, [Лк 22: 19–20] [36] прощение грехов, [Матф 26:28] [37] и вечное спасение. [38]
- В реформатских церквах подчеркивают реальное духовное присутствие , или сакраментальное присутствие , Христос, говоря , что причастие является освящающей благодатью , через которую избранные верующие фактически не вкушать Христос, а просто с хлебом и вином , а не в элементах. Кальвинисты отрицают лютеранское утверждение о том, что все причастники, как верующие, так и неверующие, устно принимают тело и кровь Христа в элементах причастия, но вместо этого утверждают, что Христос соединяется с верующим через веру, для которой ужин является внешней и видимой помощью. Это часто называют динамическим присутствием .
- Англиканцы и методисты отказываются давать определение Присутствию, предпочитая оставить его в тайне. [39] Молитвенники описывают хлеб и вино как внешний и видимый знак внутренней и духовной благодати, которая есть Тело и Кровь Христа. Однако слова их литургий предполагают, что можно держаться веры в Реальное Присутствие и Духовное и Сакраментальное Присутствие одновременно. Например, «... и ты накормил нас духовной пищей в Таинстве Его тела и Крови»; «... духовная пища драгоценнейшего Тела и Крови Сына Твоего, Спасителя нашего Иисуса Христа, и для заверения нас в этих святых тайнах ...» American Book of Common Prayer, 1977, стр. 365–366.
- Анабаптисты придерживаются популярного упрощения взглядов цвинглианцев , не заботясь о богословских сложностях, о которых говорилось выше, могут рассматривать Вечерю Господню просто как символ общей веры участников, памятование фактов распятия и напоминание о они стоят вместе как Тело Христово (точка зрения, именуемая мемориализмом ). [40]
История
До Реформации
В конце 1130-х годов Арнольд Брешийский , итальянский регулярный каноник, стал одним из первых теологов, которые попытались реформировать католическую церковь. После его смерти его учение об апостольской бедности получило распространение среди арнольдистов , а затем и среди вальденсов и духовных францисканцев , хотя ни одно из его письменных слов не выдержало официального осуждения. В начале 1170-х годов Питер Уолдоосновал вальденсов. Он выступал за такое толкование Евангелия, которое привело к конфликтам с католической церковью. К 1215 году вальденсы были объявлены еретиками и подвергались гонениям. Несмотря на это, движение продолжает существовать в Италии по сей день как часть более широкой реформатской традиции .
В 1370-х годах Джон Уиклиф - позже прозванный «Утренней звездой Реформации» - начал свою деятельность как английский реформатор. Он отверг папскую власть над светской властью, перевел Библию на местный английский и проповедовал антиклерикальные и основанные на Библии реформы.
Начиная с первого десятилетия 15 века, Ян Гус - католический священник, чешский реформист и профессор - под влиянием работ Джона Виклифа, основал гуситское движение. Он решительно отстаивал свою реформистскую богемскую религиозную деноминацию. Он был отлучен от церкви и сожжен на костре в Констанце , епископстве Констанца в 1415 году светскими властями за упорную и упорную ересь. После его казни вспыхнуло восстание. Гуситы победили пять непрерывных крестовых походов, объявленных против них Папой .
Позже богословские споры вызвали раскол внутри гуситского движения. Утраквисты утверждали, что и хлеб, и вино следует раздавать людям во время Евхаристии. Другой крупной фракцией были табориты , которые выступили против утраквистов в битве при Липанах во время гуситских войн . Среди гуситов было две отдельные партии: умеренные и радикальные движения. Другие более мелкие региональные ветви гуситов в Богемии включали адамитов , оребитов , сирот и пражцев.
Гуситские войны завершились победой императора Священной Римской империи Сигизмунда , его союзников-католиков и умеренных гуситов и поражением радикальных гуситов. Напряженность возросла, когда Тридцатилетняя война достигла Богемии в 1620 году. И умеренный, и радикальный гуситизм все чаще преследовался католиками и армиями императора Священной Римской империи.
Начиная с 1475 года, итальянский доминиканский монах Джироламо Савонарола призывал к христианскому обновлению. Позже Мартин Лютер сам прочитал некоторые сочинения монаха и восхвалял его как мученика и предтечи, чьи идеи о вере и благодати предвосхитили собственное учение Лютера об оправдании только верой.
Некоторые из последователей Гуса основали Unitas Fratrum - «Единство братьев», которое было возобновлено под руководством графа Николауса фон Зинцендорфа в Хернхуте , Саксония, в 1722 году после его почти полного разрушения в Тридцатилетней войне и контрреформации. . Сегодня ее обычно называют по-английски Моравской церковью, а по-немецки - Herrnhuter Brüdergemeine .
Собственно Реформация
| Часть серии о |
| Реформация |
|---|
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| Протестантизм |
Протестантская Реформация началась как попытка реформировать католическую церковь.
On 31 October 1517 (All Hallows' Eve) Martin Luther allegedly nailed his Ninety-five Theses (Disputation on the Power of Indulgences) on the door of the All Saints' Church in Wittenberg, Germany, detailing doctrinal and practical abuses of the Catholic Church, especially the selling of indulgences. The theses debated and criticized many aspects of the Church and the papacy, including the practice of purgatory, particular judgment, and the authority of the pope. Luther would later write works against the Catholic devotion to Virgin Mary, the intercession of and devotion to the saints, mandatory clerical celibacy, monasticism, the authority of the pope, the ecclesiastical law, censure and excommunication, the role of secular rulers in religious matters, the relationship between Christianity and the law, good works, and the sacraments.[41]
The Reformation was a triumph of literacy and the new printing press invented by Johannes Gutenberg.[42][i] Luther's translation of the Bible into German was a decisive moment in the spread of literacy, and stimulated as well the printing and distribution of religious books and pamphlets. From 1517 onward, religious pamphlets flooded much of Europe.[44][j]
После отлучения Лютера от церкви и осуждения Реформации Папой, труды и труды Жана Кальвина оказали влияние на установление свободного консенсуса между различными группами в Швейцарии, Шотландии, Венгрии, Германии и других странах. После изгнания епископа в 1526 году и безуспешных попыток реформатора Берна Уильяма Фарела Кальвина попросили использовать организационные навыки, которые он накопил в качестве студента права, чтобы дисциплинировать город Женеву . Его постановления 1541 года involved a collaboration of Church affairs with the City council and consistory to bring morality to all areas of life. After the establishment of the Geneva academy in 1559, Geneva became the unofficial capital of the Protestant movement, providing refuge for Protestant exiles from all over Europe and educating them as Calvinist missionaries. The faith continued to spread after Calvin's death in 1563.
Protestantism also spread from the German lands into France, where the Protestants were nicknamed Huguenots. Calvin continued to take an interest in the French religious affairs from his base in Geneva. He regularly trained pastors to lead congregations there. Despite heavy persecution, the Reformed tradition made steady progress across large sections of the nation, appealing to people alienated by the obduracy and the complacency of the Catholic establishment. French Protestantism came to acquire a distinctly political character, made all the more obvious by the conversions of nobles during the 1550s. This established the preconditions for a series of conflicts, known as the French Wars of Religion. The civil wars gained impetus with the sudden death of Henry II of France in 1559. Atrocity and outrage became the defining characteristics of the time, illustrated at their most intense in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of August 1572, when the Catholic party annihilated between 30,000 and 100,000 Huguenots across France. The wars only concluded when Henry IV of France issued the Edict of Nantes, promising official toleration of the Protestant minority, but under highly restricted conditions. Catholicism remained the official state religion, and the fortunes of French Protestants gradually declined over the next century, culminating in Louis XIV's Edict of Fontainebleau which revoked the Edict of Nantes and made Catholicism the sole legal religion once again. In response to the Edict of Fontainebleau, Frederick William I, Elector of Brandenburg declared the Edict of Potsdam, giving free passage to Huguenot refugees. In the late 17th century many Huguenots fled to England, the Netherlands, Prussia, Switzerland, and the English and Dutch overseas colonies. A significant community in France remained in the Cévennes region.
Parallel to events in Germany, a movement began in Switzerland under the leadership of Huldrych Zwingli. Zwingli was a scholar and preacher, who in 1518 moved to Zurich. Although the two movements agreed on many issues of theology, some unresolved differences kept them separate. A long-standing resentment between the German states and the Swiss Confederation led to heated debate over how much Zwingli owed his ideas to Lutheranism. The German Prince Philip of Hesse saw potential in creating an alliance between Zwingli and Luther. A meeting was held in his castle in 1529, now known as the Colloquy of Marburg, which has become infamous for its failure. The two men could not come to any agreement due to their disputation over one key doctrine.
In 1534, King Henry VIII put an end to all papal jurisdiction in England, after the Pope failed to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon;[46] this opened the door to reformational ideas. Reformers in the Church of England alternated between sympathies for ancient Catholic tradition and more Reformed principles, gradually developing into a tradition considered a middle way (via media) between the Catholic and Protestant traditions. The English Reformation followed a particular course. The different character of the English Reformation came primarily from the fact that it was driven initially by the political necessities of Henry VIII. King Henry decided to remove the Church of England from the authority of Rome. In 1534, the Act of Supremacy recognized Henry as the only Supreme Head on earth of the Church of England. Between 1535 and 1540, under Thomas Cromwell, the policy known as the Dissolution of the Monasteries was put into effect. Following a brief Catholic restoration during the reign of Mary I, a loose consensus developed during the reign of Elizabeth I. The Elizabethan Religious Settlement largely formed Anglicanism into a distinctive church tradition. The compromise was uneasy and was capable of veering between extreme Calvinism on the one hand and Catholicism on the other. It was relatively successful until the Puritan Revolution or English Civil War in the 17th century.
The success of the Counter-Reformation on the Continent and the growth of a Puritan party dedicated to further Protestant reform polarised the Elizabethan Age. The early Puritan movement was a movement for reform in the Church of England. The desire was for the Church of England to resemble more closely the Protestant churches of Europe, especially Geneva. The later Puritan movement, often referred to as dissenters and nonconformists, eventually led to the formation of various Reformed denominations.
The Scottish Reformation of 1560 decisively shaped the Church of Scotland.[47] The Reformation in Scotland culminated ecclesiastically in the establishment of a church along Reformed lines, and politically in the triumph of English influence over that of France. John Knox is regarded as the leader of the Scottish Reformation. The Scottish Reformation Parliament of 1560 repudiated the pope's authority by the Papal Jurisdiction Act 1560, forbade the celebration of the Mass and approved a Protestant Confession of Faith. It was made possible by a revolution against French hegemony under the regime of the regent Mary of Guise, who had governed Scotland in the name of her absent daughter.
Some of the most important activists of the Protestant Reformation included Jacobus Arminius, Theodore Beza, Martin Bucer, Andreas von Carlstadt, Heinrich Bullinger, Balthasar Hubmaier, Thomas Cranmer, William Farel, Thomas Müntzer, Laurentius Petri, Olaus Petri, Philipp Melanchthon, Menno Simons, Louis de Berquin, Primož Trubar and John Smyth.
In the course of this religious upheaval, the German Peasants' War of 1524–25 swept through the Bavarian, Thuringian and Swabian principalities. After the Eighty Years' War in the Low Countries and the French Wars of Religion, the confessional division of the states of the Holy Roman Empire eventually erupted in the Thirty Years' War between 1618 and 1648. It devastated much of Germany, killing between 25% and 40% of its population.[48] The main tenets of the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War, were:
- All parties would now recognize the Peace of Augsburg of 1555, by which each prince would have the right to determine the religion of his own state, the options being Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism. (the principle of cuius regio, eius religio)
- Christians living in principalities where their denomination was not the established church were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will.
- The treaty also effectively ended the papacy's pan-European political power. Pope Innocent X declared the treaty "null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all times" in his bull Zelo Domus Dei. European sovereigns, Catholic and Protestant alike, ignored his verdict.[49]
Post-Reformation
| Great Awakening |
|---|
|
The Great Awakenings were periods of rapid and dramatic religious revival in Anglo-American religious history.
The First Great Awakening was an evangelical and revitalization movement that swept through Protestant Europe and British America, especially the American colonies in the 1730s and 1740s, leaving a permanent impact on American Protestantism. It resulted from powerful preaching that gave listeners a sense of deep personal revelation of their need of salvation by Jesus Christ. Pulling away from ritual, ceremony, sacramentalism and hierarchy, it made Christianity intensely personal to the average person by fostering a deep sense of spiritual conviction and redemption, and by encouraging introspection and a commitment to a new standard of personal morality.[50]
Второе Великое пробуждение началось около 1790. Он получил импульс, 1800. После 1820 г., членство быстро росло среди баптистов и методистов общин, чьи проповедники возглавили движение. К концу 1840-х годов он уже прошел свой пик. Это было описано как реакция на скептицизм, деизм и рационализм , хотя не совсем понятно, почему в то время эти силы стали настолько сильными, чтобы вызвать пробуждение. [51] В него вошли миллионы новых членов существующих евангельских деноминаций, что привело к образованию новых деноминаций.
The Third Great Awakening refers to a hypothetical historical period that was marked by religious activism in American history and spans the late 1850s to the early 20th century.[52] It affected pietistic Protestant denominations and had a strong element of social activism.[53] It gathered strength from the postmillennial belief that the Second Coming of Christ would occur after mankind had reformed the entire earth. It was affiliated with the Social Gospel Movement, which applied Christianity to social issues and gained its force from the Awakening, as did the worldwide missionary movement. New groupings emerged, such as the Holiness, Nazarene, and Christian Science movements.[54]
The Fourth Great Awakening was a Christian religious awakening that some scholars—most notably, Robert Fogel—say took place in the United States in the late 1960s and early 1970s, while others look at the era following World War II. The terminology is controversial. Thus, the idea of a Fourth Great Awakening itself has not been generally accepted.[55]
In 1814, Le Réveil swept through Calvinist regions in Switzerland and France.
В 1904 году протестантское возрождение в Уэльсе оказало огромное влияние на местное население. Являясь частью британской модернизации, он привлек многих людей в церкви, особенно методистские и баптистские.
Заслуживающим внимания событием в протестантском христианстве 20 века стал подъем современного пятидесятнического движения . Возникнув из методистских и уэслианских корней, он возник в результате встреч в городской миссии на Азуза-стрит в Лос-Анджелесе. Оттуда он распространился по миру, унесенный теми, кто испытал там то, что они считали чудесными движениями Бога. Эти проявления, подобные Пятидесятнице, постоянно проявлялись на протяжении всей истории, например, во время двух Великих Пробуждений. Пятидесятничество, которое, в свою очередь, породило харизматическое движение в рамках уже установленных деноминаций, продолжает оставаться важной силой в западном христианстве .
В Соединенных Штатах и в других странах мира наблюдается заметный рост евангелического крыла протестантских деноминаций, особенно тех, которые являются более исключительно евангелическими, и соответствующий упадок основных либеральных церквей . В пост- Первой мировой войны эпохи, Либеральное христианство было на подъеме, и значительное число семинарий , проводимых и преподаются с либеральной точки зрения , а также. В эпоху после Второй мировой войны тенденция начала возвращаться в сторону консервативного лагеря в американских семинариях и церковных структурах.
In Europe, there has been a general move away from religious observance and belief in Christian teachings and a move towards secularism. The Enlightenment is largely responsible for the spread of secularism. Several scholars have argued for a link between the rise of secularism and Protestantism, attributing it to the wide-ranging freedom in the Protestant-majority countries.[56] In North America, South America and Australia[citation needed] Christian religious observance is much higher than in Europe. United States remains particularly religious in comparison to other developed countries. South America, historically Catholic, has experienced a large Evangelical and Pentecostal infusion in the 20th and 21st centuries.
Radical Reformation
Unlike mainstream Lutheran, Calvinist and Zwinglian movements, the Radical Reformation, which had no state sponsorship, generally abandoned the idea of the "Church visible" as distinct from the "Church invisible". It was a rational extension of the state-approved Protestant dissent, which took the value of independence from constituted authority a step further, arguing the same for the civic realm. The Radical Reformation was non-mainstream, though in parts of Germany, Switzerland and Austria, a majority would sympathize with the Radical Reformation despite the intense persecution it faced from both Catholics and Magisterial Protestants.[57]
Ранние анабаптисты считали, что их реформация должна очистить не только богословие, но и реальную жизнь христиан, особенно их политические и социальные отношения. [58] Следовательно, церковь не должна поддерживаться государством, ни десятиной и налогами, ни использованием меча; Христианство было вопросом личного убеждения, которое нельзя было никому навязывать, а требовало личного решения. [58] Протестантские церковные лидеры, такие как Хубмайер и Хофманн, проповедовали недействительность крещения младенцев, защищая крещение как последующее обращение ( «крещение верующего») instead. This was not a doctrine new to the reformers, but was taught by earlier groups, such as the Albigenses in 1147. Though most of the Radical Reformers were Anabaptist, some did not identify themselves with the mainstream Anabaptist tradition. Thomas Müntzer was involved in the German Peasants' War. Andreas Karlstadt disagreed theologically with Huldrych Zwingli and Martin Luther, teaching nonviolence and refusing to baptize infants while not rebaptizing adult believers.[59] Kaspar Schwenkfeld and Sebastian Franck were influenced by German mysticism and spiritualism.
In the view of many associated with the Radical Reformation, the Magisterial Reformation had not gone far enough. Radical Reformer, Andreas von Bodenstein Karlstadt, for example, referred to the Lutheran theologians at Wittenberg as the "new papists".[60] Since the term "magister" also means "teacher", the Magisterial Reformation is also characterized by an emphasis on the authority of a teacher. This is made evident in the prominence of Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli as leaders of the reform movements in their respective areas of ministry. Because of their authority, they were often criticized by Radical Reformers as being too much like the Roman Popes. A more political side of the Radical Reformation can be seen in the thought and practice of Hans Hut, although typically Anabaptism has been associated with pacifism.
Анабаптизм в форме его различных разновидностей, таких как амиши , меннониты и гуттериты, возник в результате радикальной Реформации. Позже в анабаптистских кругах появятся братья Шварценау и Апостольская христианская церковь .
Деноминации
Protestants refer to specific groupings of congregations or churches that share in common foundational doctrines and the name of their groups as denominations.[61] The term denomination (national body) is to be distinguished from branch (denominational family; tradition), communion (international body) and congregation (church). An example (this is no universal way to classify Protestant churches, as these may sometimes vary broadly in their structures) to show the difference:
Branch/denominational family/tradition: Methodism
Communion/international body: World Methodist Council
Denomination/national body: United Methodist Church
Congregation/church: First United Methodist Church (Paintsville, Kentucky)
Протестанты отвергают доктрину католической церкви о том, что это единственная истинная церковь , с некоторыми учениями о вере в невидимую церковь , которая состоит из всех, кто исповедует веру в Иисуса Христа. [62] лютеранская церковь традиционно рассматривает себя в качестве «основного ствола исторического христианского древа» , основанной Христом и апостолами, считая , что во время Реформации церковь Рима отпал. [63] [64] Некоторые протестантские конфессии [ какие? ] менее восприимчивы к другим конфессиям, и основная ортодоксальность одних подвергается сомнению большинством других. [ необходима цитата] Individual denominations also have formed over very subtle theological differences. Other denominations are simply regional or ethnic expressions of the same beliefs. Because the five solas are the main tenets of the Protestant faith, non-denominational groups and organizations are also considered Protestant.
Various ecumenical movements have attempted cooperation or reorganization of the various divided Protestant denominations, according to various models of union, but divisions continue to outpace unions, as there is no overarching authority to which any of the churches owe allegiance, which can authoritatively define the faith. Most denominations share common beliefs in the major aspects of the Christian faith while differing in many secondary doctrines, although what is major and what is secondary is a matter of idiosyncratic belief.
Several countries have established their national churches, linking the ecclesiastical structure with the state. Jurisdictions where a Protestant denomination has been established as a state religion include several Nordic countries; Denmark (including Greenland),[65] the Faroe Islands (its church being independent since 2007),[66] Iceland[67] and Norway[68][69][70] have established Evangelical Lutheran churches. Tuvalu has the only established church in Reformed tradition in the world, while Tonga—in the Methodist tradition.[71] The Church of England is the officially established religious institution in England,[72][73][74] and also the Mother Church of the worldwide Anglican Communion.
In 1869, Finland was the first Nordic country to disestablish its Evangelical Lutheran church by introducing the Church Act.[k] Although the church still maintains a special relationship with the state, it is not described as a state religion in the Finnish Constitution or other laws passed by the Finnish Parliament.[75] In 2000, Sweden was the second Nordic country to do so.[76]
United and uniting churches
United and uniting churches are churches formed from the merger or other form of union of two or more different Protestant denominations.
Historically, unions of Protestant churches were enforced by the state, usually in order to have a stricter control over the religious sphere of its people, but also other organizational reasons. As modern Christian ecumenism progresses, unions between various Protestant traditions are becoming more and more common, resulting in a growing number of united and uniting churches. Some of the recent major examples are the Church of North India (1970), United Protestant Church of France (2013) and the Protestant Church in the Netherlands (2004). As mainline Protestantism shrinks in Europe and North America due to the rise of secularismили в областях, где христианство является религией меньшинства, как на Индийском субконтиненте , реформатские англиканские и лютеранские конфессии сливаются, часто создавая крупные общенациональные конфессии. Это явление гораздо реже встречается среди евангелических , внеконфессиональных и харизматических церквей, поскольку возникают новые, и многие из них остаются независимыми друг от друга.
Возможно, самая старая официальная объединенная церковь находится в Германии , где Евангелическая церковь в Германии является федерацией лютеранских , объединенных ( Прусский союз ) и реформатских церквей , союза, восходящего к 1817 году. Первое из серии союзов было на синоде. в Идштайне, чтобы сформировать протестантскую церковь в Гессене и Нассау в августе 1817 года, ознаменованную присвоением имени церкви Идштайн- Юнионскирхе сто лет спустя. [77]
Around the world, each united or uniting church comprises a different mix of predecessor Protestant denominations. Trends are visible, however, as most united and uniting churches have one or more predecessors with heritage in the Reformed tradition and many are members of the World Alliance of Reformed Churches.
Major branches
Протестантов можно дифференцировать по тому, как на них повлияли важные движения со времен Реформации, которые сегодня рассматриваются как ветви. Некоторые из этих движений имеют общую родословную, иногда прямо порождая отдельные деноминации. Из-за ранее заявленного множества конфессий в этом разделе обсуждаются только самые крупные конфессиональные семьи или ветви, которые широко считаются частью протестантизма. Это в алфавитном порядке: адвентисты , англиканцы , баптисты , кальвинисты (реформаторы) , лютеране , методисты и пятидесятники . Небольшой, но исторически значимый анабаптист ветка тоже обсуждается.
The chart below shows the mutual relations and historical origins of the main Protestant denominational families, or their parts. Due to factors such as Counter-Reformation and the legal principle of Cuius regio, eius religio, many people lived as Nicodemites, where their professed religious affiliations were more or less at odds with the movement they sympathized with. As a result, the boundaries between the denominations do not separate as cleanly as this chart indicates. When a population was suppressed or persecuted into feigning an adherence to the dominant faith, over the generations they continued to influence the church they outwardly adhered to.
Because Calvinism was not specifically recognized in the Holy Roman Empire until the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, many Calvinists lived as Crypto-Calvinists. Due to Counter-Reformation related suppressions in Catholic lands during the 16th through 19th centuries, many Protestants lived as Crypto-Protestants. Meanwhile, in Protestant areas, Catholics sometimes lived as crypto-papists, although in continental Europe emigration was more feasible so this was less common.
Adventism
Adventism began in the 19th century in the context of the Second Great Awakening revival in the United States. The name refers to belief in the imminent Second Coming (or "Second Advent") of Jesus Christ. William Miller started the Adventist movement in the 1830s. His followers became known as Millerites.
Although the Adventist churches hold much in common, their theologies differ on whether the intermediate state is unconscious sleep or consciousness, whether the ultimate punishment of the wicked is annihilation or eternal torment, the nature of immortality, whether or not the wicked are resurrected after the millennium, and whether the sanctuary of Daniel 8 refers to the one in heaven or one on earth.[78] The movement has encouraged the examination of the whole Bible, leading Seventh-day Adventists and some smaller Adventist groups to observe the Sabbath. The Генеральная конференция адвентистов седьмого дня объединила основные убеждения этой церкви в 28 фундаментальных верованиях (1980 и 2005 гг.), Которые используют библейские ссылки в качестве оправдания.
В 2010 году адвентизм потребовал около 22 миллионов верующих, разбросанных по различным независимым церквям. [79] Самая большая церковь в движении - Церковь адвентистов седьмого дня - насчитывает более 18 миллионов членов.
Джеймс Спрингер Уайт и его жена Эллен Уайт основали Церковь адвентистов седьмого дня.
Адвентистский пастор крестит молодого человека в Мозамбике .
Церковь адвентистов седьмого дня Университета Лома Линда в Лома Линда, Калифорния, США .
Anabaptism
Anabaptism traces its origins to the Radical Reformation. Anabaptists believe in delaying baptism until the candidate confesses his or her faith. Although some consider this movement to be an offshoot of Protestantism, others see it as a distinct one.[80][81] The Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites are direct descendants of the movement. Schwarzenau Brethren, Bruderhof, and the Apostolic Christian Church are considered later developments among the Anabaptists.
The name Anabaptist, meaning "one who baptizes again", was given them by their persecutors in reference to the practice of re-baptizing converts who already had been baptized as infants.[82] Anabaptists required that baptismal candidates be able to make their own confessions of faith and so rejected baptism of infants. The early members of this movement did not accept the name Anabaptist, claiming that since infant baptism was unscriptural and null and void, the baptizing of believers was not a re-baptism but in fact their first real baptism. As a result of their views on the nature of baptism and other issues, Anabaptists were heavily persecuted during the 16th century and into the 17th by both Magisterial Protestants and Catholics.[l] While most Anabaptists adhered to a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount, which precluded taking oaths, participating in military actions, and participating in civil government, some who practiced re-baptism felt otherwise.[m] They were thus technically Anabaptists, even though conservative Amish, Mennonites, and Hutterites and some historians tend to consider them as outside of true Anabaptism. Anabaptist reformers of the Radical Reformation are divided into Radical and the so-called Second Front. Some important Radical Reformation theologians were John of Leiden, Thomas Müntzer, Kaspar Schwenkfeld, Sebastian Franck, Menno Simons. Second Front Reformers included Hans Denck, Conrad Grebel, Balthasar Hubmaier and Felix Manz. Many Anabaptists today still use the Ausbund, which is the oldest hymnal still in continuous use.
Dirk Willems saves his pursuer. This act of mercy led to his recapture, after which he was burned at the stake.
An Amish family in a horse-drawn square buggy.
Alexanderwohl Mennonite Church in rural Goessel, Kansas, United States.
Anglicanism
Anglicanism comprises the Church of England and churches which are historically tied to it or hold similar beliefs, worship practices and church structures.[83] The word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a medieval Latin phrase dating to at least 1246 that means the English Church. There is no single "Anglican Church" with universal juridical authority, since each national or regional church has full autonomy. As the name suggests, the communion is an association of churches in full communion with the Archbishop of Canterbury. The great majority of Anglicans are members of churches which are part of the international Anglican Communion,[84] which has 85 million adherents.[85]
The Church of England declared its independence from the Catholic Church at the time of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement.[86] Many of the new Anglican formularies of the mid-16th century corresponded closely to those of contemporary Reformed tradition. These reforms were understood by one of those most responsible for them, the then Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, as navigating a middle way between two of the emerging Protestant traditions, namely Lutheranism and Calvinism.[87] By the end of the century, the retention in Anglicanism of many traditional liturgical forms and of the episcopate was already seen as unacceptable by those promoting the most developed Protestant principles.
Уникальной особенностью англиканства является « Книга общих молитв» , собрание служб, которое прихожане в большинстве англиканских церквей использовали на протяжении веков. Хотя с тех пор она претерпела множество изменений, а англиканские церкви в разных странах разработали другие служебные книги, Книга общей молитвы по-прежнему считается одним из звеньев, связывающих англиканскую общину.
Томас Крэнмер , одна из самых влиятельных фигур в формировании англиканского богословия и самоидентификации.
Различные издания Книги общей молитвы содержат слова структурированных богослужений в англиканской церкви.
British coronations are held in Westminster Abbey, a royal peculiar under the direct jurisdiction of the monarch.
Baptists
Баптисты придерживаются доктрины, согласно которой крещение следует совершать только для тех, кто исповедует веру ( крещение верующих , в отличие от крещения младенцев ), и что это должно проводиться полным погружением (в отличие от обливания или окропления ). Другие принципы баптистских церквей включают в себя душу правомочность (свободу), спасение через веру в одиночку , только Писание , как правило веры и практики, а также автономию местного собрания . Баптисты признают две должности служителей, пасторов и дьяконов.. Baptist churches are widely considered to be Protestant churches, though some Baptists disavow this identity.[88]
Diverse from their beginning, those identifying as Baptists today differ widely from one another in what they believe, how they worship, their attitudes toward other Christians, and their understanding of what is important in Christian discipleship.[89]
Историки считают, что самая ранняя церковь, названная баптистской, датируется 1609 годом в Амстердаме , а ее пастором был английский сепаратист Джон Смит . [90] В соответствии с его чтением Нового Завета , он отверг крещение младенцев и ввел крещение только для верующих взрослых. [91] Баптистская практика распространилась на Англию, где общие баптисты считали, что искупление Христа распространяется на всех людей, в то время как частные баптисты считали, что оно распространяется только на избранных . В 1638 году Роджер Уильямс основал первую баптистскую общину в североамериканских колониях . В середине 18 векаFirst Great Awakening increased Baptist growth in both New England and the South.[92] The Second Great Awakening in the South in the early 19th century increased church membership, as did the preachers' lessening of support for abolition and manumission of slavery, which had been part of the 18th-century teachings. Baptist missionaries have spread their church to every continent.[91]
The Baptist World Alliance reports more than 41 million members in more than 150,000 congregations.[93] In 2002, there were over 100 million Baptists and Baptistic group members worldwide and over 33 million in North America.[91] The largest Baptist association is the Southern Baptist Convention, with the membership of associated churches totaling more than 14 million.[94]
Roger Williams was an early proponent of religious freedom and the separation of church and state.
Baptists subscribe to a doctrine that baptism should be performed only for professing believers.
The First Baptist Church in America. Baptists are roughly one-third of U.S. Protestants.[95]
Calvinism
Calvinism, also called the Reformed tradition, was advanced by several theologians such as Martin Bucer, Heinrich Bullinger, Peter Martyr Vermigli, and Huldrych Zwingli, but this branch of Christianity bears the name of the French reformer John Calvin because of his prominent influence on it and because of his role in the confessional and ecclesiastical debates throughout the 16th century.
Today, this term also refers to the doctrines and practices of the Reformed churches of which Calvin was an early leader. Less commonly, it can refer to the individual teaching of Calvin himself. The particulars of Calvinist theology may be stated in a number of ways. Perhaps the best known summary is contained in the five points of Calvinism, though these points identify the Calvinist view on soteriology rather than summarizing the system as a whole. Broadly speaking, Calvinism stresses the sovereignty or rule of God in all things—in salvation but also in all of life. This concept is seen clearly in the doctrines of predestination and total depravity.
The biggest Reformed association is the World Communion of Reformed Churches with more than 80 million members in 211 member denominations around the world.[96][97] There are more conservative Reformed federations like the World Reformed Fellowship and the International Conference of Reformed Churches, as well as independent churches.
John Calvin's theological thought influenced a variety of Congregational, Continental Reformed, United, Presbyterian, and other Reformed churches.
The Ordination of Elders in a Scottish Kirk, by John Henry Lorimer, 1891.
A Congregational church in Cheshire, Connecticut, United States.
Lutheranism
Lutheranism identifies with the theology of Martin Luther—a German monk and priest, ecclesiastical reformer, and theologian.
Лютеранство отстаивает доктрину оправдания «только по благодати, через одну только веру на основании только Священного Писания », доктрину о том, что Священное Писание является окончательным авторитетом во всех вопросах веры, отвергая утверждение католических лидеров на Тридентском соборе о том, что авторитет приходит как из Священного Писания, так и из Предания . [98] Кроме того, лютеране принимают учение первых четырех Вселенских соборов единой христианской церкви. [99] [100]
Unlike the Reformed tradition, Lutherans retain many of the liturgical practices and sacramental teachings of the pre-Reformation Church, with a particular emphasis on the Eucharist, or Lord's Supper. Lutheran theology differs from Reformed theology in Christology, the purpose of God's Law, divine grace, the concept of perseverance of the saints, and predestination.
Today, Lutheranism is one of the largest branches of Protestantism. With approximately 80 million adherents,[101] it constitutes the third most common Protestant confession after historically Pentecostal denominations and Anglicanism.[12] The Lutheran World Federation, the largest global communion of Lutheran churches represents over 72 million people.[102] Both of these figures miscount Lutherans worldwide as many members of more generically Protestant LWF member church bodies do not self-identify as Lutheran or attend congregations that self-identify as Lutheran.[103] Additionally, there are other international organizations such as the Global Confessional and Missional Lutheran Forum, International Lutheran Council and the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference, as well as Lutheran denominations that are not necessarily a member of an international organization.
Luther's rose seal, a symbol of Lutheranism
Luther composed hymns still used today, including "A Mighty Fortress Is Our God"
Moses and Elijah direct the sinner looking for salvation to the cross in this painting illustrating Luther's Theology of the Cross (as opposed to a Theology of Glory).
Methodism
Methodism identifies principally with the theology of John Wesley—an Anglican priest and evangelist. This evangelical movement originated as a revival within the 18th-century Church of England and became a separate Church following Wesley's death. Because of vigorous missionary activity, the movement spread throughout the British Empire, the United States, and beyond, today claiming approximately 80 million adherents worldwide.[104] Originally it appealed especially to laborers and slaves.
Soteriologically, most Methodists are Arminian, emphasizing that Christ accomplished salvation for every human being, and that humans must exercise an act of the will to receive it (as opposed to the traditional Calvinist doctrine of monergism). Methodism is traditionally low church in liturgy, although this varies greatly between individual congregations; the Wesleys themselves greatly valued the Anglican liturgy and tradition. Methodism is known for its rich musical tradition; John Wesley's brother, Charles, was instrumental in writing much of the hymnody of the Methodist Church,[105] and many other eminent hymn writers come from the Methodist tradition.
Джон Уэсли , основной основатель методизма.
Объединенной методистской празднуя старший Евхаристию .
Центральный зал методистов в Вестминстере , Лондон.
Пятидесятничество
Pentecostalism is a movement that places special emphasis on a direct personal experience of God through the baptism with the Holy Spirit. The term Pentecostal is derived from Pentecost, the Greek name for the Jewish Feast of Weeks. For Christians, this event commemorates the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the followers of Jesus Christ, as described in the second chapter of the Book of Acts.
This branch of Protestantism is distinguished by belief in the baptism with the Holy Spirit as an experience separate from conversion that enables a Christian to live a Holy Spirit–filled and empowered life. This empowerment includes the use of spiritual gifts such as speaking in tongues and divine healing—two other defining characteristics of Pentecostalism. Because of their commitment to biblical authority, spiritual gifts, and the miraculous, Pentecostals tend to see their movement as reflecting the same kind of spiritual power and teachings that were found in the Apostolic Age of the early church. For this reason, some Pentecostals also use the term Apostolic or Full Gospel to describe their movement.
Pentecostalism eventually spawned hundreds of new denominations, including large groups such as the Assemblies of God and the Church of God in Christ, both in the United States and elsewhere. There are over 279 million Pentecostals worldwide, and the movement is growing in many parts of the world, especially the global South. Since the 1960s, Pentecostalism has increasingly gained acceptance from other Christian traditions, and Pentecostal beliefs concerning Spirit baptism and spiritual gifts have been embraced by non-Pentecostal Christians in Protestant and Catholic churches through the Charismatic Movement. Together, Pentecostal and Charismatic Christianity numbers over 500 million adherents.[106]
Чарльз Фокс Пархэм , который связывал глоссолалию с крещением Святым Духом.
Современное христианское богослужение в церкви Рок-Харбор, Коста-Меса , США.
Пятидесятническая церковь в Равенсбурге, Германия .
Другие протестанты
There are many other Protestant denominations that do not fit neatly into the mentioned branches, and are far smaller in membership. Some groups of individuals who hold basic Protestant tenets identify themselves simply as "Christians" or "born-again Christians". They typically distance themselves from the confessionalism or creedalism of other Christian communities[107] by calling themselves "non-denominational" or "evangelical". Often founded by individual pastors, they have little affiliation with historic denominations.[108]
Hussitism follows the teachings of Czech reformer Jan Hus, who became the best-known representative of the Bohemian Reformation and one of the forerunners of the Protestant Reformation. An early hymnal was the hand-written Jistebnice hymn book. This predominantly religious movement was propelled by social issues and strengthened Czech national awareness. Among present-day Christians, Hussite traditions are represented in the Moravian Church and the refounded Czechoslovak Hussite churches.[109]
The Plymouth Brethren are a conservative, low church, evangelical movement, whose history can be traced to Dublin, Ireland, in the late 1820s, originating from Anglicanism.[110][111] Among other beliefs, the group emphasizes sola scriptura. Brethren generally see themselves not as a denomination, but as a network, or even as a collection of overlapping networks, of like-minded independent churches. Although the group refused for many years to take any denominational name to itself—a stance that some of them still maintain—the title The Brethren, is one that many of their number are comfortable with in that the Bible designates all believers as brethren.
The Holiness movement refers to a set of beliefs and practices emerging within 19th-century Methodism, and a number of evangelical denominations, parachurch organizations, and movements that emphasized those beliefs as a central doctrine. There are an estimated 12 million adherents in Holiness movement churches.[112] The Free Methodist Church, the Salvation Army and the Wesleyan Methodist Church are notable examples, while other adherents of the Holiness Movement remained within mainline Methodism, e.g. the United Methodist Church.[113]
Quakers, or Friends, are members of a family of religious movements collectively known as the Religious Society of Friends. The central unifying doctrine of these movements is the priesthood of all believers.[114][115] Many Friends view themselves as members of a Christian denomination. They include those with evangelical, holiness, liberal, and traditional conservative Quaker understandings of Christianity. Unlike many other groups that emerged within Christianity, the Religious Society of Friends has actively tried to avoid creeds and hierarchical structures.[116]
Unitarianism is sometimes considered Protestant due to its origins in the Reformation and strong cooperation with other Protestants since the 16th century.[117] It is excluded due to its Nontrinitarian theological nature.[118] Unitarians can be regarded as Nontrinitarian Protestants, or simply Nontrinitarians. Unitarianism has been popular in the region of Transylvania within today's Romania, England, and the United States. It originated almost simultaneously in Transylvania and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
George Fox was an English dissenter and a founder of the Religious Society of Friends, commonly known as the Quakers or Friends.
Friedensthal Moravian Church Christiansted, St Croix, USVI founded in 1755.
A night shelter of The Salvation Army in Geneva, Switzerland.
Interdenominational movements
Существуют также христианские движения, которые пересекают деноминационные линии и даже ветви и не могут быть классифицированы на том же уровне, что и ранее упомянутые формы. Евангелизм - яркий тому пример. Некоторые из этих движений действуют исключительно в протестантизме, некоторые - в христианстве. Трансконфессиональные движения иногда способны влиять на некоторые части католической церкви, например, это делает харизматическое движение , которое стремится включить верования и практики, подобные пятидесятническим, в различные ветви христианства. Неохаризматические церкви иногда рассматриваются как подгруппа харизматического движения. Оба они подпадают под общий ярлык харизматического христианства (так называемое харизматическое христианство).Renewalists), along with Pentecostals. Nondenominational churches and various house churches often adopt, or are akin to one of these movements.
Megachurches are usually influenced by interdenominational movements. Globally, these large congregations are a significant development in Protestant Christianity. In the United States, the phenomenon has more than quadrupled in the past two decades.[119] It has since spread worldwide.
The chart below shows the mutual relations and historical origins of the main interdenominational movements and other developments within Protestantism.
Evangelicalism
Evangelicalism, or evangelical Protestantism,[n] is a worldwide, transdenominational movement which maintains that the essence of the gospel consists in the doctrine of salvation by grace through faith in Jesus Christ's atonement.[120][121]
Evangelicals are Christians who believe in the centrality of the conversion or "born again" experience in receiving salvation, believe in the authority of the Bible as God's revelation to humanity and have a strong commitment to evangelism or sharing the Christian message.
It gained great momentum in the 18th and 19th centuries with the emergence of Methodism and the Great Awakenings in Britain and North America. The origins of Evangelicalism are usually traced back to the English Methodist movement, Nicolaus Zinzendorf, the Moravian Church, Lutheran pietism, Presbyterianism and Puritanism.[79] Among leaders and major figures of the Evangelical Protestant movement were John Wesley, George Whitefield, Jonathan Edwards, Billy Graham, Harold John Ockenga, John Stott and Martyn Lloyd-Jones.
There are an estimated 285,480,000 Evangelicals, corresponding to 13% of the Christian population and 4% of the total world population. The Americas, Africa and Asia are home to the majority of Evangelicals. The United States has the largest concentration of Evangelicals.[122] Evangelicalism is gaining popularity both in and outside the English-speaking world, especially in Latin America and the developing world.
William Wilberforce, a British evangelical abolitionist.
Billy Graham, a prominent evangelical revivalist, preaching in Duisburg, Germany in 1954.
Worship service at Église Nouvelle vie, an evangelical Pentecostal church in Longueuil, Canada.
An Evangelical Protestant church in Hämeenlinna, Finland.
Charismatic movement
The Charismatic movement is the international trend of historically mainstream congregations adopting beliefs and practices similar to Pentecostals. Fundamental to the movement is the use of spiritual gifts. Among Protestants, the movement began around 1960.
In America, Episcopalian Dennis Bennett is sometimes cited as one of the charismatic movement's seminal influence.[123] In the United Kingdom, Colin Urquhart, Michael Harper, David Watson and others were in the vanguard of similar developments. The Massey conference in New Zealand, 1964 was attended by several Anglicans, including the Rev. Ray Muller, who went on to invite Bennett to New Zealand in 1966, and played a leading role in developing and promoting the Life in the Spirit seminars. Other Charismatic movement leaders in New Zealand include Bill Subritzky.
Larry Christenson, a Lutheran theologian based in San Pedro, California, did much in the 1960s and 1970s to interpret the charismatic movement for Lutherans. A very large annual conference regarding that matter was held in Minneapolis. Charismatic Lutheran congregations in Minnesota became especially large and influential; especially "Hosanna!" in Lakeville, and North Heights in St. Paul. The next generation of Lutheran charismatics cluster around the Alliance of Renewal Churches. There is considerable charismatic activity among young Lutheran leaders in California centered around an annual gathering at Robinwood Church in Huntington Beach. Richard A. Jensen's Touched by the Spirit published in 1974, played a major role of the Lutheran understanding to the charismatic movement.
В конгрегационалистских и пресвитерианских церквях, которые исповедуют традиционно кальвинистское или реформатское богословие, существуют разные взгляды на нынешнее продолжение или прекращение даров ( харизм ) Духа. [124] [125] В целом, однако, реформатские харизматы дистанцируются от движений обновления с тенденциями, которые могут быть восприняты как чрезмерно эмоциональные, например, Word of Faith , Toronto Blessing , Brownsville Revival и Lakeland Revival . Выдающимися реформатскими харизматическими деноминациями являются церкви Суверенной благодати иEvery Nation Churches in the US, in Great Britain there is the Newfrontiers churches and movement, which leading figure is Terry Virgo.[126]
A minority of Seventh-day Adventists today are charismatic. They are strongly associated with those holding more "progressive" Adventist beliefs. In the early decades of the church charismatic or ecstatic phenomena were commonplace.[127][128]
Neo-charismatic churches
Neo-charismatic churches are a category of churches in the Christian Renewal movement. Neo-charismatics include the Third Wave, but are broader. Now more numerous than Pentecostals (first wave) and charismatics (second wave) combined, owing to the remarkable growth of postdenominational and independent charismatic groups.[129]
Neo-charismatics believe in and stress the post-Biblical availability of gifts of the Holy Spirit, including glossolalia, healing, and prophecy. They practice laying on of hands and seek the "infilling" of the Holy Spirit. However, a specific experience of baptism with the Holy Spirit may not be requisite for experiencing such gifts. No single form, governmental structure, or style of church service characterizes all neo-charismatic services and churches.
Some nineteen thousand denominations, with approximately 295 million individual adherents, are identified as neo-charismatic.[130] Neo-charismatic tenets and practices are found in many independent, nondenominational or post-denominational congregations, with strength of numbers centered in the African independent churches, among the Han Chinese house-church movement, and in Latin American churches.[citation needed]
Other Protestant developments
Plenty of other movements and thoughts to be distinguished from the widespread trans-denominational ones and branches appeared within Protestant Christianity. Some of them are also in evidence today. Others appeared during the centuries following the Reformation and disappeared gradually with the time, such as much of Pietism. Some inspired the current trans-denominational ones, such as Evangelicalism which has its foundation in the Christian fundamentalism.
Arminianism
Arminianism is based on theological ideas of the Dutch Reformed theologian Jacobus Arminius (1560–1609) and his historic supporters known as Remonstrants. His teachings held to the five solae of the Reformation, but they were distinct from particular teachings of Martin Luther, Huldrych Zwingli, John Calvin, and other Protestant Reformers. Jacobus Arminius was a student of Theodore Beza at the Theological University of Geneva. Arminianism is known to some as a soteriological diversification of Calvinism.[131] However, to others, Arminianism is a reclamation of early Church theological consensus.[132] Dutch Arminianism was originally articulated in the Remonstrance (1610), a theological statement signed by 45 ministers and submitted to the States General of the Netherlands. Many Christian denominations have been influenced by Arminian views on the will of man being freed by grace prior to regeneration, notably the Baptists in the 16th century,[133] the Methodists in the 18th century and the Seventh-day Adventist Church in the 19th century.
The original beliefs of Jacobus Arminius himself are commonly defined as Arminianism, but more broadly, the term may embrace the teachings of Hugo Grotius, John Wesley, and others as well. Classical Arminianism and Wesleyan Arminianism are the two main schools of thought. Wesleyan Arminianism is often identical with Methodism. The two systems of Calvinism and Arminianism share both history and many doctrines, and the history of Christian theology. However, because of their differences over the doctrines of divine predestination and election, many people view these schools of thought as opposed to each other. In short, the difference can be seen ultimately by whether God allows His desire to save all to be resisted by an individual's will (in the Arminian doctrine) or if God's grace is irresistible and limited to only some (in Calvinism). Some Calvinists assert that the Arminian perspective presents a synergistic system of Salvation and therefore is not only by grace, while Arminians firmly reject this conclusion. Many consider the theological differences to be crucial differences in doctrine, while others find them to be relatively minor.[134]
Pietism
Pietism was an influential movement within Lutheranism that combined the 17th-century Lutheran principles with the Reformed emphasis on individual piety and living a vigorous Christian life.[135]
It began in the late 17th century, reached its zenith in the mid-18th century, and declined through the 19th century, and had almost vanished in America by the end of the 20th century. While declining as an identifiable Lutheran group, some of its theological tenets influenced Protestantism generally, inspiring the Anglican priest John Wesley to begin the Methodist movement and Alexander Mack to begin the Brethren movement among Anabaptists.
Though Pietism shares an emphasis on personal behavior with the Puritan movement, and the two are often confused, there are important differences, particularly in the concept of the role of religion in government.[136]
Philipp Jakob Spener, German pioneer and founder of Pietism.
Pietism has been a strong cultural influence in Scandinavia.
The Broad and the Narrow Way, a popular German Pietist painting, 1866.
Puritanism, English dissenters and nonconformists
The Puritans were a group of English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries, which sought to purify the Church of England of what they considered to be Catholic practices, maintaining that the church was only partially reformed. Puritanism in this sense was founded by some of the returning clergy exiled under Mary I shortly after the accession of Elizabeth I of England in 1558, as an activist movement within the Church of England.
Пуританам было запрещено менять установленную церковь изнутри, и они были строго ограничены в Англии законами, регулирующими религиозную практику. Их вера, однако, была перенесена эмиграцией общин в Нидерланды (а позже - в Новую Англию) и евангелическим духовенством в Ирландию (а затем в Уэльс) и распространилась среди мирян и частей системы образования, в частности некоторые колледжи Кембриджского университета . Первая протестантская проповедь, произнесенная в Англии, была в Кембридже, с кафедры, с которой эта проповедь была произнесена до наших дней. [137] [138] Они приняли особые взгляды на церковную одежду и в оппозицию к епископальной одежде. system, particularly after the 1619 conclusions of the Synod of Dort they were resisted by the English bishops. They largely adopted Sabbatarianism in the 17th century, and were influenced by millennialism.
They formed, and identified with various religious groups advocating greater purity of worship and doctrine, as well as personal and group piety. Puritans adopted a Reformed theology, but they also took note of radical criticisms of Zwingli in Zurich and Calvin in Geneva. In church polity, some advocated for separation from all other Christians, in favor of autonomous gathered churches. These separatist and independent strands of Puritanism became prominent in the 1640s, when the supporters of a Presbyterian polity in the Westminster Assembly were unable to forge a new English national church.
Nonconforming Protestants along with the Protestant refugees from continental Europe were the primary founders of the United States of America.
John Cotton, who sparked the Antinomian Controversy with his free grace theology.
Pilgrim Fathers landing at Plymouth Rock in 1620.
Built in 1681, the Old Ship Church in Hingham, Massachusetts is the oldest church in America in continuous ecclesiastical use.[139]
Neo-orthodoxy and paleo-orthodoxy
A non-fundamentalist rejection of liberal Christianity along the lines of the Christian existentialism of Søren Kierkegaard, who attacked the Hegelian state churches of his day for "dead orthodoxy," neo-orthodoxy is associated primarily with Karl Barth, Jürgen Moltmann, and Dietrich Bonhoeffer. Neo-orthodoxy sought to counter-act the tendency of liberal theology to make theological accommodations to modern scientific perspectives. Sometimes called "crisis theology," in the existentialist sense of the word crisis, also sometimes called neo-evangelicalism, which uses the sense of "evangelical" pertaining to continental European Protestants rather than American evangelicalism. "Evangelical" was the originally preferred label used by Lutherans and Calvinists, but it was replaced by the names some Catholics used to label a heresy with the name of its founder.
Paleo-orthodoxy is a movement similar in some respects to neo-evangelicalism but emphasizing the ancient Christian consensus of the undivided church of the first millennium AD, including in particular the early creeds and church councils as a means of properly understanding the scriptures. This movement is cross-denominational. A prominent theologian in this group is Thomas Oden, a Methodist.
Christian fundamentalism
In reaction to liberal Bible critique, fundamentalism arose in the 20th century, primarily in the United States, among those denominations most affected by Evangelicalism. Fundamentalist theology tends to stress Biblical inerrancy and Biblical literalism.
Toward the end of the 20th century, some have tended to confuse evangelicalism and fundamentalism; however, the labels represent very distinct differences of approach that both groups are diligent to maintain, although because of fundamentalism's dramatically smaller size it often gets classified simply as an ultra-conservative branch of evangelicalism.
Modernism and liberalism
Modernism and liberalism do not constitute rigorous and well-defined schools of theology, but are rather an inclination by some writers and teachers to integrate Christian thought into the spirit of the Age of Enlightenment. New understandings of history and the natural sciences of the day led directly to new approaches to theology. Its opposition to the fundamentalist teaching resulted in religious debates, such as the Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy within the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America in the 1920s.
Protestant culture
Although the Reformation was a religious movement, it also had a strong impact on all other aspects of life: marriage and family, education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy, and the arts.[15] Protestant churches reject the idea of a celibate priesthood and thus allow their clergy to marry.[24] Many of their families contributed to the development of intellectual elites in their countries.[142] Since about 1950, women have entered the ministry, and some have assumed leading positions (e.g. bishops), in most Protestant churches.
Поскольку реформаторы хотели, чтобы все члены церкви могли читать Библию, образование на всех уровнях получило мощный импульс. К середине восемнадцатого века уровень грамотности в Англии составлял около 60 процентов, в Шотландии - 65 процентов, а в Швеции восемь из десяти мужчин и женщин умели читать и писать. [143] Были основаны колледжи и университеты. Например, пуритане , основавшие колонию в Массачусетском заливе в 1628 году, основали Гарвардский колледж только восемь лет спустя. Около дюжины других колледжей последовали в 18 веке, в том числе Йельский (1701). Пенсильвания также стала центром обучения. [144] [145]
Members of mainline Protestant denominations have played leadership roles in many aspects of American life, including politics, business, science, the arts, and education. They founded most of the country's leading institutes of higher education.[146]
Thought and work ethic
The Protestant concept of God and man allows believers to use all their God-given faculties, including the power of reason. That means that they are allowed to explore God's creation and, according to Genesis 2:15, make use of it in a responsible and sustainable way. Thus a cultural climate was created that greatly enhanced the development of the humanities and the sciences.[147] Another consequence of the Protestant understanding of man is that the believers, in gratitude for their election and redemption in Christ, are to follow God's commandments. Industry, frugality, calling, discipline, and a strong sense of responsibility are at the heart of their moral code.[148][149] In particular, Calvin rejected luxury. Therefore, craftsmen, industrialists, and other businessmen were able to reinvest the greater part of their profits in the most efficient machinery and the most modern production methods that were based on progress in the sciences and technology. As a result, productivity grew, which led to increased profits and enabled employers to pay higher wages. In this way, the economy, the sciences, and technology reinforced each other. The chance to participate in the economic success of technological inventions was a strong incentive to both inventors and investors.[150][151][152][153] The Protestant work ethic was an important force behind the unplanned and uncoordinated mass actionэто повлияло на развитие капитализма и промышленной революции . Эта идея также известна как «протестантский этический тезис». [154]
However, eminent historian Fernand Braudel (d. 1985), a leader of the important Annales School wrote: "all historians have opposed this tenuous theory [the Protestant Ethic], although they have not managed to be rid of it once and for all. Yet it is clearly false. The northern countries took over the place that earlier had been so long and brilliantly been occupied by the old capitalist centers of the Mediterranean. They invented nothing, either in technology or business management."[155] Social scientist Rodney Stark moreover comments that "during their critical period of economic development, these northern centers of capitalism were Catholic, not Protestant—the Reformation still lay well into the future,"[156] while British historian Hugh Trevor-Roper (d. 2003) said, "The idea that large-scale industrial capitalism was ideologically impossible before the Reformation is exploded by the simple fact that it existed."[157]
In a factor analysis of the latest wave of World Values Survey data, Arno Tausch (Corvinus University of Budapest) found that Protestantism emerges to be very close to combining religion and the traditions of liberalism. The Global Value Development Index, calculated by Tausch, relies on the World Values Survey dimensions such as trust in the state of law, no support for shadow economy, postmaterial activism, support for democracy, a non-acceptance of violence, xenophobia and racism, trust in transnational capital and Universities, confidence in the market economy, supporting gender justice, and engaging in environmental activism, etc.[158]
Episcopalians and Presbyterians, as well as other WASPs, tend to be considerably wealthier[159] and better educated (having graduate and post-graduate degrees per capita) than most other religious groups in United States,[160] and are disproportionately represented in the upper reaches of American business,[161] law and politics, especially the Republican Party.[162] Numbers of the most wealthy and affluent American families as the Vanderbilts and the Astors, Rockefeller, Du Pont, Roosevelt, Forbes, Whitneys, the Morgans and Harrimans are Mainline Protestant families.[159]
Science
Protestantism has had an important influence on science. According to the Merton Thesis, there was a positive correlation between the rise of English Puritanism and German Pietism on the one hand and early experimental science on the other.[163] The Merton Thesis has two separate parts: Firstly, it presents a theory that science changes due to an accumulation of observations and improvement in experimental technique and methodology; secondly, it puts forward the argument that the popularity of science in 17th-century England and the religious demography of the Royal Society (English scientists of that time were predominantly Puritans or other Protestants) can be explained by a correlation between Protestantism and the scientific values.[164] Merton focused on English Puritanism and German Pietism as having been responsible for the development of the scientific revolution of the 17th and 18th centuries. He explained that the connection between religious affiliation and interest in science was the result of a significant synergy between the ascetic Protestant values and those of modern science.[165] Protestant values encouraged scientific research by allowing science to identify God's influence on the world—his creation—and thus providing a religious justification for scientific research.[163]
According to Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States by Harriet Zuckerman, a review of American Nobel prizes awarded between 1901 and 1972, 72% of American Nobel Prize laureates identified a Protestant background.[166] Overall, 84% of all the Nobel Prizes awarded to Americans in Chemistry,[166] 60% in Medicine,[166] and 59% in Physics[166] between 1901 and 1972 were won by Protestants.
According to 100 Years of Nobel Prize (2005), a review of Nobel prizes awarded between 1901 and 2000, 65% of Nobel Prize Laureates, have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference (423 prizes).[167] While 32% have identified with Protestantism in its various forms (208 prizes),[167] although Protestant comprise 12% to 13% of the world's population.
Government
В средние века Церковь и мирские власти были тесно связаны. Мартин Лютер в принципе разделил религиозное и мирское царства ( учение о двух царствах ). [168] Верующие были обязаны использовать разум, чтобы управлять мирской сферой упорядоченным и мирным способом. Доктрина Лютера о священстве всех верующих значительно повысила роль мирян в церкви. Члены общины имели право избирать служителя и, при необходимости, голосовать за его увольнение (Трактат о праве и полномочиях христианского собрания или общины судить все доктрины, а также призывать, назначать и увольнять учителей, как засвидетельствовано. в Священном Писании ; 1523 г.). [169] Calvin strengthened this basically democratic approach by including elected laymen (church elders, presbyters) in his representative church government.[170] The Huguenots added regional synods and a national synod, whose members were elected by the congregations, to Calvin's system of church self-government. This system was taken over by the other reformed churches[171] and was adopted by some Lutherans beginning with those in Jülich-Cleves-Berg during the 17th century.
Politically, Calvin favored a mixture of aristocracy and democracy. He appreciated the advantages of democracy: "It is an invaluable gift, if God allows a people to freely elect its own authorities and overlords."[172] Calvin also thought that earthly rulers lose their divine right and must be put down when they rise up against God. To further protect the rights of ordinary people, Calvin suggested separating political powers in a system of checks and balances (separation of powers). Thus he and his followers resisted political absolutism and paved the way for the rise of modern democracy.[173] Besides England, the Netherlands were, under Calvinist leadership, the freest country in Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It granted asylum to philosophers like Baruch Spinoza and Pierre Bayle. Hugo Grotius was able to teach his natural-law theory and a relatively liberal interpretation of the Bible.[174]
Consistent with Calvin's political ideas, Protestants created both the English and the American democracies. In seventeenth-century England, the most important persons and events in this process were the English Civil War, Oliver Cromwell, John Milton, John Locke, the Glorious Revolution, the English Bill of Rights, and the Act of Settlement.[175] Later, the British took their democratic ideals to their colonies, e.g. Australia, New Zealand, and India. In North America, Plymouth Colony (Pilgrim Fathers; 1620) and Massachusetts Bay Colony (1628) practised democratic self-rule and separation of powers.[176][177][178][179] These Congregationalists were convinced that the democratic form of government was the will of God.[180] The Mayflower Compact was a social contract.[181][182]
Rights and liberty
Протестанты также выступили с инициативой отстаивать свободу вероисповедания . Свобода совести имела высокий приоритет в теологических, философских и политических программах, поскольку Лютер отказался отречься от своих убеждений перед сеймом Священной Римской империи в Вормсе (1521 г.). По его мнению, вера была свободным действием Святого Духа и поэтому не могла быть навязана человеку. [183] Преследуемые анабаптисты и гугеноты требовали свободы совести и практиковали отделение церкви от государства . [184] В начале семнадцатого века баптисты, такие как Джон Смит и Томас Хелвис, опубликовали трактаты в защиту свободы вероисповедания. [185] Their thinking influenced John Milton and John Locke's stance on tolerance.[186][187] Under the leadership of Baptist Roger Williams, Congregationalist Thomas Hooker, and Quaker William Penn, respectively, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania combined democratic constitutions with freedom of religion. These colonies became safe havens for persecuted religious minorities, including Jews.[188][189][190] The United States Declaration of Independence, the Конституция Соединенных Штатов и Американский билль о правах с его основными правами человека сделали эту традицию постоянной, придав ей правовую и политическую основу. [191] Подавляющее большинство американских протестантов, как духовенство, так и миряне, решительно поддерживали движение за независимость. Все основные протестантские церкви были представлены на Первом и втором Континентальных конгрессах. [192] В девятнадцатом и двадцатом веках американская демократия стала образцом для многих других стран и регионов по всему миру (например, Латинской Америки, Японии и Германии). Самым сильным связующим звеном между американской и французской революциями был маркиз де Лафайет., an ardent supporter of the American constitutional principles. The French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was mainly based on Lafayette's draft of this document.[193] The Declaration by United Nations and Universal Declaration of Human Rights also echo the American constitutional tradition.[194][195][196]
Демократия, теория общественного договора, разделение властей, религиозная свобода, разделение церкви и государства - эти достижения Реформации и раннего протестантизма были развиты и популяризированы мыслителями Просвещения . Некоторые философы английского, шотландского, немецкого и швейцарского Просвещения - Томас Гоббс , Джон Локк , Джон Толанд , Дэвид Хьюм , Готфрид Вильгельм Лейбниц , Кристиан Вольф , Иммануил Кант и Жан-Жак Руссо - имели протестантское происхождение. [197] For example, John Locke, whose political thought was based on "a set of Protestant Christian assumptions",[198] derived the equality of all humans, including the equality of the genders ("Adam and Eve"), from Genesis 1, 26–28. As all persons were created equally free, all governments needed "the consent of the governed."[199]
Also, other human rights were advocated for by some Protestants. For example, torture was abolished in Prussia in 1740, slavery in Britain in 1834 and in the United States in 1865 (William Wilberforce, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Abraham Lincoln—against Southern Protestants).[200][201] Hugo Grotius and Samuel Pufendorf were among the first thinkers who made significant contributions to international law.[202][203] The Geneva Convention, an important part of humanitarian international law, was largely the work of Henry Dunant, a reformed pietist. He also founded the Red Cross.[204]
Social teaching
Protestants have founded hospitals, homes for disabled or elderly people, educational institutions, organizations that give aid to developing countries, and other social welfare agencies.[205][206][207] In the nineteenth century, throughout the Anglo-American world, numerous dedicated members of all Protestant denominations were active in social reform movements such as the abolition of slavery, prison reforms, and woman suffrage.[208][209][210] As an answer to the "social question" of the nineteenth century, Germany under Chancellor Otto von Bismarck introduced insurance programs that led the way to the welfare state (health insurance, accident insurance, disability insurance, old-age pensions). To Bismarck this was "practical Christianity".[211][212] These programs, too, were copied by many other nations, particularly in the Western world.
The Young Men's Christian Association was founded by Congregationalist George Williams, aimed at empowering young people.
Liturgy
Protestant liturgy is a pattern for worship used (whether recommended or prescribed) by a Protestant congregation or denomination on a regular basis. The term liturgy comes from Greek and means "public work". Liturgy is mainly important in the Historical Protestant churches (or mainline Protestant churches), while evangelical Protestant churches tend to be very flexible and in some cases have no liturgy at all. It often but not exclusively occurs on Sunday.[citation needed]
Arts
| Reformation era literature |
|---|
The arts have been strongly inspired by Protestant beliefs.
Martin Luther, Paul Gerhardt, George Wither, Isaac Watts, Charles Wesley, William Cowper, and many other authors and composers created well-known church hymns.
Musicians like Heinrich Schütz, Johann Sebastian Bach, George Frideric Handel, Henry Purcell, Johannes Brahms, Philipp Nicolai and Felix Mendelssohn composed great works of music.
Prominent painters with Protestant background were, for example, Albrecht Dürer, Hans Holbein the Younger, Lucas Cranach the Elder, Lucas Cranach the Younger, Rembrandt, and Vincent van Gogh.
World literature was enriched by the works of Edmund Spenser, John Milton, John Bunyan, John Donne, John Dryden, Daniel Defoe, William Wordsworth, Jonathan Swift, Johann Wolfgang Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Edgar Allan Poe, Matthew Arnold, Conrad Ferdinand Meyer, Theodor Fontane, Washington Irving, Robert Browning, Emily Dickinson, Emily Brontë, Charles Dickens, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Thomas Stearns Eliot, John Galsworthy, Thomas Mann, William Faulkner, John Updike, and many others.
Luther Monument in Worms, which features some of the Reformation's crucial figures.
The International Monument to the Reformation in Geneva, Switzerland.
The Adoration of the Trinity by Albrecht Dürer.
The Crucifixion of Christ by Lucas Cranach the Elder.
The Adam and Eve by Lucas Cranach the Younger.
A Huguenot, on St. Bartholomew's Day, Refusing to Shield Himself from Danger by Wearing the Roman Catholic Badge by John Everett Millais.
The Return of the Prodigal Son, detail, c. 1669 by Rembrandt.
The Church at Auvers, 1890. Musée d'Orsay, Paris. By Vincent van Gogh.
Catholic responses
The view of the Catholic Church is that Protestant denominations cannot be considered churches but rather that they are ecclesial communities or specific faith-believing communities because their ordinances and doctrines are not historically the same as the Catholic sacraments and dogmas, and the Protestant communities have no sacramental ministerial priesthood[o] and therefore lack true apostolic succession.[213][214] According to Bishop Hilarion (Alfeyev) the Eastern Orthodox Church shares the same view on the subject.[215]
Contrary to how the Protestant Reformers were often characterized, the concept of a catholic or universal Church was not brushed aside during the Protestant Reformation. On the contrary, the visible unity of the catholic or universal church was seen by the Protestant reformers as an important and essential doctrine of the Reformation. The Magisterial reformers, such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Huldrych Zwingli, believed that they were reforming the Catholic Church, which they viewed as having become corrupted.[p] Each of them took very seriously the charges of schism and innovation, denying these charges and maintaining that it was the Catholic Church that had left them. The Protestant Reformers formed a new and radically different theological opinion on ecclesiology, that the visible Church is "catholic" (lower-case "c") rather than "Catholic" (upper-case "C"). Accordingly, there is not an indefinite number of parochial, congregational or national churches, constituting, as it were, so many ecclesiastical individualities, but one great spiritual republic of which these various organizations form a part,[q] although they each have very different opinions. This was markedly far-removed from the traditional and historic Catholic understanding that the Roman Catholic Church was the one true Church of Christ.[r]
Yet in the Protestant understanding, the visible church is not a genus, so to speak, with so many species under it.[s] In order to justify their departure[t] from the Catholic Church, Protestants often posited a new argument,[u] saying that there was no real visible Church with divine authority, only a spiritual, invisible, and hidden church—this notion began in the early days of the Protestant Reformation.
Wherever the Magisterial Reformation, which received support from the ruling authorities, took place, the result was a reformed national Protestant church envisioned to be a part of the whole invisible church, but disagreeing, in certain important points of doctrine and doctrine-linked practice, with what had until then been considered the normative reference point on such matters,[v] namely the Papacy and central authority of the Catholic Church. The Reformed churches thus believed in some form of Catholicity, founded on their doctrines of the five solas and a visible ecclesiastical organization based on the 14th- and 15th-century Conciliar movement, rejecting the papacy and papal infallibilityв пользу вселенских соборов , но отвергая последний вселенский собор, Тридентский собор . [w] Таким образом, религиозное единство стало не единством доктрины и идентичности, а единством невидимого характера, в котором единство было единством веры в Иисуса Христа, а не общей идентичностью, доктриной, верой и совместными действиями.
There are Protestants,[x] especially of the Reformed tradition, that either reject or down-play the designation Protestant because of the negative idea that the word invokes in addition to its primary meaning, preferring the designation Reformed, Evangelical or even Reformed Catholic expressive of what they call a Reformed Catholicity and defending their arguments from the traditional Protestant confessions.[216]
Ecumenism
The ecumenical movement has had an influence on mainline churches, beginning at least in 1910 with the Edinburgh Missionary Conference. Its origins lay in the recognition of the need for cooperation on the mission field in Africa, Asia and Oceania. Since 1948, the World Council of Churches has been influential, but ineffective in creating a united church. There are also ecumenical bodies at regional, national and local levels across the globe; but schisms still far outnumber unifications. One, but not the only expression of the ecumenical movement, has been the move to form united churches, such as the Church of South India, the Church of North India, the US-based United Church of Christ, the United Church of Canada, the Uniting Church in Australia and the United Church of Christ in the Philippines which have rapidly declining memberships. There has been a strong engagement of Orthodox churches in the ecumenical movement, though the reaction of individual Orthodox theologians has ranged from tentative approval of the aim of Christian unity to outright condemnation of the perceived effect of watering down Orthodox doctrine.[218]
A Protestant baptism is held to be valid by the Catholic Church if given with the trinitarian formula and with the intent to baptize. However, as the ordination of Protestant ministers is not recognized due to the lack of apostolic succession and the disunity from Catholic Church, all other sacraments (except marriage) performed by Protestant denominations and ministers are not recognized as valid. Therefore, Protestants desiring full communion with the Catholic Church are not re-baptized (although they are confirmed) and Protestant ministers who become Catholics may be ordained to the priesthood after a period of study.
In 1999, the representatives of Lutheran World Federation and Catholic Church signed the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification, apparently resolving the conflict over the nature of justification which was at the root of the Protestant Reformation, although Confessional Lutherans reject this statement.[219] This is understandable, since there is no compelling authority within them. On 18 July 2006, delegates to the World Methodist Conference voted unanimously to adopt the Joint Declaration.[220][221]
Spread and demographics
There are more than 900 million Protestants worldwide,[12][13][16][222][223][224][225][y] among approximately 2.4 billion Christians.[13][226][227][228][z] In 2010, a total of more than 800 million included 300 million in Sub-Saharan Africa, 260 million in the Americas, 140 million in Asia-Pacific region, 100 million in Europe and 2 million in Middle East-North Africa.[12] Protestants account for nearly forty percent of Christians worldwide and more than one tenth of the total human population.[12] Various estimates put the percentage of Protestants in relation to the total number of world's Christians at 33%,[222] 36%,[229] 36.7%,[12] and 40%,[16] while in relation to the world's population at 11.6%[12] and 13%.[225]
In European countries which were most profoundly influenced by the Reformation, Protestantism still remains the most practiced religion.[222] These include the Nordic countries and the United Kingdom.[222][230] In other historical Protestant strongholds such as Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Latvia, and Estonia, it remains one of the most popular religions.[231] Although Czech Republic was the site of one of the most significant pre-reformation movements,[232] there are only few Protestant adherents;[233][234] mainly due to historical reasons like persecution of Protestants by the Catholic Habsburgs,[235] restrictions during the Communist rule, and also the ongoing secularization.[232] Over the last several decades, religious practice has been declining as secularization has increased.[222][236] According to a 2019 study about Religiosity in the European Union in 2019 by Eurobarometer, Protestants made up 9% of the EU population.[237] According to Pew Research Center, Protestants constituted nearly one fifth (or 18%) of the continent's Christian population in 2010.[12] Clarke and Beyer estimate that Protestants constituted 15% of all Europeans in 2009, while Noll claims that less than 12% of them lived in Europe in 2010.[222][224]
Changes in worldwide Protestantism over the last century have been significant.[16][224][238] Since 1900, Protestantism has spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, Oceania and Latin America.[24][225][238] That caused Protestantism to be called a primarily non-Western religion.[224][238] Much of the growth has occurred after World War II, when decolonization of Africa and abolition of various restrictions against Protestants in Latin American countries occurred.[225] According to one source, Protestants constituted respectively 2.5%, 2%, 0.5% of Latin Americans, Africans and Asians.[225] In 2000, percentage of Protestants on mentioned continents was 17%, more than 27% and 6%, respectively.[225] According to Mark A. Noll, 79% of Anglicans lived in the United Kingdom in 1910, while most of the remainder was found in the United States and across the British Commonwealth.[224] By 2010, 59% of Anglicans were found in Africa.[224] In 2010, more Protestants lived in India than in the UK or Germany, while Protestants in Brazil accounted for as many people as Protestants in the UK and Germany combined.[224] Almost as many lived in each of Nigeria and China as in all of Europe.[224] China is home to world's largest Protestant minority.[12][aa]
Protestantism is growing in Africa,[24][239][240] Asia,[24][240][241] Latin America,[240][242] and Oceania,[24][238] while declining in Anglo America[238][243] and Europe,[222][244] with some exceptions such as France,[245] where it was eradicated after the abolition of the Edict of Nantes by the Edict of Fontainebleau and the following persecution of Huguenots, but now is claimed to be stable in number or even growing slightly.[245]По мнению некоторых, Россия - еще одна страна, в которой наблюдается протестантское возрождение. [246] [247] [248]
В 2010 году крупнейшими протестантскими конфессиональными семьями исторически были пятидесятники (11%), англиканские (11%), лютеранские (10%), баптистские (9%), объединенные и объединяющие церкви (союзы разных конфессий) (7%), Пресвитериане или реформаторы (7%), методисты (3%), адвентисты (3%), конгрегационалисты (1%), братья (1%), Армия спасения (<1%) и моравцы (<1%). Другие конфессии составили 38% протестантов. [12]
United States is home to approximately 20% of Protestants.[12] According to a 2012 study, Protestant share of U.S. population dropped to 48%, thus ending its status as religion of the majority for the first time.[249][250] The decline is attributed mainly to the dropping membership of the Mainline Protestant churches,[249][251] while Evangelical Protestant and Black churches are stable or continue to grow.[249]
By 2050, Protestantism is projected to rise to slightly more than half of the world's total Christian population.[252][ab] According to other experts such as Hans J. Hillerbrand, Protestants will be as numerous as Catholics.[253]
According to Mark Jürgensmeyer of the University of California, popular Protestantism[ac] is the most dynamic religious movement in the contemporary world, alongside the resurgent Islam.[19]
See also
- Anti-Catholicism
- The Reformation and its influence on church architecture
- Criticism of Protestantism
- European wars of religion
- Protestantism and Islam
- Protestantism in Germany
Notes
- ^ Some movements such as the Hussites or the Lollards are also considered Protestant today, although their origins date back to years before the launch of the Reformation. Others, such as the Waldensians, were later incorporated into another branch of Protestantism; in this case, the Reformed branch.
- ^ Specifically, in Wittenberg, Electoral Saxony (then a part of the Holy Roman Empire). Even today, especially in German contexts, Saxony is often described as the "motherland of the Reformation" (German: Mutterland der Reformation).
- ^ At the time Germany and the surrounding region was fragmented into numerous states of the Holy Roman Empire. Areas which turned Protestant were primarily located in northern, central and eastern areas of the Reich.
- ^ Several states of the Holy Roman Empire adopted Calvinism, including the County Palatine of the Rhine.
- ^ For further information, see English Reformation. In this article, Anglicanism is considered a branch of Protestantism as a part of movements derived directly from the 16th century Reformation. While today the Church of England often considers itself to be a via media between Protestantism and the Catholic Church, until the rise of the Oxford Movement in the 1830s the church generally considered itself to be Protestant. (Neill, Stephen. Anglicanism Pelican 1960, pp. 170; 259–60)
- ^ Most current estimates place the world's Protestant population in the range of 800 million to more than 1 billion. For example, author Hans Hillerbrand estimated a total Protestant population of 833,457,000 in 2004,[14] while a report by Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary – 961,961,000 (with inclusion of independents as defined in this article) in mid-2015.[13]
- ^ According to Pew 2011 report on Christianity about 60% (defined strictly, as some denominations given individual percentages in the report could be considered a part of one of the seven main distinguishable Protestant branches, e.g. The Salvation Army could be considered a part of Methodism). The majority figures given in such reports or in other sources may vary considerably.
- ^ This branch was first called Calvinism by Lutherans who opposed it, but many find the word Reformed to be more descriptive.[17] It includes Presbyterianism, Congregationalism, many of United and uniting churches, as well as historic Continental Reformed churches in France, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Germany, and Hungary.
- ^ In the end, while the Reformation emphasis on Protestants reading the Scriptures was one factor in the development of literacy, the impact of printing itself, the wider availability of printed works at a cheaper price, and the increasing focus on education and learning as key factors in obtaining a lucrative post, were also significant contributory factors.[43]
- ^ In the first decade of the Reformation, Luther's message became a movement, and the output of religious pamphlets in Germany was at its height.[45]
- ^ Finland's State Church was the Church of Sweden until 1809. As an autonomous Grand Duchy under Russia 1809–1917, Finland retained the Lutheran State Church system, and a state church separate from Sweden, later named the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland, was established. It was detached from the state as a separate judicial entity when the new church law came to force in 1869. After Finland had gained independence in 1917, religious freedom was declared in the constitution of 1919 and a separate law on religious freedom in 1922. Through this arrangement, the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland lost its position as a state church but gained a constitutional status as a national church alongside the Finnish Orthodox Church, whose position, however, is not codified in the constitution.
- ^ [citation needed] Since the middle of the 20th century, the German-speaking world no longer uses the term "Wiedertäufer" (translation: "Re-baptizers") considering it biased. The term "Täufer" (translation: "Baptizers") is now used, which is considered more impartial. From the perspective of their persecutors, the "Baptizers" baptized for the second time those "who as infants had already been baptized". Since the denigrative term Anabaptist signifies re-baptizing, it is considered a polemic term and therefore has been dropped from use in modern German. However, in the English-speaking world it is still in use in order to distinguish the "Baptizers" more clearly from the "Baptists" who emerged later.
- ^ For example, the followers of Thomas Müntzer and Balthasar Hubmaier.
- ^ Primarily in the United States, where Protestants are usually placed in one of two categories—Mainline or Evangelical.
- ^ this varies among Protestants today. In Sweden, the bishops switched to Lutheranism during the Reformation and there was no break in ordinations. See Apostolic succession in Sweden for more on this. Today, as a result of shared ordinations, the entire Porvoo Communion can trace an unbroken chain of Archbishop-level ordinations going back to before the Reformation through the Swedish line. However, today Rome does not accept these ordinations as valid not because there was a break in the chain, but rather because the occurred apart from papal permission.
- ^ For more on this, see crypto-paganism and the Great Apostasy. In some areas, pagan Europeans were forced to adopt Christianity at least outwardly, such as after being defeated in battle by Christians. However, outlawing their paganism didn't just make it go away. Rather, it persisted as crypto-paganism. For example, Philip Melanchthon, in his 1537 Apology of the Augsburg Confession identified the mechanical character of ex opere operato sacraments as being a form of pagan deterministic philosophy.
- ^ This is the position of the Protestants who believe the church is visible. For those who think the church is invisible, organizations are irrelevant, as only individual sinners can be saved.
- ^ See Ecclesiology of Augustine of Hippo for an example of a church father who discussed the invisible church.
- ^ This is a reference to the Marks of the Church in Reformed theology. It is thus you may think of the State, but the visible church is a totum integrale, it is an empire, with an ethereal emperor, rather than a visible one. The churches of the various nationalities constitute the provinces of this empire; and though they are so far independent of each other, yet they are so one, that membership in one is membership in all, and separation from one is separation from all.... This conception of the church, of which, in at least some aspects, we have practically so much lost sight, had a firm hold of the Scottish theologians of the seventeenth century. James Walker in The Theology of Theologians of Scotland. (Edinburgh: Rpt. Knox Press, 1982) Lecture iv. pp. 95–96.
- ^ At least at first, Protestants did not depart per se. Rather, they were excommunicated such as in the 1520 Exsurge Domine and the 1521 Edict of Worms. Some Protestants avoided excommunication by living as crypto-Protestants.
- ^ Some Protestants claim the church is visible today, this is a matter of dispute.
- ^ The assertion of papal supremacy varied through history. For example, in 381 the First Council of Constantinople recognized the sees of Rome and Constantinople as being equal in authority. Papal supremacy continued to evolve after the Reformation with the First Vatican Council.
- ^ Lutherans did not completely reject Trent. In fact, some attended it, although they were not given a vote. Instead, Martin Chemnitz on the basis that all councils are subject to examination, wrote the Examination of the Council of Trent in which some parts of Trent were accepted and others dissented from.
- ^ In history, Catholic sympathizing Protestants were termed crypto-papists and lived as such because Catholicism was illegal in some areas under the legal principle of cuius regio, eius religio. However, outlawing Catholics didn't always force them to emigrate. Instead, they remained continued to influence the dominant church in their area.
- ^ Estimates vary considerably, from 400 up to more than a billion. One of the reasons is the lack of a common agreement among scholars which denominations constitute Protestantism. Nevertheless, 800 million is the most accepted figure among various authors and scholars, and thus is used in this article. For example, author Hans Hillerbrand estimated a total 2004 Protestant population of 833,457,000,[14] while a report by Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary—961,961,000 (with inclusion of independents as defined in this article) in mid-2015.[13]
- ^ Current sources are in general agreement that Christians make up about 33% of the world's population—slightly over 2.4 billion adherents in mid-2015.
- ^ Estimates for China vary in dozens of millions. Nevertheless, in comparison to the other countries, there is no disagreement that China has the most numerous Protestant minority.
- ^ Magisterial Protestant, Independent, Anabaptist and Anglican parties are understood as Protestant as stated previously in the article, as well as in the book: Statistics for the P, I and A megablocs are often combined because they overlap so much-hence the order followed here.
- ^ A flexible term; defined as all forms of Protestantism with the notable exception of the historical denominations deriving from the Protestant Reformation.
References
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- ^ Haffner, Paul (1999). The Sacramental Mystery. Gracewing Publishing. p. 11. ISBN 9780852444764.
The Augsburg Confession drawn up by Melanchton, one of Luther's disciples admitted only three sacraments, Baptist, the Lord's Supper and Penance. Melanchton left the way open for the other five sacred signs to be considered as "secondary sacraments". However, Zwingli, Calvin and most of the later Reformed tradition accepted only Baptism and the Lord's Supper as sacraments, but in a highly symbolic sense.
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The United Methodists see Scripture as the primary source and criterion for Christian doctrine. They emphasize the importance of tradition, experience, and reason for Christian doctrine. Lutherans teach that the Bible is the sole source for Christian doctrine. The truths of Scripture do not need to be authenticated by tradition, human experience, or reason. Scripture is self authenticating and is true in and of itself.
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Also, for Methodists full salvation involves not only justification by faith, but repentance and holy living as well. Whereas in Lutheran theology the central doctrine and focus of all our worship and life is justification by grace through faith, for Methodists the central focus has always been holy living and the striving for perfection. Wesley gave the analogy of a house. He said repentance is the porch. Faith is the door. But holy living is the house itself. Holy living is true religion. “Salvation is like a house. To get into the house you first have to get on the porch (repentance) and then you have to go through the door (faith). But the house itself--one’s relationship with God--is holiness, holy living” (Joyner, paraphrasing Wesley, 3).
- ^ Willsky-Ciollo, Lydia (2015). American Unitarianism and the Protestant Dilemma: The Conundrum of Biblical Authority. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. pp. 9–10. ISBN 9780739188927.
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- ^ Office, Anglican Communion. "Member Churches". www.anglicancommunion.org.
- ^ Green, Jonathon (1996). "Chapter 2: The Middle Ages". Chasing the Sun: Dictionary Makers and the Dictionaries They Made (1st US ed.). New York: Henry Holt. pp. 58–59. ISBN 978-0-8050-3466-0.
- ^ Diarmaid MacCulloch, Thomas Cranmer: A Life, Yale University Press, p.617 (1996).
- ^ Buescher, John. "Baptist Origins." Teaching History. Retrieved 23 September 2011.
- ^ Shurden, Walter (2001). "Turning Points in Baptist History". Macon, GA: The Center for Baptist Studies, Mercer University. Retrieved 16 January 2010.
- ^ Gourley, Bruce. "A Very Brief Introduction to Baptist History, Then and Now." The Baptist Observer.
- ^ a b c Cross, FL, ed. (2005), "Baptists", The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church, New York: Oxford University Press
- ^ "Baptist." 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
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- ^ "Appendix B: Classification of Protestant Denominations". 12 May 2015.
- ^ "Theology and Communion". Wcrc.ch. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
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- ^ Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent, Fourth Session, Decree on Sacred Scripture (Denzinger 783 [1501]; Schaff 2:79–81). For a history of the discussion of various interpretations of the Tridentine decree, see Selby, Matthew L., The Relationship Between Scripture and Tradition according to the Council of Trent, unpublished Master's thesis, University of St Thomas, July 2013.
- ^ Olson, Roger E. (1999). The Story of Christian Theology: Twenty Centuries of Tradition & Reform. InterVarsity Press. p. 158. ISBN 9780830815050.
The magisterial Protestant denominations such as major Lutheran, Reformed and Anglican (Church of England, Episcopalian) denominations recognize only the first four as having any special authority, and even they are considered subordinate to Scripture.
- ^ Kelly, Joseph Francis (2009). The Ecumenical Councils of the Catholic Church: A History. Liturgical Press. p. 64. ISBN 9780814653760.
The Church of England and most Lutheran churches accept the first four councils as ecumenical; Orthodox churches accept the first seven.
- ^ "About Us". Lutheran Church of New Zealand. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
- ^ "Member Churches – The Lutheran World Federation". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
- ^ "Survey Shows 70.5 Million Members in LWF-Affiliated Churches". The Lutheran World Federation. Archived from the original on 15 July 2012. Retrieved 22 July 2012.
- ^ "Member Churches". World Methodist Council. Retrieved 17 June 2013.
- ^ A Collection of Hymns, for the use of the people called Methodists. T. Blanshard. 1820.
- ^ Global Christianity: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population (PDF), Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, 19 December 2011, p. 67, archived from the original (PDF) on 23 July 2013, retrieved 25 June 2015.
- ^ Confessionalism is a term employed by historians to refer to "the creation of fixed identities and systems of beliefs for separate churches which had previously been more fluid in their self-understanding, and which had not begun by seeking separate identities for themselves—they had wanted to be truly Catholic and reformed." (MacCulloch, The Reformation: A History, p. xxiv.)
- ^ "Classification of Protestant Denominations" (PDF). Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life / U.S. Religious Landscape Survey. Retrieved 27 September 2009.
- ^ Nĕmec, Ludvík "The Czechoslovak heresy and schism: the emergence of a national Czechoslovak church," American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, 1975, ISBN 0-87169-651-7
- ^ Abigail, Shawn (June 2006). "What is the history of the 'Brethren'?". "Plymouth Brethren" FAQ. Archived from the original on 18 May 2016. Retrieved 12 June 2009.
- ^ Mackay, Harold (1981). Assembly Distinctives. Scarborough, Toronto: Everyday Publications. ISBN 978-0-88873-049-7. OCLC 15948378.[page needed]
- ^ "Holiness churches". oikoumene.org. Retrieved 31 May 2015.
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In addition to these separate denominational groupings, one needs to give attention to the large pockets of the Holiness movement that have remained within the United Methodist Church. The most influential of these would be the circles dominated by Asbury College and Asbury Theological Seminary (both in Wilmore, KY), but one could speak of other colleges, innumerable local campmeetings, the vestiges of various local Holiness associations, independent Holiness oriented missionary societies and the like that have had great impact within United Methodism. A similar pattern would exist in England with the role of Cliff College within Methodism in that context.
- ^ "Quaker Faith & Practice". Britain Yearly Meeting. Archived from the original on 19 July 2013. Retrieved 5 June 2015.
- ^ "Baltimore Yearly Meeting Faith & Practice 2011 draft". Archived from the original on 13 April 2012.
- ^ The Trouble With "Ministers" Archived 19 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine by Chuck Fager gives an overview of the hierarchy Friends had until it began to be abolished in the mid-eighteenth century. Retrieved 25 April 2014.
- ^ "Unitarianism: Unitarianism at a glance". BBC – Religions. Retrieved 1 August 2017.
- ^ "Unitarian Christianity". www.americanunitarian.org. Retrieved 1 August 2017.
- ^ "Redirect". www.secularhumanism.org.
- ^ The Concise Oxford Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 1978.
- ^ Operation World
- ^ How Many Evangelicals Are There?, Wheaton College: Institute for the Study of American Evangelicals, archived from the original on 30 January 2016
- ^ Balmer, Randall (2004), "Charismatic Movement", Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism: Revised and Expanded Edition (2nd ed.), Waco: Baylor.
- ^ Masters, Peter; Whitcomb, John (1988). Charismatic Phenomenon. London: Wakeman. p. 113. ISBN 9781870855013.
- ^ Masters, Peter; Wright, Professor Verna (1988). Healing Epidemic. London: Wakeman Trust. p. 227. ISBN 9781870855006.
- ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 11 November 2014. Retrieved 5 January 2016.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
- ^ Patrick, Arthur (c. 1999). "Early Adventist worship, Ellen White and the Holy Spirit: Preliminary Historical Perspectives". Spiritual Discernment Conference. SDAnet AtIssue. Retrieved 15 February 2008.
- ^ Patrick, Arthur (c. 1999). "Later Adventist Worship, Ellen White and the Holy Spirit: Further Historical Perspectives". Spiritual Discernment Conference. SDAnet AtIssue. Retrieved 15 February 2008.
- ^ Burgess, Stanley M; van der Maas, Eduard M, eds. (2002), "Neocharismatics", The New International Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements, Grand Rapids: Zondervan.
- ^ Burgess, Stanley M; van der Maas, Eduard M, eds. (2002), The New International Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements, Grand Rapids: Zondervan, pp. 286–87.
- ^ "Chambers Biographical Dictionary," ed. Magnus Magnusson (Chambers: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 62.
- ^ Kenneth D. Keathley, "The Work of God: Salvation," in A Theology for the Church, ed. Daniel L. Akin (Nashville: B&H Academic, 2007), 703.
- ^ Robert G. Torbet, A History of the Baptists, third edition
- ^ Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity, Vol. Two: The Reformation to the Present Day (New York: Harpercollins Publishers, 1985; reprint – Peabody: Prince Press, 2008) 180
- ^ In places, such as parts of England and America, where Pietism was frequently juxtaposed with Catholicism, Catholics also became naturally influenced by Pietism, helping to foster a stronger tradition of congregational hymn-singing, including among Pietists who converted to Catholicism and brought their pietistic inclination with them, such as Frederick William Faber.
- ^ Calvinist Puritans believed that government was ordained by God to enforce Christian behavior upon the world; pietists see the government as a part of the world, and believers were called to voluntarily live faithful lives independent of government.
- ^ "Latimer's Pulpit". Faculty of Divinity 50 Treasures. Retrieved 30 December 2020.
- ^ "Despite Cambridge's Protestant history, Catholic students are at home here". Catholic Herald. 25 June 2020. Retrieved 21 September 2020.
- ^ Butterfield, Fox (14 May 1989). "The Perfect New England Town". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
- ^ McGrath, Alister E (2011). Christian Theology: An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons. p. 76. ISBN 978-1-4443-9770-3.
- ^ Brown, Stuart; Collinson, Diane; Wilkinson, Robert (2012). Biographical Dictionary of Twentieth-Century Philosophers. Taylor & Francis. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-415-06043-1.
- ^ Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte, p. 319
- ^ Heinrich August Winkler (2012), Geschichte des Westens. Von den Anfängen in der Antike bis zum 20. Jahrhundert, Third, Revised Edition, Munich (Germany), p. 233
- ^ Clifton E. Olmstead (1960), History of Religion in the United States, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, pp. 69–80, 88–89, 114–117, 186–188
- ^ M. Schmidt, Kongregationalismus, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band III (1959), Tübingen (Germany), col. 1770
- ^ McKinney, William. "Mainline Protestantism 2000." Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 558, Americans and Religions in the Twenty-First Century (July 1998), pp. 57–66.
- ^ Gerhard Lenski (1963), The Religious Factor: A Sociological Study of Religion's Impact on Politics, Economics, and Family Life, Revised Edition, A Doubleday Anchor Book, Garden City, New York, pp. 348–351
- ^ Cf. Robert Middlekauff (2005), The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789, Revised and Expanded Edition, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-516247-9, p. 52
- ^ Jan Weerda, Soziallehre des Calvinismus, in Evangelisches Soziallexikon, 3. Auflage (1958), Stuttgart (Germany), col. 934
- ^ Eduard Heimann, Kapitalismus, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band III (1959), Tübingen (Germany), col. 1136–1141
- ^ Hans Fritz Schwenkhagen, Technik, in Evangelisches Soziallexikon, 3. Auflage, col. 1029–1033
- ^ Georg Süßmann, Naturwissenschaft und Christentum, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band IV, col. 1377–1382
- ^ C. Graf von Klinckowstroem, Technik. Geschichtlich, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band VI, col. 664–667
- ^ Kim, Sung Ho (Fall 2008). "Max Weber". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University. Retrieved 21 August 2011.
- ^ Braudel, Fernand. 1977. Afterthoughts on Material Civilization and Capitalism. Baltimore: Johns Hopskins University Press.
- ^ Manager. "Protestant Modernity".
- ^ Trevor-Roper. 2001. The Crisis of the Seventeenth Century. Liberty Fund
- ^ Tausch, Arno (31 March 2015). "Towards new maps of global human values, based on World Values Survey (6) data" – via ideas.repec.org.
- ^ a b B. Drummond Ayers Jr. (19 December 2011). "The Episcopalians: An American Elite with Roots Going Back To Jamestown". The New York Times. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
- ^ Irving Lewis Allen, "WASP – From Sociological Concept to Epithet," Ethnicity, 1975 154+
- ^ Hacker, Andrew (1957). "Liberal Democracy and Social Control". American Political Science Review. 51 (4): 1009–1026 [p. 1011]. doi:10.2307/1952449. JSTOR 1952449.
- ^ Baltzell (1964). The Protestant Establishment. p. 9.
- ^ a b Sztompka, 2003
- ^ Gregory, 1998
- ^ Becker, 1992
- ^ a b c d Harriet Zuckerman, Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States New York, The Free Press, 1977, p. 68: Protestants turn up among the American-reared laureates in slightly greater proportion to their numbers in the general population. Thus 72 percent of the seventy-one laureates but about two-thirds of the American population were reared in one or another Protestant denomination-)
- ^ a b Baruch A. Shalev, 100 Years of Nobel Prizes (2003), Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, p. 57: between 1901 and 2000 reveals that 654 Laureates belong to 28 different religion Most 65% have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference. While separating Catholics from Protestants among Christians proved difficult in some cases, available information suggests that more Protestants were involved in the scientific categories and more Catholics were involved in the Literature and Peace categories. Atheists, agnostics, and freethinkers comprise 11% of total Nobel Prize winners; but in the category of Literature, these preferences rise sharply to about 35%. A striking fact involving religion is the high number of Laureates of the Jewish faith—over 20% of total Nobel Prizes (138); including: 17% in Chemistry, 26% in Medicine and Physics, 40% in Economics and 11% in Peace and Literature each. The numbers are especially startling in light of the fact that only some 14 million people (0.02% of the world's population) are Jewish. By contrast, only 5 Nobel Laureates have been of the Muslim faith—1% of total number of Nobel prizes awarded—from a population base of about 1.2 billion (20% of the world's population)
- ^ Heinrich Bornkamm, Toleranz. In der Geschichte des Christentums in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band VI (1962), col. 937
- ^ Original German title: Dass eine christliche Versammlung oder Gemeine Recht und Macht habe, alle Lehre zu beurteilen und Lehrer zu berufen, ein- und abzusetzen: Grund und Ursach aus der Schrift
- ^ Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States, pp. 4–10
- ^ Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte, 11. Auflage, p. 325
- ^ Quoted in Jan Weerda, Calvin, in Evangelisches Soziallexikon, 3. Auflage (1958), Stuttgart (Germany), col. 210
- ^ Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States, p. 10
- ^ Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte, pp. 396–397
- ^ Cf. M. Schmidt, England. Kirchengeschichte, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band II (1959), Tübingen (Germany), col. 476–478
- ^ Nathaniel Philbrick (2006), Mayflower: A Story of Courage, Community, and War, Penguin Group, New York, ISBN 0-670-03760-5
- ^ Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States, pp. 65–76
- ^ "Plymouth Colony Legal Structure". www.histarch.illinois.edu.
- ^ "Liberties". history.hanover.edu.
- ^ M. Schmidt, Pilgerväter, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band V (1961), col. 384
- ^ Christopher Fennell, Plymouth Colony Legal Structure
- ^ Allen Weinstein and David Rubel (2002), The Story of America: Freedom and Crisis from Settlement to Superpower, DK Publishing, Inc., New York, ISBN 0-7894-8903-1, p. 61
- ^ Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States, p. 5
- ^ Heinrich Bornkamm, Toleranz. In der Geschichte des Christentums, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band VI (1962), col. 937–938
- ^ H. Stahl, Baptisten, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band I, col. 863
- ^ G. Müller-Schwefe, Milton, John, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band IV, col. 955
- ^ Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte, p. 398
- ^ Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States, pp. 99–106, 111–117, 124
- ^ Edwin S. Gaustad (1999), Liberty of Conscience: Roger Williams in America, Judson Press, Valley Forge, p. 28
- ^ Hans Fantel (1974), William Penn: Apostle of Dissent, William Morrow & Co., New York, pp. 150–153
- ^ Robert Middlekauff (2005), The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789, Revised and Expanded Edition, Oxford University Press, New York, ISBN 978-0-19-516247-9, pp. 4–6, 49–52, 622–685
- ^ Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States, pp. 192–209
- ^ Cf. R. Voeltzel, Frankreich. Kirchengeschichte, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band II (1958), col. 1039
- ^ Douglas K. Stevenson (1987), American Life and Institutions, Ernst Klett Verlag, Stuttgart (Germany), p. 34
- ^ G. Jasper, Vereinte Nationen, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band VI, col. 1328–1329
- ^ Cf. G. Schwarzenberger, Völkerrecht, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band VI, col. 1420–1422
- ^ Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte, 11. Auflage, pp. 396–399, 401–403, 417–419
- ^ Jeremy Waldron (2002), God, Locke, and Equality: Christian Foundations in Locke's Political Thought, Cambridge University Press, New York, ISBN 978-0521-89057-1, p. 13
- ^ Jeremy Waldron, God, Locke, and Equality, pp. 21–43, 120
- ^ Allen Weinstein and David Rubel, The Story of America, pp. 189–309
- ^ Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte, 11. Auflage, pp. 403, 425
- ^ M. Elze,Grotius, Hugo, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band II, col. 1885–1886
- ^ H. Hohlwein, Pufendorf, Samuel, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band V, col. 721
- ^ R. Pfister, Schweiz. Seit der Reformation, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band V (1961), col. 1614–1615
- ^ Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States, pp. 484–494
- ^ H. Wagner, Diakonie, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band I, col. 164–167
- ^ J.R.H. Moorman, Anglikanische Kirche, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band I, col. 380–381
- ^ Clifton E.Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States, pp. 461–465
- ^ Allen Weinstein and David Rubel, The Story of America, pp. 274–275
- ^ M. Schmidt, Kongregationalismus, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band III, col. 1770
- ^ K. Kupisch, Bismarck, Otto von, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band I, col. 1312–1315
- ^ P. Quante, Sozialversicherung, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, Band VI, col. 205–206
- ^ Responses to Some Questions Regarding Certain Aspects of the Doctrine on the Church, 29 June 2007, Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith.
- ^ Stuard-will, Kelly; Emissary (2007). Karitas Publishing (ed.). A Faraway Ancient Country. United States: Gardners Books. p. 216. ISBN 978-0-615-15801-3.
- ^ OrthodoxEurope.org. "Bishop Hilarion of Vienna and Austria: The Vatican Document Brings Nothing New". Orthodoxeurope.org. Retrieved 14 May 2014.
- ^ The Canadian Reformed Magazine, 18 (20–27 September, 4–11 October, 18, 1, 8 November 1969)
- ^ "History – World Council of Churches". www.oikoumene.org.
- ^ "Orthodox Church: text – IntraText CT". Intratext.com. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
- ^ "Justification". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 26 July 2016.
A document which is aimed at settling differences needs to address those differences unambiguously. The Joint Declaration does not do this. At best, it sends confusing mixed signals and should be repudiated by all Lutherans.
CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - ^ "News Archives". UMC.org. Archived from the original on 21 July 2006. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
- ^ "CNS Story: Methodists adopt Catholic-Lutheran declaration on justification". Catholicnews.com. Archived from the original on 25 July 2006. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
- ^ a b c d e f g Clarke, Peter B.; Beyer, Peter (2009). The World's Religions: Continuities and Transformations. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781135211004 – via Google Books.
- ^ Brown, Stephen F. (2018). Protestantism. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 9781604131123 – via Google Books.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Noll, Mark A. (2011). Protestantism: A Very Short Introduction. OUP Oxford. ISBN 9780191620133 – via Google Books.
- ^ a b c d e f Jay Diamond, Larry. Plattner, Marc F. and Costopoulos, Philip J. World Religions and Democracy. 2005, p. 119. link (saying "Not only do Protestants presently constitute 13 percent of the world's population—about 800 million people—but since 1900 Protestantism has spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.")
- ^ ~34% of ~7.2 billion world population (under the section 'People') "World". CIA world facts.
- ^ "Major Religions Ranked by Size". Adherents.com. Retrieved 5 May 2009.
- ^ Analysis (19 December 2011). "Global Christianity". Pewforum.org. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
- ^ "Protestant Demographics and Fragmentations". Archived from the original on 18 March 2015.
- ^ "Religious Populations in England". Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 8 April 2011.
- ^ Thorpe, Edgar (2018). The Pearson General Knowledge Manual 2012. Pearson Education India. ISBN 9788131761908 – via Google Books.
- ^ a b "Protestantism in Bohemia and Moravia (Czech Republic) – Musée virtuel du Protestantisme". www.museeprotestant.org.
- ^ "Tab 7.1 Population by religious belief and by municipality size groups" (PDF) (in Czech). Czso.cz. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 February 2015. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
- ^ "Tab 7.2 Population by religious belief and by regions" (PDF) (in Czech). Czso.cz. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 November 2013. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
- ^ Mastrini, Hana (2008). Frommer's Prague & the Best of the Czech Republic. Wiley. ISBN 9780470293232 – via Google Books.
- ^ Lilla, Mark (31 March 2006). "Europe and the legend of secularization". The New York Times.
- ^ "Discrimination in the EU in 2019", Special Eurobarometer, 493, European Union: European Commission, 2019, retrieved 15 May 2020
- ^ a b c d e Witte, John; Alexander, Frank S. (2018). The Teachings of Modern Protestantism on Law, Politics, and Human Nature. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231142632 – via Google Books.
- ^ "Study: Christianity grows exponentially in Africa".
- ^ a b c Ostling, Richard N. (24 June 2001). "The Battle for Latin America's Soul" – via content.time.com.
- ^ "In China, Protestantism's Simplicity Yields More Converts Than Catholicism". 28 March 2012.
- ^ Arsenault, Chris. "Evangelicals rise in Latin America". www.aljazeera.com.
- ^ America's Changing Religious Landscape, by Pew Research Center, 12 May 2015
- ^ Halman, Loek; Riis, Ole (2018). Religion in a Secularizing Society: The Europeans' Religion at the End of the 20th Century. Brill. ISBN 978-9004126220 – via Google Books.
- ^ a b Sengers, Erik; Sunier, Thijl (2018). Religious Newcomers and the Nation State: Political Culture and Organized Religion in France and the Netherlands. Eburon Uitgeverij B.V. ISBN 9789059723986 – via Google Books.
- ^ "Moscow Church Spearheads Russia Revival". Retrieved 14 February 2015.
- ^ "Protestantism in Postsoviet Russia: An Unacknowledged Triumph" (PDF).
- ^ Felix Corley and Geraldine Fagan. "Growing Protestants, Catholics Draw Ire". ChristianityToday.com. Retrieved 14 February 2015.
- ^ a b c "Nones" on the Rise: One-in-Five Adults Have No Religious Affiliation Archived 29 June 2014 at WebCite, Pew Research Center (The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life), 9 October 2012
- ^ "US Protestants no longer majority". 10 October 2012 – via www.bbc.co.uk.
- ^ "Mainline Churches: The Real Reason for Decline". www.leaderu.com.
- ^ Johnstone, Patrick, "The Future of the Global Church: History, Trends and Possibilities", p. 100, fig 4.10 & 4.11
- ^ Hillerbrand, Hans J., "Encyclopedia of Protestantism: 4-volume Set", p. 1815, "Observers carefully comparing all these figures in the total context will have observed the even more startling finding that for the first time ever in the history of Protestantism, Wider Protestants will by 2050 have become almost exactly as numerous as Catholics—each with just over 1.5 billion followers, or 17 percent of the world, with Protestants growing considerably faster than Catholics each year."
Further reading
- Bruce, Steve. A house divided: Protestantism, Schism and secularization (Routledge, 2019).
- Cook, Martin L. (1991). The Open Circle: Confessional Method in Theology. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. xiv, 130 p. N.B.: Discusses the place of Confessions of Faith in Protestant theology, especially in Lutheranism. ISBN 0-8006-2482-3
- Dillenberger, John, and Claude Welch (1988). Protestant Christianity, Interpreted through Its Development. Second ed. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co. ISBN 0-02-329601-1
- Giussani, Luigi (1969), trans. Damian Bacich (2013). American Protestant Theology: A Historical Sketch. Montreal: McGill-Queens UP.
- Grytten, Ola Honningdal. "Weber revisited: A literature review on the possible Link between Protestantism, Entrepreneurship and Economic Growth." (NHH Dept. of Economics Discussion Paper 08, 2020). online
- Howard, Thomas A. Remembering the Reformation: an inquiry into the meanings of Protestantism (Oxford UP, 2016).
- Howard, Thomas A. and Mark A. Noll, eds. Protestantism after 500 years (Oxford UP, 2016).
- Leithart, Peter J. The end of Protestantism: pursuing unity in a fragmented church (Brazos Press, 2016).
- McGrath, Alister E. (2007). Christianity's Dangerous Idea. New York: HarperOne. ISBN 978-0060822132.
- Nash, Arnold S., ed. (1951). Protestant Thought in the Twentieth Century: Whence & Whither? New York: Macmillan Co.
- Noll, Mark A. (2011). Protestantism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Hillerbrand, Hans Joachim (2004). Encyclopedia of Protestantism: 4-volume set. Oxford: Routledge. – comprehensive scholarly coverage on Protestantism worldwide, current and historical; 2195pp; index in vol 4 is online
- Melton, J, Gordon. Encyclopedia of Protestantism (Facts on File, 2005), 800 articles in 628 pp
- Ryrie, Alec Protestants: The Radicals Who Made the Modern World (Harper Collins, 2017).
- Ryrie, Alec "The World's Local Religion" History Today (Sept 20, 2017) online
External links
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- "Personal Christian Statement of Faith (Protestant)". Wikihow. 29 July 2015.
- Protestantism (Encyclopedia.com)
- "Protestantism" from the 1917 Catholic Encyclopedia
- The Historyscoper
- World Council of Churches World body for mainline Protestant churches
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